A neutral polysaccharide with a triple helix structure from ginger: Characterization and immunomodulatory activity

A neutral ginger polysaccharide fraction (NGP) was isolated from ginger, and its primary structures and immunomodulatory activity were investigated. The results showed that NGP had a low molecular weight of 6305 Da. NGP principally consisted of glucose (93.88%) together with minor levels of galactose (3.27%) and arabinose (1.67%). Besides, results of methylation analysis and 1D/2D NMR spectroscopy demonstrated that NGP was α-glucan which had the main chain of 1,4-linked α-d-Glcp and α-d-Glcp residues branched at C-6 position which was different from the common triple helical β-glucans. NGP also displayed a remarkable immunological activity on the RAW264.7 cells in vitro. It could significantly enhance the proliferation of macrophages without cytotoxicity and increase the production of immune substances (NO, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6). The secretion at the concentration of 200 μg/mL was 29.41 μM, 1496.71, 44.30 and 1889.83 pg/mL for each substance, respectively. The results indicated that NGP could be a potential immune agent and might provide meaningful information for further chain conformation and immune mechanism research.

Bioactivity-guided isolation of immunomodulatory compounds from the fruits of Ligustrum lucidum

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The fruits of Ligustrum lucidum (FLL) W.T. Aiton (Oleaceae) is included in the 2020 "Chinese Pharmacopoeia" and is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine as a tonic. In recent years, FLL has been reported to improve immune function, but the bioactive compounds and mechanisms of FLL remain poorly characterized.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To identify FFL compounds with strong immune activity and explore their molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 macrophages and proliferation activity of spleen lymphocytes were used to guide the isolation of bioactive compounds from FLL extracts. Lymphocyte subpopulations, Ca²⁺ concentrations, and surface molecule expression were analyzed using flow cytometry. Cytokine secretion was examined using ELISA. FITC-OVA uptake was observed using fluorescence microscopy. NF-κB activation was analyzed using western blotting.

RESULTS

The extraction and isolation produced ten compounds, namely oleuropeinic acid, nuezhenide, isonuezhenide, salidroside, isoligustrosidic acid, ligulucidumosides A, 8(E)-nuezhenide, hydroxytyrosol, oleuropein, and p-hydroxyphenethyl 7-β-D-glucosideelenolic acid ester were isolated and identified from FLL-Bu-30%. Immunoactivity experiments showed that hydroxytyrosol had the strongest macrophage phagocytotic and lymphocyte proliferation-promoting activities. Further studies showed that hydroxytyrosol could significantly enhance lymphocyte subsets CD3⁺, CD4⁺/CD8⁺, and CD3⁺CD4^-CD8^-, promote IL-4, IFN-γ, and TNF-α secretion, and increase intracellular Ca²⁺ concentrations. In addition, the results from RAW264.7 macrophages showed that hydroxytyrosol increased FITC-OVA uptake, induced TNF-α and IL-1β production, upregulated MHC-II, CD80, and CD86 expression, promoted cytoplasmic IκB-α degradation, and increased nuclear NF-κB p65 levels.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides substantial evidence regarding the mechanism of the immunomodulatory effects of compounds from FLL.

Rat Milk and Plasma Immunological Profile throughout Lactation

The composition of bioactive factors with immune activity in human breast milk is widely studied. However, the knowledge on rat milk immune factors during the whole lactation period is still scarce. This study aimed to analyze rat breast milk’s immunoglobulin (Ig) content and some critical adipokines and growth factors throughout the lactation period, and to assess relationships with corresponding plasma levels. During lactation, milk concentration of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β2 and -β3 showed a punctual increase in the first week, whereas adiponectin and leptin remained stable. In the second period of lactation (d14–21), despite the increase in the milk epidermal growth factor (EGF), a decrease in fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) was detected at day 21. Milk IgA concentration had a progressive increase during lactation, while no significant changes were found in IgM and IgG. Regarding plasma levels, a decrease in all studied adipokines was observed in the second period of lactation, with the exception of IgA and TGF-β1, which reached their highest values at the end of the study. A positive correlation in IgM, IgG, and adipokine concentration was detected between milk and plasma compartments. In summary, the changes in the pattern of these bioactive compounds in rat milk and plasma and their relationships during lactation are established.

Anti-Infective, Anti-Inflammatory, and Immunomodulatory Properties of Breast Milk Factors for the Protection of Infants in the Pandemic From COVID-19

COVID-19 pandemic since the end of 2019 spreads worldwide, counting millions of victims. The viral invasion, systemic inflammation, and consequent organ failure are the gravest features of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and they are associated with a high mortality rate. The aim of this study is to evaluate the role of breast milk in the COVID-19 pandemic, analyzing its antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunoregulatory effects due to its bioactive components, so numerous and important for the protection of infants. The study tried to demonstrate that all the components of human milk are capable of performing functions on all the pathogenic events recognized and described in COVID-19 disease. Those human milk factors are well-tolerated and practically free of side effects, so breast milk should become a research topic to discover therapies even in this epidemic. In the first part, the mechanisms of protection and defense of the breast milk elements will be delineated; in the second section, it will describe the human milk effects in viral infections and it will be hypothesized how the known mechanisms could act in COVID infection.

Human milk cortisol and immune factors over the first three postnatal months: Relations to maternal psychosocial distress

Background

Many biologically active factors are present in human milk including proteins, lipids, immune factors, and hormones. The milk composition varies over time and shows large inter-individual variability. This study examined variations of human milk immune factors and cortisol concentrations in the first three months post-partum, and their potential associations with maternal psychosocial distress.

Methods

Seventy-seven healthy mothers with full term pregnancies were enrolled, of which 51 mothers collected morning milk samples at 2, 6 and 12 weeks post-delivery. Maternal psychosocial distress was assessed at 6 weeks post-delivery using questionnaires for stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Immune factors were determined using multiplex immunoassays and included innate immunity factors (IL1β, IL6, IL12, IFNγ, TNFα), acquired immunity factors (IL2, IL4, IL10, IL13, IL17), chemokines (IL8, Groα, MCP1, MIP1β), growth factors (IL5, IL7, GCSF, GMCSF, TGFβ2) and immunoglobulins (IgA, total IgG, IgM). Cortisol was quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. A linear mixed effects model was fit to test whether stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms individually predicted human milk cortisol concentrations after accounting for covariates. Repeated measurement analyses were used to compare women with high (n = 13) versus low psychosocial distress (n = 13) for immune factors and cortisol concentrations.

