Female biased adult sex ratio in the Bronze Age cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta (Iran) as an indicator of long distance trade and matrilocality

OBJECTIVES

This paper starts from the unusual observation of the overrepresentation of females among adults in the cemetery of Bronze Age Shahr-i Sokhta (Seistan, Iran) and explores the post marital residence pattern. By integrating taphonomical (skeletal preservation), anthropological (sex ratio [SR], sexual dimorphism, stress indicators, age at death), archeological (long distance trade indicators, habitation floor area, social role of women), and ancient DNA (heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes) data we test the hypothesis of post marital matrilocality in the site.

METHODS

We computed the SR (pelvis-based sex determination) in a random unpublished adult sample from the cemetery of Shahr-i Sokhta and in two samples previously published by other authors. We used comparative data on SR from: a large Supra Regional multi-chronological sample of sites, n = 47, with 8808 adult sexed individuals, from Southern Europe, Egypt, Middle East, Southern Russia; a Regional Bronze Age sample of sites (n = 10) from Bactria Margiana and Indus Valley with 1324 adult sexed individuals. We estimated the heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes compared with the rest of the autosomes on the assumption that in a matrilocal society females should show lower variability than men.

RESULTS

Adult SR in a sample (n = 549) from Shahr-i Sokhta is 70.5, the overrepresentation of females is shared with Regional Bronze Age sites from Bactria Margiana (SR = 72.09) and Indus Valley (SR = 67.54). On the contrary, in a larger Supra Regional multi-chronological sample of sites, mean SR ranges between 112.7 (Bronze Age) and 163.1 (Middle Ages). Taphonomical and anthropological indicators do not explain the overrepresentation of female skeletons. Archeological indicators suggest a high social status of women and that the society was devoted to long range trade activities. heterozygosity levels in X chromosomes are in agreement with a matrilocal society.

CONCLUSIONS

Indicators suggest that Bronze Age Shahr-ì Sokhta was a matrilocal society and that long distance trade was an important economic factor producing an overrepresentation of adult female skeletons in the cemetery.

Animal Use Strategies in the Longshan Mountain Region of Northern China during the First Millennium BC: A Zooarchaeological Analysis of Yucun

The first millennium BC saw the expansion of the Western Zhou dynasty in its northwestern frontier, alongside the rise and development of the Qin State in the Longshan Mountain region of northern China. Exploring the subsistence practices of these communities is crucial to gaining a better understanding of the social, cultural, and political landscape in this region at the time. While much of the research to date has focused on the Qin people, the subsistence practices of the Zhou people remain poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed animal remains from Yucun, a large settlement site associated with the Zhou people, located to the east of the Longshan Mountain. These animal remains were recovered in the excavation seasons of 2018-2020. Our results show that pigs, dogs, cattle, caprines, and horses, which were the major domestic animals at Yucun, accounted for over 90.8% of the animal remains examined in terms of the number of identified specimens (NISP) and 72.8% in terms of the minimum number of individuals (MNI), with cattle and caprines playing dominant roles. In terms of the taxonomic composition and the mortality profiles of pigs, caprines, and cattle, Yucun shared similarities with Maojiaping and Xishan, two contemporaneous Qin cultural sites located to the west of the Longshan Mountain, and differ from other farming societies in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River valley. Considering the cultural attributes and topographic conditions of these various sites, these findings imply that environmental conditions may have played a more significant role than cultural factors in shaping the animal-related subsistence practices in northern China during the first millennium BC.

Reclamation in southern China: The early Chu's agriculture revealed by macro-plant remains from the Wanfunao site (ca. 1000-770 BCE)

The Wanfunao site was a large Chu settlement in Zhou Dynasty. It was located on an alluvial plain along the Yangtze River in the Yichang section. The region around the site comprised mountains, hills, and plains, which was a compatible environment for the cultivation of various crops. Previous studies have suggested that the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are one of the most productive regions for rice cultivation. Besides rice, however, seven dryland crops have been found at the Wanfunao site: foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, wheat, barley, oat, buckwheat, and adzuki bean. Among them, foxtail millet and rice are most ubiquitous. The crop assemblage has revealed that the northern dryland crops, including those were newly adapted cereals such as foxtail millet, wheat, and barley, gradually dispersed southward and became a part of the diet along with rice. This can be attributed to southern Chinese inhabitants' reclamation of the hilly environment for agriculture. Although communities in southern China had cultivated rice on the plains for thousands of years, newly introduced dryland crops from north China adapted to mountainous environments better. The development of multi-cropping systems in southern China likely involved changes in agricultural ontology associated with the adaptation of northern crops in southern environments newly encountered. Additionally, the assemblage of foxtail millet grain/rice spikelet base in the site may have been used for livestock feeding. A wide range of landforms, compatible farming, and surplus agricultural products for husbandry may have been a part of the economic foundation that facilitated the rise of Chu.

Ancient Yersinia pestis and Salmonella enterica genomes from Bronze Age Crete

During the late 3^rd millennium BCE, the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East witnessed societal changes in many regions, which are usually explained with a combination of social and climatic factors.^1-4 However, recent archaeogenetic research forces us to rethink models regarding the role of infectious diseases in past societal trajectories.⁵ The plague bacterium Yersinia pestis, which was involved in some of the most destructive historical pandemics,^5-8 circulated across Eurasia at least from the onset of the 3^rd millennium BCE,^9-13 but the challenging preservation of ancient DNA in warmer climates has restricted the identification of Y.pestis from this period to temperate climatic regions. As such, evidence from culturally prominent regions such as the Eastern Mediterranean is currently lacking. Here, we present genetic evidence for the presence of Y. pestis and Salmonella enterica, the causative agent of typhoid/enteric fever, from this period of transformation in Crete, detected at the cave site Hagios Charalambos. We reconstructed one Y. pestis genome that forms part of a now-extinct lineage of Y. pestis strains from the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age that were likely not yet adapted for transmission via fleas. Furthermore, we reconstructed two ancient S. enterica genomes from the Para C lineage, which cluster with contemporary strains that were likely not yet fully host adapted to humans. The occurrence of these two virulent pathogens at the end of the Early Minoan period in Crete emphasizes the necessity to re-introduce infectious diseases as an additional factor possibly contributing to the transformation of early complex societies in the Aegean and beyond.

Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone

Loanword analysis is a unique contribution of historical linguistics to our understanding of prehistoric cultural interfaces. As language reflects the lives of its speakers, the substantiation of loanwords draws on the composite evidence from linguistic as well as auxiliary data from archaeology and genetics through triangulation. The Bronze Age of Central Asia is in principle linguistically mute, but a host of recent independent observations that tie languages, cultures and genetics together in various ways invites a comprehensive reassessment of six highly diagnostic loanwords ('seven', 'name/fame', 'sister-in-law', 'honey', 'metal' and 'horse') that are associated with the Bronze Age. Moreover, they are shared between Indo-European, Uralic, Turkic and sometimes Old Chinese. The successful identification of the interfaces for these loanwords can help settle longstanding debates on languages, migrations and the items themselves. Each item is analysed using the comparative method with reference to the archaeological record to assess the plausibility of a transfer. I argue that the six items can be dated to have entered Central and East Asian languages from immigrant Indo-European languages spoken in the Afanasievo and Andronovo cultures, including a novel source for the 'horse' in Old Chinese.