Results

Virtually all immune factors and cortisol, with the exception of the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GMCSF), were detected in the human milk samples. The concentrations of the immune factors decreased during the first 3 months, while cortisol concentrations increased over time. No correlation was observed between any of the immune factors and cortisol. No consistent relationship between postnatal psychosocial distress and concentrations of immune factors was found, whereas higher psychosocial distress was predictive of higher cortisol concentrations in human milk.

Conclusion

In the current study we found no evidence for an association between natural variations in maternal distress and immune factor concentrations in milk. It is uncertain if this lack of association would also be observed in studies with larger populations, with less uniform demographic characteristics, or with women with higher (clinical) levels of anxiety, stress and/or depressive symptoms. In contrast, maternal psychosocial distress was positively related to higher milk cortisol concentrations at week 2 post-delivery. Further investigation on maternal psychosocial distress in relation to human milk composition is warranted.

Human Herpes Simplex Virus-1 depletes APOBEC3A from nuclei

APOBEC3 family of DNA-cytosine deaminases inactivate and mutate several human viruses. We constructed a human cell line that is inducible for EGFP-tagged APOBEC3A and found A3A predominantly in the nuclei. When these cells were infected with Herpes Simplex Virus-1, virus titer was unaffected by A3A expression despite nuclear virus replication. When A3A expression and virus infection were monitored, A3A was found predominantly to be nuclear in infected cells up to 3 h post-infection, but was predominantly cytoplasmic by 12 h. This effect did not require the whole virus, and could be reproduced using the UL39 gene of the virus which codes for a subunit of the viral ribonucleotide reductase. These results are similar to the reported exclusion of APOBEC3B by Epstein Barr virus ortholog of UL39, BORF2, but HSV1 UL39 gene product appears better at excluding A3A than A3B from nuclei.

Viral Strain Determines Disease Symptoms, Pathology, and Immune Response in Neonatal Rats with Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection

When infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV) occurs during pregnancy, the virus can infect the fetus and injure the fetal brain. However, type, location, and severity of neuropathology differ among cases. One possible explanation for this diversity is that fetuses are infected with different viral strains. Using a rat model of congenital LCMV infection, we investigated how differences in LCMV strain (E350, WE2.2, and Clone 13) affect outcome. Rat pups received intracranial inoculations on postnatal day 4. E350 initially targeted glial cells, while WE2.2 and Clone 13 targeted neurons. The E350 strain induced focal destructive lesions, while the other strains induced global microencephaly. E350 attracted large numbers of CD8+ lymphocytes early in the disease course, while Clone 13 attracted CD4+ lymphocytes, and the infiltration occurred late. The E350 and WE2.2 strains induced large increases in expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, while Clone 13 did not. The animals infected with E350 and WE2.2 became ataxic and performed poorly on the negative geotaxis assay, while the Clone 13 animals had profound growth failure. Thus, in the developing brain, different LCMV strains have different patterns of infection, neuropathology, immune responses and disease symptoms. In humans, different outcomes from congenital LCMV may reflect infection with different strains.

Regulatory T cells and IgE expression in duodenal mucosa of Strongyloides stercoralis and human T lymphotropic virus type 1 co-infected patients

Background

Strongyloides stercoralis is an intestinal nematode unique in its ability to replicate in the human host, allowing ongoing cycles of autoinfection, persisting for decades within the same host. Although usually asymptomatic, overwhelming infections can occur in Strongyloides and HTLV-1 co-infected individuals (SS/HTLV-1). Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are able to blunt specific Th2 responses necessary to control the parasite. We previously reported that peripheral blood Tregs are increased in SS/HTLV-1 and correlate with low Th2 responses. We hypothesized that Tregs are also increased at the site of infection in duodenal mucosa.

Methods

Paraffin embedded duodenal biopsies were obtained from 10 SS/HTLV-1 patients, 3 controls with non-parasitic chronic duodenitis, and 2 healthy controls. Immunohistochemistry was performed using monoclonal antibodies against human CD3, CD8, IgE and FoxP3. The number of cells were counted using a conventional light microscope. The number of CD3+, CD8+, FoxP3+ and IgE positive cells per 0.35 mm² was measured using ImagePro Plus software comparing areas adjacent or distant from parasite material.

Results

In patients with SS/HTLV-1, T lymphocyte counts and CD8+ cells were lower in areas adjacent to the parasite compared to non-adjacent areas (CD3+: adjacent: 6.5 [Interquartile range (IQR: 2.8–12.3)]; non-adjacent: 24.5 [IQR: 20.9–34.4]; Mann-Whitney p = 0.0003; CD8+: adjacent: 4.5 [IQR: 2.3–11.8]; non-adjacent: 21 [IQR: 15.3–42.9]; Mann-Whitney p = 0.0011). Tregs cells in the intestines (FoxP3+ expressing cells) were increased in patients with SS/HTLV-1 compared with patients with chronic duodenitis (SS/HTLV-1: 1.5 [IQR: 0.7–2.3]; duodenitis controls: 0 [range 0–0.7]; healthy controls: 0; Mann-Whitney p = 0.034). There was also a trend towards fewer eosinophils adjacent to the parasites. Among SS/HTLV-1 patients the number of IgE expressing cells was increased for in areas not adjacent to the parasite compared to non-adjacent areas (ANOVA, p = 0.001).

Conclusions

Our data shows increased Treg cell numbers localized adjacent to the parasites in the duodenum SS/HTLV-1 patients. In addition, other T lymphocytes and IgE expressing cells were decreased adjacent to the parasites, suggesting an important role for Tregs in down-regulating local parasite effector responses.

Strongyloidiasis is a parasitic infection found worldwide in warm, moist climates. In most people, Strongyloides causes a mild and chronic infection with few symptoms. However, some patients, including those infected with the Human T Lymphotrophic Virus 1 (HTLV-1), can get uncontrolled disease called hyperinfection, which can be fatal. To help determine why this infection is so serious in co-infected patients, we studied biopsies obtained from the small intestine from patients with both infections and compared them to control biopsies. The biopsies from patients with both Strongyloides and HTLV-1 had increased numbers of white blood cells in their biopsies. In particular they displayed a type of lymphocyte that downregulates immune responses. Some of them had increased numbers of cells called eosinophils in the intestines. These cells can help eliminate Strongyloides. However, they were not found near the parasite, suggesting that something near the parasite was suppressing the host response that would control infection. These studies provide more evidence that HTLV-1 suppresses the host response that controls Strongyloides and that the suppression occurs at the site of infection in the small intestines.

Characterizing the Different Effects of Zika Virus Infection in Placenta and Microglia Cells

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a neuropathic virus that causes serious neurological abnormalities such as Guillain-Barre syndrome in adults and congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) in fetuses, which makes it an important concern for global human health. A catalogue of cells that support ZIKV replication, pathogenesis, and/or the persistence of the virus still remains unknown. Here, we studied the behavior of the virus in human placenta (JEG-3) and human microglia (HMC3) cell lines in order to better understand how different host tissues respond during infection. We quantified the host transcriptional response to ZIKV infection in both types of cells at 24 and 72 h post-infection. A panel of 84 genes that are involved in the innate or adaptive immune responses was used to quantify differential expression in both cell lines. HMC3 cells showed a unique set of significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) compared with JEG-3 cells at both time points. Subsequent analysis of these data using modern pathway analysis methods revealed that the TLR7/8 pathway was strongly inhibited in HMC3 cells, while it was activated in JEG-3 cells during virus infection. The disruption of these pathways was subsequently confirmed with specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) experiments that characterize their role in the viral life cycle, and may partially explain why ZIKV infection in placental tissue contributes to extreme neurological problems in a developing fetus.

Suppressive effects of Vochysia divergens aqueous leaf extract and its 5-methoxyflavone on murine macrophages and lymphocytes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Vochysia divergens Pohl (Vochysiaceae), popularly known as "Cambará", is a tree that is resistant to the seasonal floods in the Pantanal, and usually found in monodominant stands called "Cambarazal". The inhabitants of the Pantanal exploit this tree for medicinal uses. Infusions and decoctions of its leaves are taken as teas, particularly for the treatment of asthma, flu and diarrhea, according to the local tradition transmitted empirically through the generations.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the beneficial health effects related to the ethnomedicinal uses of V. divergens (Vd) by using biomonitored fractionation of an aqueous leaf extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The aqueous leaf extract was obtained by decoction, and then the extract was fractionated by a combination of separation techniques including precipitation, organic partition and chromatography. Chromatographic analyses of the active samples were carried out using HPLC-DAD-MS. Flavonoid 1 was isolated from the n-BuOH fraction through classic chromatographic techniques. The inhibitory effects and cytotoxicity of the Vd extract, fractions and flavonoid 1 on NO and TNF-α production were assessed in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cultures. Additionally, suppression on the proliferation of BALB/c lymphocytes was estimated by [³H] thymidine incorporation. The antioxidant activity of the samples was verified by SNP and DPPH assays and the suppression of the iNOS protein expression was evaluated through Western blotting.

RESULTS

The HPLC-DAD-MS analysis of the Vd extract led to the identification of 5-methoxyluteolin-7-O-β-glucopyranoside (2), rutin (4) and the tannin galloyl-HHDP-glucopyranoside (3), besides the main flavonoid 3',5-dimethoxyluteolin-7-O-β-glucopyranoside (1), which was biologically evaluated in comparison with luteolin aglycone. The Vd extract, n-BuOH fraction and flavonoid 1 inhibited NO and TNF-α production by LPS-stimulated macrophages. The reduction of NO levels was mediated mainly by suppression of the iNOS expression. In addition, both the Vd extract (IC₅₀ 13.6 µg/mL) and flavonoid 1 (IC₅₀ 19.8 µg/mL; 41.6 µM) strongly inhibited stimulated lymphocyte proliferation when compared to the immunosuppressive agent cyclosporin A (IC₅₀ 43.8 µg/mL; 36.4 µM). The Vd extract also showed a scavenging activity toward DPPH and NO free radicals. This is the first report describing the immunomodulatory potential of V. divergens and its major flavonoid (1).

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that the aqueous leaf extract of V. divergens and its flavonoid reduced the production of excessive pro-inflammatory markers, collaborating with the Pantanal folk medicinal tradition that recommends the tea of cambará leaves for both asthma and flu. In addition, this study contributes to the knowledge of the pharmacological properties of 5-methoxy flavones, a poorly investigated subclass of flavonoids.

Highly multiplexed immunofluorescence imaging of human tissues and tumors using t-CyCIF and conventional optical microscopes

The architecture of normal and diseased tissues strongly influences the development and progression of disease as well as responsiveness and resistance to therapy. We describe a tissue-based cyclic immunofluorescence (t-CyCIF) method for highly multiplexed immuno-fluorescence imaging of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) specimens mounted on glass slides, the most widely used specimens for histopathological diagnosis of cancer and other diseases. t-CyCIF generates up to 60-plex images using an iterative process (a cycle) in which conventional low-plex fluorescence images are repeatedly collected from the same sample and then assembled into a high-dimensional representation. t-CyCIF requires no specialized instruments or reagents and is compatible with super-resolution imaging; we demonstrate its application to quantifying signal transduction cascades, tumor antigens and immune markers in diverse tissues and tumors. The simplicity and adaptability of t-CyCIF makes it an effective method for pre-clinical and clinical research and a natural complement to single-cell genomics.

In vitro characterization and in vivo toxicity, antioxidant and immunomodulatory effect of fermented foods; Xeniji™

BACKGROUND

Xeniji, produced by fermenting various types of foods with lactic acid bacteria and yeast, has been commonly consumed as functional food. However, nutrition value, bioactivities and safety of different fermented products maybe varies.