Remarkable signals of the ancient Chinese civilization since the Early Bronze Age in the marine environment

The signals of fire activity induced from climate and ancient human activities could be recorded in sedimentary strata. We examined a 6000-year black‑carbon (BC) record-including char and soot-of a sediment core from the South Yellow Sea. The climate change had a threshold effect on the fire regime, and dominated the char emissions. The soot/BC signals depicted that the anthropogenic emissions related to the evolution of the Chinese civilization since the Early Bronze Age (~4 ka) have overwhelmed natural soot emissions. The soot variation in the record closely matched periods when there was large-scale use of coal or charcoal after the Han Dynasty and when indigenous coking technology was promoted after the Tang Dynasty; low soot-abundance in the record coincided with periods of social unrest. This work illustrates how soot signals can be a robust tracer of civilization evolution.

Cranial Surgery in Italy During the Bronze Age

Skull vault trepanation is a surgical practice that has been found in prehistoric human remains. We carried out a review of the literature on cranial trepanations performed during the Bronze Age in Italy. In total, 19 individuals, most of whom were adult males, with 33 trepanations have been reported, including a new specimen from the Italian Middle Bronze Age (1700-1400 BCE), found at Grotta della Monaca (Calabria). The evidence of cranial trepanations is geographically uneven across Italy, with the highest occurrence in Sardinia. Several trepanation techniques were applied in Italy during this period, where the drilling method was the most common solitary technique utilized. The survival rate of 79.3% in Bronze Age Italy suggests that trepanation was carried out with remarkable success. This analysis gives further insight into ancient human behavior and enhances our knowledge of surgical practices in antiquity, shedding light on the origins of neurosurgery.

Occam's razor revisited: guenon species morphology supports evidence for an African influence in Bronze Age Aegean fresco primate iconography from Akrotiri, Thera

In a recent exchange, Pareja et al. (Primates 61: 159-168, 2020a; Primates 61: 767-774, 2020b) and Urbani and Youlatos (Primates, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-020-00825-2 , 2020a) dispute the re-interpretation of the primate species depicted in a Bronze Age fresco from Room 6 of Building Complex Beta at Akrotiri, Thera. They review the history of interpretations of this artwork and combine the expertise of scholars that traditionally focus on such research with the scientific expertise of primatologists to reexamine the artwork. Additionally, they emphasize the morphological traits exhibited by these painted primates. We review and expand their list of candidate primates here in a decision table to demonstrate that the African link is better supported by the morphological traits than the Asian one proposed by Pareja et al. (2020a, b). Using such evidence, we show that other guenons of the tribe Cercopithecini, such as L'Hoest's monkey (Allochrocebus lhoesti) and the Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana), provide equal support for the African link as the vervet monkey proposed by Urbani and Youlatos (2020a). However, the historical context supports the traditional interpretation that the Akrotiri fresco depicts vervet monkeys from this region. This discourse provides an open forum for scholars in various fields to contribute to an important problem that crosses disciplinary boundaries.

Bronze Age weight systems as a measure of market integration in Western Eurasia

Weighing technology was invented around 3000 BCE between Mesopotamia and Egypt and became widely adopted in Western Eurasia within ∼2,000 y. For the first time in history, merchants could rely on an objective frame of reference to quantify economic value. The subsequent emergence of different weight systems goes hand in hand with the formation of a continental market. However, we still do not know how the technological transmission happened and why different weight systems emerged along the way. Here, we show that the diffusion of weighing technology can be explained as the result of merchants' interaction and the emergence of primary weight systems as the outcome of the random propagation of error constrained by market self-regulation. We found that the statistical errors of early units between Mesopotamia and Europe overlap significantly. Our experiment with replica weights gives error figures that are consistent with the archaeological sample. We used these figures to develop a model simulating the formation of primary weight systems based on the random propagation of error over time from a single original unit. The simulation is consistent with the observed distribution of weight units. We demonstrate that the creation of the earliest weight systems is not consistent with a substantial intervention of political authorities. Our results urge a revaluation of the role of individual commercial initiatives in the formation of the first integrated market in Western Eurasia.

The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations

The Cycladic, the Minoan, and the Helladic (Mycenaean) cultures define the Bronze Age (BA) of Greece. Urbanism, complex social structures, craft and agricultural specialization, and the earliest forms of writing characterize this iconic period. We sequenced six Early to Middle BA whole genomes, along with 11 mitochondrial genomes, sampled from the three BA cultures of the Aegean Sea. The Early BA (EBA) genomes are homogeneous and derive most of their ancestry from Neolithic Aegeans, contrary to earlier hypotheses that the Neolithic-EBA cultural transition was due to massive population turnover. EBA Aegeans were shaped by relatively small-scale migration from East of the Aegean, as evidenced by the Caucasus-related ancestry also detected in Anatolians. In contrast, Middle BA (MBA) individuals of northern Greece differ from EBA populations in showing ∼50% Pontic-Caspian Steppe-related ancestry, dated at ca. 2,600-2,000 BCE. Such gene flow events during the MBA contributed toward shaping present-day Greek genomes.

First Bronze Age Human Mitogenomes from Calabria (Grotta Della Monaca, Southern Italy)

The Italian peninsula was host to a strong history of migration processes that shaped its genomic variability since prehistoric times. During the Metal Age, Sicily and Southern Italy were the protagonists of intense trade networks and settlements along the Mediterranean. Nonetheless, ancient DNA studies in Southern Italy are, at present, still limited to prehistoric and Roman Apulia. Here, we present the first mitogenomes from a Middle Bronze Age cave burial in Calabria to address this knowledge gap. We adopted a hybridization capture approach, which enabled the recovery of one complete and one partial mitochondrial genome. Phylogenetic analysis assigned these two individuals to the H1e and H5 subhaplogroups, respectively. This preliminary phylogenetic analysis supports affinities with coeval Sicilian populations, along with Linearbandkeramik and Bell Beaker cultures maternal lineages from Central Europe and Iberia. Our work represents a starting point which contributes to the comprehension of migrations and population dynamics in Southern Italy, and highlights this knowledge gap yet to be filled by genomic studies.