METHODS

Organic acid and antioxidant profiles of Xeniji fermented foods were evaluated. Moreover, oral acute (5 g/kg body weight) and subchronic toxicity (0.1, 1 and 2 g/kg body weight) of Xeniji were tested on mice for 14 days and 30 days, respectively. Mortality, changes of body weight, organ weight and serum liver enzyme level were measured. Liver and spleen of mice from subchronic toxicity study were subjected to antioxidant and immunomodulation quantification.

RESULTS

Xeniji was rich in β-carotene, phytonadione, polyphenol, citric acid and essential amino acids. No mortality and significant changes of body weight and serum liver enzyme level were recorded for both oral acute and subchronic toxicity studies. Antioxidant level in the liver and immunity of Xeniji treated mice were significantly upregulated in dosage dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

Xeniji is a fermented functional food that rich in nutrients that enhanced antioxidant and immunity of mice. Xeniji that rich in β-carotene, phytonadione, polyphenol, citric acid and essential amino acids promote antioxidant and immunity in mice without causing toxic effect.

Adiponectin: Serum-saliva associations and relations with oral and systemic markers of inflammation

This study addresses gaps in our understanding about the validity and utility of using salivary adiponectin to index serum adiponectin levels. Matched blood and saliva samples were collected on a single occasion from healthy adults (n=99; age 18-36 years, 53% male). Serum and saliva was assayed for adiponectin and inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα), and saliva was also assayed for markers of blood contamination (transferrin), total protein (salivary flow rate) and matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8). We examined the extent to which salivary adiponectin was associated with serum adiponectin, and the influence of potential confounders on the serum-saliva correlation, including age, sex, body mass index, and markers of inflammation, oral health, salivary blood contamination, and flow rate. Findings revealed a modest serum-saliva association for adiponectin, and strong positive associations between salivary adiponectin and salivary levels of inflammatory cytokines, MMP-8, transferrin, and total protein. By contrast, salivary adiponectin was not related to serum levels of inflammatory activity. The magnitude of the serum-saliva association was strengthened when controlling for total protein in saliva, blood leakage into oral fluid, salivary inflammatory cytokines, and MMP-8. The pattern of findings extends our understanding of salivary adiponectin and its potential use as an index of circulating adiponectin levels.

The gut microbiota as a modulator of innate immunity during melioidosis

BACKGROUND

Melioidosis, caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, is an emerging cause of pneumonia-derived sepsis in the tropics. The gut microbiota supports local mucosal immunity and is increasingly recognized as a protective mediator in host defenses against systemic infection. Here, we aimed to characterize the composition and function of the intestinal microbiota during experimental melioidosis.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

C57BL/6 mice were infected intranasally with B. pseudomallei and sacrificed at different time points to assess bacterial loads and inflammation. In selected experiments, the gut microbiota was disrupted with broad-spectrum antibiotics prior to inoculation. Fecal bacterial composition was analyzed by means of IS-pro, a 16S-23S interspacer region-based profiling method. A marked shift in fecal bacterial composition was seen in all mice during systemic B. pseudomallei infection with a strong increase in Proteobacteria and decrease in Actinobacteria, with an increase in bacterial diversity. We found enhanced early dissemination of B. pseudomallei and systemic inflammation during experimental melioidosis in microbiota-disrupted mice compared with controls. Whole-genome transcriptional profiling of the lung identified several genes that were differentially expressed between mice with a normal or disrupted intestinal microbiota. Genes involved in acute phase signaling, including macrophage-related signaling pathways were significantly elevated in microbiota disrupted mice. Compared with controls, alveolar macrophages derived from antibiotic pretreated mice showed a diminished capacity to phagocytose B. pseudomallei. This might in part explain the observed protective effect of the gut microbiota in the host defense against pneumonia-derived melioidosis.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Taken together, these data identify the gut microbiota as a potential modulator of innate immunity during B. pseudomallei infection.

Profiling of jejunum inflammatory gene expression during murine eimeriosis

To understand the host-parasite relationship during coccidiosis it is necessary to identify the transcriptional profile of the local host. In this study, gene profiling in the mouse jejunum due to infection with Eimeria papillata was investigated using Agilent microarray technology. On day 5 post-infection, the characterization of infected and non-infected mice jejunum transcriptional response was compared. There was an increase in the level of tumour necrosis factor-α, nitrite/nitrate and nitric oxide synthase activity was observed following infection. Also, the activity of glutathione peroxidase was reduced from 86.5 to 38.2 mU/g. In addition, E. papillata infection was associated with an increase in the activities of both the mice alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase. Moreover, experimental E. papillata infection in mice induced a significant elevation in protein carbonyl content, by about 70%. Agilent genome microarray detected 11 genes whose expression was up-regulated by more than 10-fold, and 30 genes whose expression was down-regulated by a similar amount five days after infection with E. papillata. The expression profiles of the Fas apoptotic inhibitory molecule 3(FAIM3), chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 5 (Cxcr5), succinate receptor 1 (SUCNR1), hydroxy-delta-5-steroid dehydrogenase, 3 beta- and steroid delta-isomerase 3 (Hsd3b3) and cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily b, polypeptide 9 (Cyp2b9) genes, arbitrarily selected from the microarray analysis, closely resemble the expressions determined by quantitative PCR. The data indicate that, E. papillata is associated with the induction of inflammatory response and with gene regulation in mice jejunum.

Immunomodulatory Activity of Leaf Infusions of Selected Cornaceae Species on Human Leukocytes

Particular Cornus species are known for their edible fruits and their leaves are used as a tea in some countries. In the present study, the immunomodulatory activity of water infusions of leaves of Cornus mas (CM), C. kousa (CK), C. alba (CA), C. flaviramea (CF), C. coreana (CC) and C. amomum (CU) was tested on human leukocytes. Phagocytic and antimicrobial activity was determined for concentrations of 0.17 and 0.25 mg x mL(-1). All samples significantly enhanced the phagocytic activity of cells. Samples at the concentration of 0.17 mg x mL(-1) were in all cases, except CK, slightly more effective than those at 0.25 mg x mL(-1). The strongest bactericidal (E. coli) and also candidacidal (C. albicans) activity was exerted by CM at 0.25 mg x mL(-1). The most potent samples at the lower concentration were CF (for E. coli) and CK (for C. albicans). CC and CU were antimicrobially non-effective.

Antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties of polysaccharides from Allanblackia floribunda Oliv stem bark and Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and H.E. Robins leaves

BACKGROUND

Many plant polysaccharides have shown high antioxidant and immunostimulating properties and can be explored as novel molecules with biological properties that can potentially improve immune function. The objective of this work was to characterize soluble and cell wall polysaccharides isolated from the stem bark of Allanblackia floribunda and Chromolaena odorata leaves and to evaluate their antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties.

METHODS

Three polysaccharide fractions: soluble polysaccharides (PoS), pectins (Pec) and hemicelluloses (Hem) were extracted from A. floribunda stem bark and C. odorata leaves. These samples were analysed for their proteins, phenolic compounds and total sugar contents. The monosaccharide composition was determined by gas chromatography and arabinogalactan proteins content in PoS was evaluated by rocket electrophoresis. The in vitro antioxidant activities were evaluated by 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis-3-éthylbenzylthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging assays and ferrous ions chelating activity. Immunomodulatory activities were performed on the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) using proliferation and enzyme linked immunospot (ELISPOT) method to determine the production of an interferon-gamma.

RESULTS

The characterization of the various fractions showed varied metabolites in each plant. In PoS fractions, Ara and Gal were the major monosaccharides found, indicating that arabinogalactans are the primary macromolecules. Hem fractions contained predominantly Xyl and GalA for A. floribunda and Xyl (upto 80 %) for and C. odorata. A. floribunda Hem fraction and C. odorata PoS fraction showed significant DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities and immunostimulatory activity via stimulation of PBMC and production of IFN-γ in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained from this study support the ethnomedicinal use of the stem bark of A. floribunda and leaves of C. odorata. Further research is necessary to have supporting evidence that the antioxidative and immunomodulative activities of these fractions are really connected to the polysaccharides and not polyphenols.

Viremic and Virologically Suppressed HIV Infection Increases Age-Related Changes to Monocyte Activation Equivalent to 12 and 4 Years of Aging, Respectively

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation and immune activation occur in both HIV infection and normal aging and are associated with inflammatory disease. However, the degree to which HIV influences age-related innate immune changes, and the biomarkers which best reflect them, remains unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We measured established innate immune aging biomarkers in 309 individuals including 88 virologically suppressed (VS) and 52 viremic (viral load ≤ and >50 copies per milliliter, respectively) HIV-positive individuals. Levels of soluble (ie, CXCL10, soluble CD163, neopterin) and cellular (ie, proportions of inflammatory CD16 monocytes) biomarkers of monocyte activation were increased in HIV-positive individuals and were only partially ameliorated by viral suppression. Viremic and VS HIV-positive individuals show levels of age-related monocyte activation biomarkers that are similar to uninfected controls aged 12 and 4 years older, respectively. Viremic HIV infection was associated with an accelerated rate of change of some monocyte activation markers (eg, neopterin) with age, whereas in VS individuals, subsequent age-related changes occurred at a similar rate as in controls, albeit at a higher absolute level. We further identified CXCL10 as a robust soluble biomarker of monocyte activation, highlighting the potential utility of this chemokine as a prognostic marker.

IMPLICATIONS

These findings may partially explain the increased prevalence of inflammatory age-related diseases in HIV-positive individuals and potentially indicate the pathological mechanisms underlying these diseases, which persist despite viral suppression.

[Research achievements on structures and activities of polysaccharides from Panax ginseng]

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (P. ginseng) has been used as traditional medicine in Asian countries for more than 2,000 years. P. ginseng contains many active components such as ginsenosides, peptides, essential oil and polysaccharides, among which, P. ginseng polysaccharides were reported to have immunomodulating, anti-cancer, anti-adhesive and antioxidant activities. For better understanding of the structures and biological activities of all the ginseng polysaccharides, here the recent research achievements were reviewed. This review would be helpful for the relevant researchers to get useful information.

Effect of ultrasonic extraction conditions on antioxidative and immunomodulatory activities of a Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide originated from fermented soybean curd residue

A crude Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLPL) was extracted from fermented soybean curd residue by ultrasonic assisted extraction. The optimal extraction conditions were 30 min at 80 °C with 80 W and water to solid ratio of 10, and with this method 115.47 ± 2.95 mg/g of GLPL yield was obtained. Additionally, the antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities of GLPL were investigated. The results showed that GLPL exhibited strong antioxidant effects, which included scavenging activities against DPPH radicals, hydrogen oxide and ABTS radicals with IC50 values of 0.23, 0.48 and 0.69 mg/mL, respectively. For immunomodulatory activities, GLPL was shown to strongly stimulate the proliferation of macrophages (158.02 ± 13.12%), the production of nitric oxide and phagocytosis (21.16 ± 1.65 μM), and, at 40.00 μg/mL, protected macrophage from Doxorubicin (DOX) (0.16 ± 0.003).

Randomized controlled trial of oral glutathione supplementation on body stores of glutathione

PURPOSE

Glutathione (GSH), the most abundant endogenous antioxidant, is a critical regulator of oxidative stress and immune function. While oral GSH has been shown to be bioavailable in laboratory animal models, its efficacy in humans has not been established. Our objective was to determine the long-term effectiveness of oral GSH supplementation on body stores of GSH in healthy adults.

METHODS

A 6-month randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of oral GSH (250 or 1,000 mg/day) on GSH levels in blood, erythrocytes, plasma, lymphocytes and exfoliated buccal mucosal cells was conducted in 54 non-smoking adults. Secondary outcomes on a subset of subjects included a battery of immune markers.

RESULTS

GSH levels in blood increased after 1, 3 and 6 months versus baseline at both doses. At 6 months, mean GSH levels increased 30-35 % in erythrocytes, plasma and lymphocytes and 260 % in buccal cells in the high-dose group (P < 0.05). GSH levels increased 17 and 29 % in blood and erythrocytes, respectively, in the low-dose group (P < 0.05). In most cases, the increases were dose and time dependent, and levels returned to baseline after a 1-month washout period. A reduction in oxidative stress in both GSH dose groups was indicated by decreases in the oxidized to reduced glutathione ratio in whole blood after 6 months. Natural killer cytotoxicity increased >twofold in the high-dose group versus placebo (P < 0.05) at 3 months.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings show, for the first time, that daily consumption of GSH supplements was effective at increasing body compartment stores of GSH.