Two-season agriculture and irrigated rice during the Dian: radiocarbon dates and archaeobotanical remains from Dayingzhuang, Yunnan, Southwest China

Historical sources describe irrigation and intensive agriculture being practiced in lowland Yunnan from at least the first century AD, but so far archaeobotanical remains allowing investigation of this issue have been scarce. Here, we present new archaeobotanical evidence, including macro-botanical and phytoliths results, from the Dian settlement site of Dayingzhuang, with direct AMS radiocarbon dates on two wheat grains falling between 750 and 390 BC. We compare these results with contemporary Dian sites and analyse the agricultural systems in Central Yunnan between the eight and fourth centuries BC. We propose that agriculture was intensified toward the end of the Dian through both multiple cropping seasons and increased evidence for irrigated rice fields.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-020-01268-y.

Exotic foods reveal contact between South Asia and the Near East during the second millennium BCE

Although the key role of long-distance trade in the transformation of cuisines worldwide has been well-documented since at least the Roman era, the prehistory of the Eurasian food trade is less visible. In order to shed light on the transformation of Eastern Mediterranean cuisines during the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, we analyzed microremains and proteins preserved in the dental calculus of individuals who lived during the second millennium BCE in the Southern Levant. Our results provide clear evidence for the consumption of expected staple foods, such as cereals (Triticeae), sesame (Sesamum), and dates (Phoenix). We additionally report evidence for the consumption of soybean (Glycine), probable banana (Musa), and turmeric (Curcuma), which pushes back the earliest evidence of these foods in the Mediterranean by centuries (turmeric) or even millennia (soybean). We find that, from the early second millennium onwards, at least some people in the Eastern Mediterranean had access to food from distant locations, including South Asia, and such goods were likely consumed as oils, dried fruits, and spices. These insights force us to rethink the complexity and intensity of Indo-Mediterranean trade during the Bronze Age as well as the degree of globalization in early Eastern Mediterranean cuisine.

Child murder in the Early Bronze Age: proteomic sex identification of a cold case from Schleinbach, Austria

The identification of sex-specific peptides in human tooth enamel by nanoflow liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (nanoLC-MS/MS) represents a quantum leap for the study of childhood and social relations more generally. Determining sex-related differences in prehistoric child rearing and mortality has been hampered by the insufficient accuracy in determining the biological sex of juveniles. We conducted mass spectrometric analysis to identify sex-specific peptides in the dental enamel of a child from a settlement pit of the Early Bronze Age settlement of Schleinbach, Austria (c. 1950-1850 bc). Four perimortal impression fractures on the skull of a 5-6-year-old child indicate an intentional killing, with a co-buried loom weight as possible murder weapon. Proteomic analysis, conducted for the first time on prehistoric teeth in Austria, determined the child's sex as male. While we cannot conclusively determine whether the child was the victim of conflicts between village groups or was slain by members of his own community, we suggest that contextual evidence points to the latter. A possible trigger of violence was the follow-on effects of an uncontrolled middle ear infection revealed by an osteological analysis. The boy from Schleinbach highlights the potential for further investigation of gender-biased violence, infanticide and child murder based on the recently developed method of proteomic sex identification.

The History of Writing Reflects the Effects of Education on Discourse Structure: Implications for Literacy, Orality, Psychosis and the Axial Age

BACKGROUND

Graph analysis detects psychosis and literacy acquisition. Bronze Age literature has been proposed to contain childish or psychotic features, which would only have matured during the Axial Age (∼800-200 BC), a putative boundary for contemporary mentality.

METHOD

Graph analysis of literary texts spanning ∼4,500 years shows remarkable asymptotic changes over time.

RESULTS

While lexical diversity, long-range recurrence and graph length increase away from randomness, short-range recurrence declines towards random levels. Bronze Age texts are structurally similar to oral reports from literate typical children and literate psychotic adults, but distinct from poetry, and from narratives by preliterate preschoolers or Amerindians. Text structure reconstitutes the "arrow-of-time", converging to educated adult levels at the Axial Age onset.

CONCLUSION

The educational pathways of oral and literate traditions are structurally divergent, with a decreasing range of recurrence in the former, and an increasing range of recurrence in the latter. Education is seemingly the driving force underlying discourse maturation.

Art (Pre)History: Ritual, Narrative and Visual Culture in Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe

Can we reconstruct how prehistoric people perceived things (their "ways of seeing" or visual culture)? This challenge is made more difficult by the traditional disciplinary assumptions built into prehistoric art studies, for instance focusing narrowly upon a single body of art in isolation. This paper proposes an alternative approach, using comparative study to reveal broad regional changes in visual culture. Although prehistoric art specialists rarely work comparatively, art historians are familiar with describing continent-wide general developments in visual culture and placing them in social context (for instance, the traditional broad-brush history from Classical to medieval to Renaissance systems of representation). This paper does the same for Neolithic (6000-2500 BC) vs. Bronze Age (2500-800 BC) and Iron Age (800 BC-Classical) rock and cave art from sites across Europe, uncovering broad patterns of change. The principal pattern is a shift from a Neolithic iconic art which uses heavily encoded imagery, often schematic geometric motifs, to a Bronze/Iron Age narrative art, which increasingly involves imagery of identifiable people, animals and objects. Moreover, there is also an increasing tendency for motifs to be associated in scenes rather than purely accumulative, and with contextual changes in how art is used-a movement from hidden places to more open or accessible places. Underlying all these changes is a shift in how rock and cave art was used, from citations reproducing ritual knowledge to composed arrays telling narratives of personhood.

The Reconstruction of a Bronze Battle Axe and Comparison of Inflicted Damage Injuries Using Neutron Tomography, Manufacturing Modeling, and X-ray Microtomography Data

A massive bronze battle axe from the Abashevo archaeological culture was studied using neutron tomography and manufacturing modeling from production molds. Detailed structural data were acquired to simulate and model possible injuries and wounds caused by this battle axe. We report the results of neutron tomography experiments on the bronze battle axe, as well as manufactured plastic and virtual models of the traumas obtained at different strike angles from this axe. The reconstructed 3D models of the battle axe, plastic imprint model, and real wound and trauma traces on the bones of the ancient peoples of the Abashevo archaeological culture were obtained. Skulls with traces of injuries originate from archaeological excavations of the Pepkino burial mound of the Abashevo culture in the Volga region. The reconstruction and identification of the injuries and type of weapon on the restored skulls were performed. The complementary use of 3D visualization methods allowed us to make some assumptions on the cause of death of the people of the Abashevo culture and possible intra-tribal conflict in this cultural society. The obtained structural and anthropological data can be used to develop new concepts and methods for the archaeology of conflict.