Phenolic-enriched fractions from brewers' spent grain possess cellular antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects in cell culture model systems

BACKGROUND

Large quantities of brewers' spent grain (BSG), a co-product of the brewing industry, are produced annually. BSG contains hydroxycinnamic acids, and phenolic-rich extracts from BSG have previously demonstrated the ability to protect against oxidant-induced DNA damage. The present study investigated the anti-inflammatory potential of eight phenolic extracts from BSG: four pale (P1-P4) and four black (B1-B4) extracts.

RESULTS

BSG extracts were more cytotoxic in Jurkat T than U937 cells, with lower IC₅₀ values in Jurkat T cells, measured using the (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Pale BSG extracts P2 and P3 showed the greatest anti-inflammatory potential, significantly (P < 0.05) reducing interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-4 (IL-4, P2 only), interleukin-10 (IL-10) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production. In addition, extracts P1-P3 and B2-B4 showed significant (P < 0.05) antioxidant effects, determined by the cellular antioxidant activity assays superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione content (GSH).

CONCLUSION

Phenolic extracts from BSG, particularly the pale BSG extracts, have the ability to reduce a stimulated cytokine production and may also protect against cellular oxidative stress. Results of the present study highlight the potential of BSG phenolic extracts to act as functional food ingredients, providing an alternative use and improving the value of this brewing industry co-product.

Enzyme-assisted extraction of cactus bioactive molecules under high hydrostatic pressure

BACKGROUND

To improve the extraction and recovery of bioactive materials from cactus, the present study investigated the effect of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes [Rapidase-Viscozyme mixture, 1/3 (v/v)] treatment under high hydrostatic pressure (HHP).

RESULTS

The dry weight of the extract increased with the use of increasing pressure regardless of enzyme treatment. However, the polyphenol content showed a tendency to decrease with the increase in pressure in the cactus extract with or without enzyme treatment. The enzyme-assisted extraction resulted in an increase of dry weight and polyphenol content in the cactus extract. The total sugar and reducing sugar contents of the cactus extract increased with increasing pressure in enzyme-assisted extraction. The uronic acid content of the cactus extract showed a pattern similar to that of the reducing sugars. The enzyme-assisted extraction also increased the contents of taxifolin, quercetin and isorhametin. The cactus extract obtained through enzyme-assisted extraction showed intense scavenging activity of both DPPH and ABTS radicals. The crude polysaccharides isolated from the extract (51.2% at 1000 µg mL⁻¹ for HHP extraction at 300 MPa) had higher anti-complementary activity than the others except for lipopolysaccharide (60.00% at 1000 µg mL⁻¹). HHP extraction and enzyme-assisted extraction using HHP showed an increase of anti-complementary activity compared with the heat and enzyme controls, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the use of HHP in enzyme-assisted extraction resulted in more efficient extraction than the use of enzyme treatment alone.

Alkaloids and athlete immune function: caffeine, theophylline, gingerol, ephedrine, and their congeners

Plant alkaloids are found in foods, beverages, and supplements consumed by athletes for daily nutrition, performance enhancement, and immune function improvement. This paper examined possible immunomodulatory roles of alkaloids in exercise contexts, with a focus on human studies. Four representative groups were scrutinized: (a) caffeine (guaranine, mateine); (b) theophylline and its isomers, theobromine and paraxanthine; (c) ginger alkaloids including gingerols and shogaol; and (d) ephedra alkaloids such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. Emerging or prospective alkaloid sources (Goji berry, Noni berry, and bloodroot) were also considered. Human in vitro and in vivo studies on alkaloids and immune function were often conflicting. Caffeine may be immunomodulatory in vivo depending on subject characteristics, exercise characteristics, and immune parameters measured. Caffeine may exhibit antioxidant capacities. Ginger may exert in vivo anti-inflammatory effects in certain populations, but it is unclear whether these effects are due to alkaloids or other biochemicals. Evidence for an immunomodulatory role of alkaloids in energy drinks, cocoa, or ephedra products in vivo is weak to nonexistent. For alkaloid sources derived from plants, variability in the reviewed studies may be due to the presence of unrecognized alkaloids or non-alkaloid compounds (which may themselves be immunomodulatory), and pre-experimental factors such as agricultural or manufacturing differences. Athletes should not look to alkaloids or alkaloid-rich sources as a means of improving immune function given their inconsistent activities, safety concerns, and lack of commercial regulation.

Immunomodulatory activities of alpha-mangostin on peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) a tropical fruit, has been used in traditional medicine. A frequently used part of mangosteen is the pericarp, containing a high content of xanthones. alpha-Mangostin, one of the major xanthone derivatives, exhibits a variety of actions, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic and antitumor; however, its function on the immune system is still equivocal. This study aimed to examine the immunomodulatory activities of alpha-mangostin on lymphocyte lineage and cytokine production in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The cytotoxic activity of alpha-mangostin was measured by MTT assay. The concentration of alpha-mangostin at 5.55 microg/mL resulted in a 50% survival of PBMCs, which was as potent a cytotoxic activity as that of paclitaxel. After 24 h of PBMCs culture, the percentages of T cells (CD3+), B cells (CD19+) and NK cells (CD3-CD16+CD56+) were not significantly changed by treatment with 1, 2 and 4 microg/mL of alpha-mangostin compared with untreated-PBMCs; in addition, the percentages of these lymphocytes treated with the combination of alpha-mangostin (1, 2 and 4 microg/mL) and the mitogen concanavalin A (ConA) was not significantly different from that of ConA-treated PBMCs. For cytokine secretion, alpha-mangostin (1, 2 and 4 microg/mL) did not significantly induce either proinflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-alpha and IL-1beta) or cytokine of adaptive immunity (i.e., IL-2). The combination of alpha-mangostin (1, 2 and 4 microg/mL) and ConA did not significantly alter the relative difference of TNF-alpha and IL-1beta compared with ConA-treated PBMCs; however, these combinations could significantly decrease the relative difference of IL-2 compared with ConA-treated PBMCs. These data indicated that alpha-mangostin was able to inhibit IL-2 release without interfering with human immune cells; therefore, further studies are necessary to investigate its effect on IL-2 production.

Estimation and comparison of salivary immunoglobulin A levels in tobacco chewers, tobacco smokers and normal subjects

AIMS

To estimate the salivary immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels in tobacco chewers, tobacco smokers and normal subjects and to compare the salivary IgA levels among tobacco chewers and tobacco smokers.

METHODS

The study group consisted of 80 subjects (tobacco users), 40 tobacco chewers and 40 tobacco smokers. Unstimulated whole saliva was collected from all tobacco users and 40 healthy age- and gender-matched non-tobacco users as control group. The study and control groups were divided into four subgroups based on age range. Salivary IgA levels were estimated by single radial immunodiffusion assay (SRID). All data were analysed using statistical software and to compare the results in three groups, single-factor analysis of variance was applied.

RESULTS

The mean salivary IgA level in control group was 16.76 ± 1.37 mg/dl (SD); in tobacco chewers it was 7.89 ± 0.61 mg/dl (SD) and in tobacco smokers it was 6.55 ± 0.99 mg/dl (SD). The salivary IgA levels were decreased in tobacco chewers and tobacco smokers compared with the controls. Among the tobacco users, tobacco smokers had much reduced salivary IgA levels compared to tobacco chewers. All of these results were highly significant (P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study showed that tobacco chewers and tobacco smokers had decreased salivary IgA levels and among tobacco users, tobacco smokers had much reduced salivary IgA levels compared to tobacco chewers in unstimulated whole saliva.

LC-ESI-TOF MS method for the evaluation of the immunostimulating activity of soybeans via the determination of the functional peptide soymetide

Bioactive peptides content in foodstuffs can seriously vary with many factors such as crop variety, food processing, animal breeding, etc. Because of this variability, quantitative methodologies are required to evaluate the content of bioactive peptides in foodstuffs. Progress in liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry technologies offer a great opportunity for the quantitation of bioactive peptides. This study undertook the development of a liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry method using a fused-core technology column for the sensitive and unambiguous determination of the immunostimulating peptide soymetide in soybean varieties. Soymetide precursor protein (α' subunit of β-conglycinin) was extracted with a Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0) containing urea and digested with trypsin. Soymetide separation conditions by reversed phase liquid chromatography (ion-pairing reagent, organic modifier, separation column, and elution gradient) and detection by MS were optimized, and a study of soymetide stability was also conducted. The method selectivity having been demonstrated, the linearity, accuracy, precision, and limits of detection and quantitation were evaluated. The developed method enabled the detection and quantitation of soymetide concentrations in the ppb range (7.5 ng/mL and 25 ng/mL, respectively), and about 30 times lower than those detected and determined in a previous work by capillary liquid chromatography with UV detection. These values could allow the quantitation of only 17 μg of soymetide per gram of soybean. The developed methodology was applied to the quantitation of soymetide in different soybean varieties from Europe, Japan, and USA observing great differences in soymetide content that ranged from 40 to 600 μg per gram of soybean depending on the soybean variety.

Freshwater clam extract inhibits inflammatory responses in LPS-activated macrophages by reducing the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and NF-kappaB

Recent studies demonstrated that freshwater clam (Corbicula fluminea) has lipid-lowering and hepatoprotective activities, but its effect on immune responses has not yet been addressed. Here we showed that ethanol extracts of C. fluminea (ECF) reduced nitrite oxide, interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages. Further, ECF was fractionated into n-hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, and water soluble fractions. Of these, the ethyl acetate soluble fraction (EACF) had the highest capacity to inhibit pro-inflammatory mediators expression. The underlying mechanisms for the anti-inflammatory activity of EACF were demonstrated as down-regulation of ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and p38 phosphorylation and NF-kappaB activity. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis EACF was found to be composed mainly of fatty acids and steroids. Our results provide evidence that freshwater clam has anti-inflammatory activity, and support the possibility for the development of freshwater clam as a health supplement or adjuvant therapeutic agent for either preventing or treating inflammation related diseases.

Autoantibodies in Sjögren's syndrome: clinical presentation and regulatory mechanisms

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a systemic autoimmune disease mostly affecting the exocrine glands. A large number of autoantibodies have been detected in the serum of patients with pSS. Among them, anti-Ro/SSA and anti-La/SSB autoantibodies are the most common; they serve as disease markers and are involved in the pathogenesis of neonatal lupus syndrome (NLS). Other autoantibodies are associated with significant clinical phenotypes, such as cryoglobulins with development of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, anti-centromere antibodies with Raynaud's phenomenon and anti-mitochondrial antibodies with liver pathology. As a result, pSS patients can be schematically categorized in subgroups according to their serological profile. Although the clinical utility of these autoantibodies is appreciated, little is known about the mechanisms related to their production and the regulation of the autoimmune response. In the present review, the clinical subsets of patients with pSS related to different autoantibodies as well as the regulating mechanisms of their production with special emphasis on idiotypic/anti-idiotypic network are discussed.

Immunomodulatory active compounds from Tinospora cordifolia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tinospora cordifolia mentioned as "Rasayana" is extensively used in various herbal preparations for the treatment of different ailments for its general tonic, antiperiodic, antispasmodic, antiinflammatory, antiarthritic, antiallergic and antidiabetic properties. It is extensively used in Ayurveda due to its potential in improving the immune system and the body resistance against infections.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was to isolate and characterise the immunomodulatory active compounds of Tinospora cordifolia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The immunomodulatory activity of different extracts, fractions and isolated compounds in relation to phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species production in human neutrophil cells have been investigated using the PMN phagocytic function studies, NBT, NO and chemiluminescence assay.