The spatiotemporal spread of human migrations during the European Holocene

The European continent was subject to two major migrations of peoples during the Holocene: the northwestward movement of Anatolian farmer populations during the Neolithic and the westward movement of Yamnaya steppe peoples during the Bronze Age. These movements changed the genetic composition of the continent's inhabitants. The Holocene was also characterized by major changes in vegetation composition, which altered the environment occupied by the original hunter-gatherer populations. We aim to test to what extent vegetation change through time is associated with changes in population composition as a consequence of these migrations, or with changes in climate. Using ancient DNA in combination with geostatistical techniques, we produce detailed maps of ancient population movements, which allow us to visualize how these migrations unfolded through time and space. We find that the spread of Neolithic farmer ancestry had a two-pronged wavefront, in agreement with similar findings on the cultural spread of farming from radiocarbon-dated archaeological sites. This movement, however, did not have a strong association with changes in the vegetational landscape. In contrast, the Yamnaya migration speed was at least twice as fast and coincided with a reduction in the amount of broad-leaf forest and an increase in the amount of pasture and natural grasslands in the continent. We demonstrate the utility of integrating ancient genomes with archaeometric datasets in a spatiotemporal statistical framework, which we foresee will enable future studies of ancient populations' movements, and their putative effects on local fauna and flora.

Mitochondrial genomes from Bronze Age Poland reveal genetic continuity from the Late Neolithic and additional genetic affinities with the steppe populations

OBJECTIVE

In this work we aim to investigate the origins and genetic affinities of Bronze Age populations (2,400-1,100 BC) from the region of southern Poland and to trace maternal kinship patterns present in the burials of those populations by the use of complete mitochondrial genomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed ancient DNA analyses for Bronze Age individuals from present-day Poland associated with the Strzyżow culture, the Mierzanowice culture, and the Trzciniec Cultural circle. To obtain complete mitochondrial genomes, we sequenced genomic libraries using Illumina platform. Additionally, hybridization capture was used to enrich some of the samples for mitochondrial DNA. AMS ¹⁴ C-dating was conducted for 51 individuals to verify chronological and cultural attribution of the analyzed samples.

RESULTS

Complete ancient mitochondrial genomes were generated for 80 of the Bronze Age individuals from present-day Poland. The results of the population genetic analyses indicate close maternal genetic affinity between Mierzanowice, Trzciniec, and Corded Ware culture-associated populations. This is in contrast to the genetically more distant Strzyżów people that displayed closer maternal genetic relation to steppe populations associated with the preceding Yamnaya culture and Catacomb culture, and with later Scythians. Potential maternal kinship relations were identified in burials of Mierzanowice and Trzciniec populations analyzed in this study.

DISCUSSION

Results revealed genetic continuity from the Late Neolithic Corded Ware groups to Bronze Age Mierzanowice and Trzciniec-associated populations, and possible additional genetic contribution from the steppe to the formation of the Strzyżów-associated group at the end of 3rd millennium BC. Mitochondrial patterns indicated several pairs of potentially maternally related individuals mostly in Trzciniec-associated group.

The Bronze and Iron Age populations of the Armenian Highland in the genetic history of Armenians

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the biological diversity of the late Bronze and Iron Age populations in the Armenian Highland by nonmetric cranial traits, evaluate the genetic continuity in the development of the modern Armenian gene pool, and compare the results obtained with genetic data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-eight nonmetric cranial traits were scored on 498 adult crania from different late Bronze and Iron Age cemeteries, as well as from modern Armenians and other European populations. We carried out a biodistance analysis between populations using the mean measure of divergence (MMD) statistics, tested the spatial-temporal model of population structure, and assessed the diversity within the late Bronze and early Iron Ages by using the values of variability index (Fst).

RESULTS

The biodistance analysis revealed a close relationship among different ancient Armenian populations and between the average frequencies of the three sequential periods (late Bronze Age, early Iron Age I and II) and modern Armenians. A gradual increase of variability (Fst) within the three successive periods was observed.

DISCUSSION

The analysis of nonmetric trait data reflects deep roots and continuity in the formation of the Armenian population. Since at least the Late Bronze Age, owing to permanent isolation, no significant changes have occurred in the Armenian gene pool. An increase in variability over the successive periods reflects the process of population differentiation from a single gene pool while maintaining average trait frequencies. The congruence of the results obtained with the genetic data confirms, once more, the possibility of using nonmetric cranial traits as a proxy for genetic markers.

A Landscape in Transitions: Guletta, a Multiperiod Settlement along the Mazaro River in Western Sicily

The Prospecting Boundaries project explores the Mazaro river corridor from a landscape archaeological perspective, using integrated prospection techniques to recover traces of past human activity and environmental contexts. One key research area is Guletta, a zone of dense multiperiod activity situated on the rocky plain above the river. In this paper, we detail results from recent work at Guletta, which has revealed numerous previously undocumented archaeological settlement features that appear to have been built in successive phases. Artifact analysis from corresponding surface survey indicates a mixture of locally produced and imported materials dating from the Middle Bronze to Archaic periods. Using these new results together with existing archaeological and environmental information, we present an initial interpretation of the occupation sequence of the settlement and explore the concept of Guletta as a connecting point between emerging indigenous, colonial, coastal, and interior interdependencies and interests in later pre- and protohistory.

OM, SEM-EDX, and micro-FTIR analysis of the Bronze Age pottery from the Băile Figa salt production site (Transylvania, Romania)

This article presents the results of analyses carried out on a lot of 11 fragments of Bronze Age ceramics discovered in the site from Băile Figa (Beclean town, Transylvania, Romania), where salt exploitation occurred. The samples were analyzed by means of optical microscopy, on the basis of which the morphology and distribution of the inclusions in the ceramic paste was established. Likewise, the samples were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry, producing microphotographs for each sample, and on the basis of the X-ray spectra, the elemental composition in gravimetric percentages was established. Through the micro-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis, on the basis of characteristic group vibrations, it was possible to ascertain the nature of the compounds from the ceramic samples. These analyses will contribute to the reconstruction of the prehistoric technologies for salt exploitation.

Status, kinship, and place of burial at Early Bronze Age Bab adh-Dhra': A biogeochemical comparison of charnel house human remains

OBJECTIVES

The Early Bronze Age (EBA; ca. 3,600-2000 BCE) of the southern Levant underwent considerable transformation as agro-pastoral communities began to utilize their land more intensively, constructing larger, fortified towns prior to site abandonment at the end of the third millennium. At the site of Bab adh-Dhra' in Jordan, the dead of the Early Bronze (EB) II-III (ca. 3,100-2,500 BCE) period were communally interred within charnel houses, but important disparities between these structures and their contents may be reflective of ownership and use by particular extended kin groups whose activity patterns, subsistence strategies, and even social status may have differed from one another. Subsequently, we hypothesized that differences in mobility and dietary intake may differentiate tomb groups from one another.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dental enamel from 31 individuals interred in three different Early Bronze Age charnel houses (A56, A22, A55) at Bab adh-Dhra', Jordan were analyzed for strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotope values.

RESULTS

Strontium isotope ratios (range: 0.70793-0.70842) possessed medians that did not differ statistically from one another, but had ranges that exhibited significant differences in variance. Carbon isotope values ( x ¯ = -13.2 ± 0.5‰, 1σ) were not significantly different.

DISCUSSION

General similarities in human isotopic signatures between EB II-III charnel houses A22 and A55 suggest that their activities were likely similar to one another and agree with findings from excavated domestic spaces with little archaeological evidence for economic, social, or political differentiation. More variable strontium isotope ratios and lower carbon isotope values from A22 could reflect a greater involvement with pastoralist practices or regional trade, including the consumption of more ¹³ C-depleted foods, while those in A55 may have led a more sedentary lifestyle with greater involvement in cultivating orchard crops. All charnel houses contained nonlocal individuals likely originating from other Dead Sea Plain sites with no EB II-III cemeteries of their own, supporting the idea that extended kin groups throughout the region returned to Bab adh-Dhra' to bury their dead.

Assessing the occurrence and status of wheat in late Neolithic central China: the importance of direct AMS radiocarbon dates from Xiazhai

The introduction of wheat into central China is thought to have been one of the significant contributions of interactions between China and Central Asia which began in the 3rd millennium bc. However, only a limited number of Neolithic wheat grains have been found in central China and even fewer have been directly radiocarbon dated, making the date when wheat was adopted in the region and its role in subsistence farming uncertain. Based on systematic archaeobotanical data and direct dating of wheat remains from the Xiazhai site in central China, as well as a critical review of all reported discoveries of Neolithic and Bronze Age wheat from this region, we conclude that many wheat finds are intrusive in Neolithic contexts. We argue that the role of wheat in the subsistence of the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age of central China was minimal, and that wheat only began to increase in its subsistence role in the later Bronze Age during the Zhou dynasty after ca. 1000 bc.

The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East

In this study, we compare the genetic ancestry of individuals from two as yet genetically unstudied cultural traditions in Estonia in the context of available modern and ancient datasets: 15 from the Late Bronze Age stone-cist graves (1200-400 BC) (EstBA) and 6 from the Pre-Roman Iron Age tarand cemeteries (800/500 BC-50 AD) (EstIA). We also included 5 Pre-Roman to Roman Iron Age Ingrian (500 BC-450 AD) (IngIA) and 7 Middle Age Estonian (1200-1600 AD) (EstMA) individuals to build a dataset for studying the demographic history of the northern parts of the Eastern Baltic from the earliest layer of Mesolithic to modern times. Our findings are consistent with EstBA receiving gene flow from regions with strong Western hunter-gatherer (WHG) affinities and EstIA from populations related to modern Siberians. The latter inference is in accordance with Y chromosome (chrY) distributions in present day populations of the Eastern Baltic, as well as patterns of autosomal variation in the majority of the westernmost Uralic speakers [1-5]. This ancestry reached the coasts of the Baltic Sea no later than the mid-first millennium BC; i.e., in the same time window as the diversification of west Uralic (Finnic) languages [6]. Furthermore, phenotypic traits often associated with modern Northern Europeans, like light eyes, hair, and skin, as well as lactose tolerance, can be traced back to the Bronze Age in the Eastern Baltic. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Diet, cuisine and consumption practices of the first farmers in the southeastern Baltic

With the arrival of the Early Neolithic Globular Amphora and Corded Ware cultures into the southeastern Baltic, ca. 2900/2800-2400 cal BC, a new type of economy was introduced, animal husbandry. However, the degree to which this transformed the subsistence economy is unknown. Here, we conducted organic residue analyses of 64 ceramic vessels to identify their contents. The vessels were sampled from 10 Lithuanian archaeological sites dating across the Subneolithic-Neolithic transition to the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2900/2800-1300 cal BC). Our results demonstrate that regardless of location or vessel type, many ceramics were used to process aquatic resources. Against our expectations, this association continued even after marked economic change concurrent with the migration of pastoralists from central and southeastern Europe, as evidenced by recent ancient DNA analysis of human remains. Moreover, we observed dairy fats in pottery from all cultures of the Early Neolithic (i.e. Rzucewo, Globular Amphora and Corded Ware) but unlike other regions of Europe, it seems that these were incorporated into indigenous culinary practices. Furthermore, some vessels were used to process plant foods, and others may have been used for the production and/or storage of birch bark tar. However, evidence for domesticated plant processing, for example millet, was absent. We show that organic residue analysis of pottery provides a different picture of past consumption patterns compared to the stable isotope analysis of human remains from isolated burials where a clear dietary shift is evident.

Remains of Leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, at Mid-Late Holocene archaeological sites in coastal Oman: clues of past worlds

Small, irregular isolated bones identified as remains of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) were recovered from Mid to Late Holocene sites at Ra’s al-Hamra and Ra’s al-Hadd, coastal Oman. These provide the third instance of this animal being documented from any prehistoric site anywhere, and the records provide one of the oldest, if not the oldest, dates for this distinctive chelonian—even though they do not refer to fossils. Decades of research in this region has yielded vast amounts of archeological information, including abundant evidence of intense exploitation and utilization of marine turtles from about 6,500 to 4,000 BP. During part of this period, turtle remains in human burials have been extraordinary; the turtle involved, Chelonia mydas, has been abundant in the region during modern times. Yet despite intense and varied forms of prehistoric marine resource exploitation, and major, long-term archeological work, no other turtle species has been previously authenticated from these, or other coastal sites. The documentation of remains of the largest and most distinctive of living marine turtles, D. coriacea, at Ra’s al-Hamra and Ra’s al-Hadd, presented herein, provide detailed information that serves as the basis for future interpretations and discussions regarding incomplete, disarticulated remains from the Mid to Late Holocene, particularly in reference to taphonomic questions and diverse environmental conditions.

Unilateral absence of mandibular condyle in a Bronze Age male skeleton from Portugal

In 2009, a pit burial dated to the Bronze Age was excavated in Monte do Gato de Cima 3 (Portugal). The purpose of this paper is to describe the pathological absence of the left mandibular condyle noted in an adult male skeleton and to discuss possible diagnoses, including subcondylar fracture, cystic defect, congenital absence, condylar aplasia and mandibular condylysis. The most likely explanation for the pathological alteration is subcondylar fracture with non-union. Although the occurrence of non-union and slight osteoarthritic alterations in the left glenoid fossa were evident, this mandible was likely functional, as can be inferred from dental wear and muscle attachment sites. This trauma probably occurred before adult age when remodelling capacity is still high. Thus, bones and muscles adequately compensated for the trauma and only minor asymmetry developed. Consequently, this injury seems not to have greatly influenced masticatory functions. This is in accordance with clinical data, which demonstrate that, in growing patients, conservative treatment (non-surgical) results in good remodelling and patient recovery. In addition, in the few paleopathological cases published, the healing capacity of these types of mandibular fractures seems to be good, as can be inferred by evidence from the bone.

Re-analysis of Whole Genome Sequence Data From 279 Ancient Eurasians Reveals Substantial Ancestral Heterogeneity

Supervised clustering or projection analysis is a staple technique in population genetic analysis. The utility of this technique depends critically on the reference panel. The most commonly used reference panel in the analysis of ancient DNA to date is based on the Human Origins array. We previously described a larger reference panel that captures more ancestries on the global level. Here, I reanalyzed DNA data from 279 ancient Eurasians using our reference panel. I found substantially more ancestral heterogeneity than has been reported. Reanalysis provides evidence against a resurgence of Western hunter-gatherer ancestry in the Middle to Late Neolithic and evidence for a common ancestor of farmers characterized by Western Asian ancestry, a transition of the spread of agriculture from demic to cultural diffusion, at least two migrations between the Pontic-Caspian steppes and Bronze Age Europe, and a sub-Saharan African component in Natufians that localizes to present-day southern Ethiopia.

Bronze Age meat industry: ancient mitochondrial DNA analyses of pig bones from the prehistoric salt mines of Hallstatt (Austria)

Objective

In the Bronze Age Hallstatt metropolis (‘Salzkammergut’ region, Upper Austria), salt richness enabled the preservation of pork meat to sustain people’s livelihood suggesting an organized meat production industry on a yearly basis of hundreds of pigs. To pattern the geographic and temporal framework of the early management of pig populations in the surrounding areas of Hallstatt, we want to gain insights into the phylogeographic network based on DNA sequence variation among modern pigs, wild boars and prehistoric (likely) domestic pigs.

Results

In this pilot study, we successfully adapted ancient DNA extraction and sequencing approaches for the analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in ten prehistoric porcine teeth specimens. Minimum-spanning network analyses revealed unique mitochondrial control region DNA haplotypes ranging within the variation of modern domestic pig and wild boar lineages and even shared haplotypes between prehistoric and modern domestic pigs and wild boars were observed.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-018-3340-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Sensory Update to the Chaîne Opératoire in Order to Study Skill: Perceptive Categories for Copper-Compositions in Archaeometallurgy

This paper introduces the methodology of perceptive categories through which an empirical analysis of skill is achievable, taking European Bronze Age metalworking as a case study. Based on scientific data provided by the material sciences, in this case compositional and metallographic analyses of Late Copper Age and Early Bronze Age axes, the thresholds to categorise and interpret these data, and organise them in a chaîne opératoire, are centred on the human senses-and thus on metalworking as a craft. This is a pragmatic approach that appreciates scientific measurements of metal objects as essential empirical evidence whilst recognising that a considerable share of these archaeometric data are inapt or too detailed for an understanding of skill. This empirical approach towards skill is relevant to our knowledge of the role of crafts and materials in the past. After all, skill is a fundamental asset for the production of material culture, and a distinct human-material relationship characterised by an intimate form of material engagement.

The Stone Age Plague and Its Persistence in Eurasia

Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, is a bacterium associated with wild rodents and their fleas. Historically it was responsible for three pandemics: the Plague of Justinian in the 6^th century AD, which persisted until the 8^th century [1]; the renowned Black Death of the 14^th century [2, 3], with recurrent outbreaks until the 18^th century [4]; and the most recent 19^th century pandemic, in which Y. pestis spread worldwide [5] and became endemic in several regions [6]. The discovery of molecular signatures of Y. pestis in prehistoric Eurasian individuals and two genomes from Southern Siberia suggest that Y. pestis caused some form of disease in humans prior to the first historically documented pandemic [7]. Here, we present six new European Y. pestis genomes spanning the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age (LNBA; 4,800 to 3,700 calibrated years before present). This time period is characterized by major transformative cultural and social changes that led to cross-European networks of contact and exchange [8, 9]. We show that all known LNBA strains form a single putatively extinct clade in the Y. pestis phylogeny. Interpreting our data within the context of recent ancient human genomic evidence that suggests an increase in human mobility during the LNBA, we propose a possible scenario for the early spread of Y. pestis: the pathogen may have entered Europe from Central Eurasia following an expansion of people from the steppe, persisted within Europe until the mid-Bronze Age, and moved back toward Central Eurasia in parallel with human populations.

Breastfeeding, weaning, and dietary practices during the Western Zhou Dynasty (1122-771 BC) at Boyangcheng, Anhui Province, China

OBJECTIVES

Here we investigate breastfeeding and weaning practices and adult dietary habits at the Western Zhou Dynasty (1122-771 BC) site of Boyangcheng () located in Anhui Province, China. In addition, we utilize the differences in bone collagen turnover rates between rib and long bones from the same individual to examine past life histories, such as changes in diet or residence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bone collagen from both the rib and long bones (either femora or humeri) of 42 individuals was measured for stable isotope ratios of carbon (δ¹³ C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵ N). In addition, δ¹³ C and δ¹⁵ N values are reported for 35 animals (dogs, cows, horses, pigs, and deer).

RESULTS

The human δ¹³ C values range from -20.7‰ to -12.0‰ with a mean value of -18.8 ± 1.6‰. The human δ¹⁵ N values range from 9.1‰ to 13.4‰ with a mean value of 10.9 ± 1.0‰. The animals display a wide range of δ¹³ C (-21.5‰ to -8.2‰; -15.8 ± 4.5‰) and δ¹⁵ N values (4.0‰ to 9.5‰; 6.5 ± 1.8‰).

CONCLUSIONS

The adult δ¹³ C and δ¹⁵ N results indicate that mixed C₃ (rice) and C₄ (millet) terrestrial diets with varying levels of animal protein (mostly pigs and deer) were consumed. The elevated subadult δ¹⁵ N results return to adult levels by approximately 3-4 years of age, indicating that the weaning process was completed during this period. Individuals between 2 and 10 years old, with lower δ¹³ C and δ¹⁵ N results than the adult mean, possibly consumed more plant-based diets, and this is consistent with Chinese medical teachings ∼1500 years later during the Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907). The isotopic offsets between the ribs and long bones revealed that five adults experienced dramatic dietary shifts in their later lives, switching from predominately C₃ /C₄ to C₃ diets. This research provides the first isotopic information about ancient Chinese breastfeeding and weaning practices and establishes a foundation for future studies to examine diachronic trends.

Economic and social activities on ancient Cypriot terraced landscapes

We investigate ancient agricultural terraces and their associated social and economic activities across the site complex consisting of the village at Politiko-Troullia and its more extensive associated taskscape. Surface artifact distributions mapped over 12 ha are integrated with evidence excavated from this Bronze Age settlement in central Cyprus. Contrary to expectations, artifact densities do not diminish with distance from the village architecture. In particular, concentrations of Prehistoric Bronze Age ceramics and ground stone artifacts are most pronounced on nearby terraced hillsides. These terraces were not utilized for domestic structures, but for extensive processing of agricultural crops and copper ore. Bronze Age excavated plant remains indicate cultivation of olives, grapes and figs, with wood resources dominated by olive and pine. Larger, non-portable ground stones and gaming stones are associated with communal social and economic activities in open courtyard settings in Politiko-Troullia. This category of ground stone also is particularly common on the terraced hillsides around Troullia, suggesting that similar behaviors occurred beyond village structures. The terraced landscape of Politiko-Troullia exemplifies a multi-faceted taskscape with a range of agricultural, metallurgical and social activities.

Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences

The Canaanites inhabited the Levant region during the Bronze Age and established a culture that became influential in the Near East and beyond. However, the Canaanites, unlike most other ancient Near Easterners of this period, left few surviving textual records and thus their origin and relationship to ancient and present-day populations remain unclear. In this study, we sequenced five whole genomes from ∼3,700-year-old individuals from the city of Sidon, a major Canaanite city-state on the Eastern Mediterranean coast. We also sequenced the genomes of 99 individuals from present-day Lebanon to catalog modern Levantine genetic diversity. We find that a Bronze Age Canaanite-related ancestry was widespread in the region, shared among urban populations inhabiting the coast (Sidon) and inland populations (Jordan) who likely lived in farming societies or were pastoral nomads. This Canaanite-related ancestry derived from mixture between local Neolithic populations and eastern migrants genetically related to Chalcolithic Iranians. We estimate, using linkage-disequilibrium decay patterns, that admixture occurred 6,600–3,550 years ago, coinciding with recorded massive population movements in Mesopotamia during the mid-Holocene. We show that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age. In addition, we find Eurasian ancestry in the Lebanese not present in Bronze Age or earlier Levantines. We estimate that this Eurasian ancestry arrived in the Levant around 3,750–2,170 years ago during a period of successive conquests by distant populations.

An accident at work? Traumatic lesions in the skeleton of a 4th millennium BCE "wagon driver" from Sharakhalsun, Russia

The study of ante-mortem trauma is a popular and important aspect of palaeopathological analysis. The majority of publications focus on a particular assemblage, skeletal element or type of fracture, with case studies of single individuals with multiple/unusual traumata being much rarer in the literature. This paper presents the case of an adult male from the Bronze Age site of Sharakhalsun, Russia, buried, uniquely, in a sitting position on a fully assembled wagon, who displayed evidence for multiple healed ante-mortem fractures of the cranium, axial and appendicular skeleton. The mechanisms and likely etiologies of the fractures are presented, with reference to modern and 19th century clinical literature, and possible interpretations suggested: that the individual was involved in a severe accident involving a wagon or draft animals, or both, a number of years before his death. The suggestion is also made that the unique burial position of the individual was a form of commemoration by the community of the survival and recovery of the individual from such a serious incident.

First Paleoparasitological Report on the Animal Feces of Bronze Age Excavated from Shahr-e Sukhteh, Iran

Shahr-e Sukhteh (meaning burnt city in Persian) in Iran is an archeological site dated back to around 3,200-1,800 BC. It is located in Sistan and Baluchistan Province of Iran and known as the junction of Bronze Age trade routes crossing the Iranian plateau. It was appointed as current study area for paleoparasitological investigations. Excavations at this site have revealed various archeological materials since 1967. In the present study, sheep and carnivore coprolites excavated from this site were analyzed by means of rehydration technique using TSP solution for finding helminth eggs. Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Capillaria sp., and Taenia sp. eggs were identified, while some other objects similar to Anoplocephalidae and Toxocara spp. eggs were also retrieved from the samples but their measured parameters did not match those of these species. The present paper illustrates the first paleoparasitological findings of Bronze Age in eastern Iran supporting the economic activities, peopling, and communication as well as the appropriate condition for zoonotic helminthiasis life cycle in Shahr-e Sukhteh archeological site.

Dental occlusion analysis in the Mesolithic-Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Roman to Medieval times in Serbia: Tooth size comparison in skeletal samples

OBJECTIVE

Anthropological studies have reported that tooth size decreases in the context of diet changes. Some investigations have found a reverse trend in tooth size from the prehistoric to the modern times. The aims of this study were to analyze tooth size in skeletal samples from Mesolithic-Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Roman to Medieval times to determine sex differences and establish a temporal trend in tooth size in the aforementioned periods.

DESIGN

Well-preserved permanent teeth were included in the investigation. The mesiodistal (MD) diameter of all teeth and buccolingual (BL) diameter of the molars were measured. Effects of sex and site were tested by one-way ANOVA, and the combined effect of these factors was analyzed by UNIANOVA.

RESULTS

Sexual dimorphism was present in the BL diameters of all molars and MD diameters of the upper first and the lower third molar. The lower canine was the most dimorphic tooth in the anterior region. The MD diameter of most teeth showed no significant difference between the groups, (sample from: Mesolithic-Neolithic Age-group 1; Bronze Age-group 2; Roman times-group 3; Medieval times-group 4), whereas the BL diameters of the upper second and the lower first molar were the largest in the first group. Multiple comparisons revealed a decrease in the BL diameter of the upper second and the lower first molar from the first to the later groups. Lower canine MD diameter exhibited an increase in the fourth group compared to the second group.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the MD diameter, a temporal trend could not be observed for most of the teeth. The lower canine exhibited an increase in the MD diameter from the prehistoric to the Medieval times. Changes of BL diameter were more homogeneous, suggesting that the temporal trend of molar size decreased from the Mesolithic-Neolithic to Medieval times in Serbia.

Proposal of a 3-D sampling sequence

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence, distribution and intensity of tooth wear in a sample of an ancient Italian population in order to explain the pattern in terms of dietary habits and/or non-dietary tooth-use behaviors during the Early Bronze Age, with a focus on possible age-group and sex differences.

DESIGN

Well-preserved permanent teeth of individuals from the Bronze Age site of Ballabio (Lecco) in northern Italy were examined for tooth wear by different methods. Eight 3D models of teeth at increasing severity of wear were created.

RESULTS

In total, 357 permanent teeth belonging to male and female individuals were included in the study. Dental wear was present in 96.6% of the total sample. Males showed significantly greater levels of wear than females in the mandibular teeth. Both sexes exhibited a significantly different wear direction between the anterior (oblique and flat) and posterior (oblique and concave) teeth. Significant age differences were observed in the direction and level of wear in the incisors, canines and premolars, with higher wear in the older group. Complete and rotatable virtual 3D images of different wear patterns are proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the present study confirm the data from archaeological studies on this site and on northern Italian habits during the Early Bronze Age suggesting a diet rich in vegetables. The observed wear patterns can be related both to the diet of this Bronze age population, based on hard and abrasive food requiring vigorous mastication, and to sex differences in cultural practices.

Exploring Indus crop processing: combining phytolith and macrobotanical analyses to consider the organisation of agriculture in northwest India c. 3200-1500 bc

This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200-1900 bc) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration.

Alu SINE analyses of 3,000-year-old human skeletal remains: a pilot study

Background

As Short Interspersed Elements (SINEs), human-specific Alu elements can be used for population genetic studies. Very recent inserts are polymorphic within and between human populations. In a sample of 30 elements originating from three different Alu subfamilies, we investigated whether they are preserved in prehistorical skeletal human remains from the Bronze Age Lichtenstein cave in Lower Saxony, Germany. In the present study, we examined a prehistoric triad of father, mother and daughter.

Results

For 26 of the 30 Alu loci investigated, definite results were obtained. We were able to demonstrate that presence/absence analyses of Alu elements can be conducted on individuals who lived 3,000 years ago. The preservation of the ancient DNA (aDNA) is good enough in two out of three ancient individuals to routinely allow the amplification of 500 bp fragments. The third individual revealed less well-preserved DNA, which results in allelic dropout or complete amplification failures. We here present an alternative molecular approach to deal with these degradation phenomena by using internal Alu subfamily specific primers producing short fragments of approximately 150 bp.

Conclusions

Our data clearly show the possibility of presence/absence analyses of Alu elements in individuals from the Lichtenstein cave. Thus, we demonstrate that our method is reliably applicable for aDNA samples with good or moderate DNA preservation. This method will be very useful for further investigations with more Alu loci and larger datasets. Human population genetic studies and other large-scale investigations would provide insight into Alu SINE-based microevolutionary processes in humans during the last few thousand years and help us comprehend the evolutionary dynamics of our genome.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13100-016-0063-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Y-chromosome phylogeographic analysis of the Greek-Cypriot population reveals elements consistent with Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements

Background

The archeological record indicates that the permanent settlement of Cyprus began with pioneering agriculturalists circa 11,000 years before present, (ca. 11,000 y BP). Subsequent colonization events followed, some recognized regionally. Here, we assess the Y-chromosome structure of Cyprus in context to regional populations and correlate it to phases of prehistoric colonization.

Results

Analysis of haplotypes from 574 samples showed that island-wide substructure was barely significant in a spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA). However, analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) of haplogroups using 92 binary markers genotyped in 629 Cypriots revealed that the proportion of variance among the districts was irregularly distributed. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed potential genetic associations of Greek-Cypriots with neighbor populations. Contrasting haplogroups in the PCA were used as surrogates of parental populations. Admixture analyses suggested that the majority of G2a-P15 and R1b-M269 components were contributed by Anatolia and Levant sources, respectively, while Greece Balkans supplied the majority of E-V13 and J2a-M67. Haplotype-based expansion times were at historical levels suggestive of recent demography.

Conclusions

Analyses of Cypriot haplogroup data are consistent with two stages of prehistoric settlement. E-V13 and E-M34 are widespread, and PCA suggests sourcing them to the Balkans and Levant/Anatolia, respectively. The persistent pre-Greek component is represented by elements of G2-U5(xL30) haplogroups: U5*, PF3147, and L293. J2b-M205 may contribute also to the pre-Greek strata. The majority of R1b-Z2105 lineages occur in both the westernmost and easternmost districts. Distinctively, sub-haplogroup R1b- M589 occurs only in the east. The absence of R1b- M589 lineages in Crete and the Balkans and the presence in Asia Minor are compatible with Late Bronze Age influences from Anatolia rather than from Mycenaean Greeks.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13323-016-0032-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Rapid climate change did not cause population collapse at the end of the European Bronze Age

The impact of rapid climate change on contemporary human populations is of global concern. To contextualize our understanding of human responses to rapid climate change it is necessary to examine the archeological record during past climate transitions. One episode of abrupt climate change has been correlated with societal collapse at the end of the northwestern European Bronze Age. We apply new methods to interrogate archeological and paleoclimate data for this transition in Ireland at a higher level of precision than has previously been possible. We analyze archeological (14)C dates to demonstrate dramatic population collapse and present high-precision proxy climate data, analyzed through Bayesian methods, to provide evidence for a rapid climatic transition at ca. 750 calibrated years B.C. Our results demonstrate that this climatic downturn did not initiate population collapse and highlight the nondeterministic nature of human responses to past climate change.

Strong genetic admixture in the Altai at the Middle Bronze Age revealed by uniparental and ancestry informative markers

The Altai Mountains have been a long-term boundary zone between the Eurasian Steppe populations and South and East Asian populations. To disentangle some of the historical population movements in this area, 14 ancient human specimens excavated in the westernmost part of the Mongolian Altai were studied. Thirteen of them were dated from the Middle to the End of the Bronze Age and one of them to the Eneolithic period. The environmental conditions encountered in this region led to the good preservation of DNA in the human remains. Therefore, a multi-markers approach was adopted for the genetic analysis of identity, ancestry and phenotype markers. Mitochondrial DNA analyses revealed that the ancient Altaians studied carried both Western (H, U, T) and Eastern (A, C, D) Eurasian lineages. In the same way, the patrilineal gene pool revealed the presence of different haplogroups (Q1a2a1-L54, R1a1a1b2-Z93 and C), probably marking different origins for the male paternal lineages. To go further in the search of the origin of these ancient specimens, phenotypical characters (i.e. hair and eye color) were determined. For this purpose, we adapted the HIrisPlex assay recently described to MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. In addition, some ancestry informative markers were analyzed with this assay. The results revealed mixed phenotypes among this group confirming the probable admixed ancestry of the studied Altaian population at the Middle Bronze Age. The good results obtained from ancient DNA samples suggest that this approach might be relevant for forensic casework too.

Early agriculture and crop transmission among Bronze Age mobile pastoralists of Central Eurasia

Archaeological research in Central Eurasia is exposing unprecedented scales of trans-regional interaction and technology transfer between East Asia and southwest Asia deep into the prehistoric past. This article presents a new archaeobotanical analysis from pastoralist campsites in the mountain and desert regions of Central Eurasia that documents the oldest known evidence for domesticated grains and farming among seasonally mobile herders. Carbonized grains from the sites of Tasbas and Begash illustrate the first transmission of southwest Asian and East Asian domesticated grains into the mountains of Inner Asia in the early third millennium BC. By the middle second millennium BC, seasonal camps in the mountains and deserts illustrate that Eurasian herders incorporated the cultivation of millet, wheat, barley and legumes into their subsistence strategy. These findings push back the chronology for domesticated plant use among Central Eurasian pastoralists by approximately 2000 years. Given the geography, chronology and seed morphology of these data, we argue that mobile pastoralists were key agents in the spread of crop repertoires and the transformation of agricultural economies across Asia from the third to the second millennium BC.

Archaeometallurgical characterization of the earliest European metal helmets

Archaeometric analyses on conical and decorated cap helmets from the Bronze Age are presented. The helmets are dated to the 14-12th century BC according to associated finds in hoards. Alloy composition, material structure and manufacturing processes are determined and shed light on the earliest development of weaponry production in Central and Eastern Europe. Analyses were carried out using light and dark field microscopy, SEM-EDXS, PIXE, TOF-ND and PGAA. The results allowed reconstructing the manufacturing process, the differences between the cap of the helmets and their knobs (i.e. alloy composition) and the joining technique of the two parts.