RESULTS

The results obtained indicate that ethyl acetate, water fractions and hot water extract exhibited significant immunomodulatory activity with an increase in percentage phagocyctosis. Chromatographic purification of these fraction led to the isolation of a mixture of two compounds 2, 3 isolated for the first time from natural source and five known compounds 1, 4-7 which were characterized as 11-hydroxymustakone (2), N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (3), N-formylannonain (1), cordifolioside A (4), magnoflorine (5), tinocordiside (6), syringin (7) by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS) and comparing the spectral data with reported one. Cordifolioside A and syringin have been reported to possess immunomodulatory activity. Other five compounds showed significant enhancement in phagocytic activity and increase in nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species generation at concentration 0.1-2.5 μg/ml.

CONCLUSIONS

Seven immunomodulatory active compounds belonging to different classes have been isolated and characterised indicating that the immunomodulatory activity of Tinospora cordifolia may be attributed to the synergistic effect of group of compounds.

Nutritional content and a phase-I safety clinical trial of a herbal-nutritional supplement (IMUNITI) with putative immune-modulating properties

The relationship between HIV and AIDS and poor nutrition has been well established. Poor nutrition hastens the progression of HIV infection to AIDS. The rising pandemic of HIV and AIDS and high toxicity associated with anti-retroviral use are major factors that have compelled research to explore traditional herbal medicines as potential alternatives or supplements to anti-retroviral agents. A Phase I clinical trial was conducted on IMUNITI Wellness Pack, a herbal product with putative immune-modulating properties. The product is a combination of 7 herbal preparations, minerals, vitamins, and a specially formulated soya-maize meal porridge and a bottle of water purifier. The aim was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of IMUNITI, with a purpose of developing it for use in HIV-infected patients. The phase I study was conducted at the MRC clinic in Botha's hill and the study lasted 5 weeks from date of participant dosing. The study was a randomised blinded placebo-controlled phase I clinical trial conducted on 48 healthy males. The participants were randomly divided into 4 groups of 12. The 3 groups received different escalating doses of IMUNITI while the forth group received placebo tablets. Participants consumed IMUNITI daily for a period of 5 weeks. Assessments were done at baseline, week 1 and week 5 to determine the safety parameters in all participants. In this study, IMUNITI did not show any safety concerns. In all study participants, there were no significant changes above the upper limit of the reference ranges of the laboratory tests for full blood count, INR, renal and biochemical safety parameters. IMUNITI was well tolerated. Furthermore, the nutritional content analysis of IMUNITI showed that it is a high kilojoule, high protein content product which contains a mixture of sugars, vitamins, traces of calcium, phosphorus and minerals.

[Diagnostic value of antineutophil cytoplasmic antibodies]

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) constitute a family of auto-antibodies directed against various components of the neutrophil cytoplasm. The indirect immunofluorecence assays detected three fluorescent staining patterns: cANCA--cytoplasmic; pANCA--perinuclear and aANCA--atypical. Occurence ANCA is mainly associated with Wegener's granulomatosis and vasculitis, but they are also detected in autoimmune diseases (eg. in systemic lupus erythematosus, in rheumathoid arthritis, Sjögren's syndrome, in dermatomyositis) and in inflamatory bowel diseases (Crohn disease, colitis ulcerosa). Presence of ANCA was found also in primary sclerosing cholangitis, in chronic infections and in person using some kinds of drugs. The aim of the study was to review recent investigations concerning prevalence of ANCA and their diagnostic value not only for vasculitis but also for the other disease in which they are detected.

[Conditions of cultivation, composition, and biological activity of mycelium of Flammulina velutipes (Fr.) P. Karst]

A study is made on a strain of higher basydiomycete Flammulia velutipes (Fr.) P. Karat. The conditions of maximum biomass production by Flammulia velutipes were studied. Soluble and insoluble fractions were isolated from mycelium. The composition of cultured mycelium and aqueous extracts from mycelium were investigated. These objects mainly contained carbohydrates (65.3 and 84.0% in insoluble and soluble fractions, respectively, and 56% mycelium), proteins (7.5-10.0% in fractions and 17.5% in mycelium), as well as an insignificant amount of mineral substances. The main carbohydrate component of fractions was glucose (53.6-78.8%); galactose and mannose were also present, as well as fucose and xylose in insignificant amounts. The aqueous extracts from mycelium demonstrated immunomodulating activity. They rendered a stimulating effect on the functional activity of macrophages--central cells of the reticluoendothelial system. The soluble fraction had a more pronounced effect than the insoluble fraction.

Isolation, characterization, and immunological effects of alpha-galacto-oligosaccharides from a new source, the herb Lycopus lucidus Turcz

This study was designed to isolate and characterize a mixture of alpha-galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) from a new source, the roots of Lycopus lucidus Turcz. (RL), a traditional dietary treatment. In this study, the chemical components and immunological function of RL-GOS were investigated. HPLC analysis showed that the purified RL-GOS was a typical raffinose family oligosaccharide (RFO) with a high stachyose content of 51.8% (w/w), followed by 26.5% raffinose and 10.1% verbascose. Further functional evaluation showed that RL-GOS could elicit a significant increase (p < 0.05 vs control) in humoral immunity, as measured by plaque-forming cell (PFC) generation and serum hemolysin level in response to sheep red blood cells (SRBC) at all three tested doses of RL-GOS (0.75, 1.5, and 3.0 g/kg of BW) in mice. In addition, the cellular immune activity of RL-GOS was also demonstrated by enhancing in vivo delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction to SRBC and spleenocyte proliferation response to concanavalin A (p < 0.05, compared with control group). Nevertheless, there were no significant differences in weight gain, lymphoid organ indices, and phagocytosis capacity following RL-GOS treatment. This study provides evidence for the discovery of a new GOS source (20% w/w GOS in fresh roots of L. lucidus Turcz.) and its potential application as an immune stimulant in functional foods.

Bryonolic acid: a large-scale isolation and evaluation of heme oxygenase 1 expression in activated macrophages

Bryonolic acid (BA) is a triterpenoid found in the Cucurbitaceae family of plants. Our interests in the immunomodulatory effects of this class of natural products led us to discover that BA induces a marked increase in the expression of a phase 2 response enzyme, heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), in a dose-dependent manner. This phenotype has translational implications in malarial disease progression, and consequently we developed a large-scale isolation method for BA that will enable future in vitro and in vivo analyses. We have determined ideal growth conditions and time scale for maximizing BA content in the roots of Cucurbita pepo and analyzed BA production by HPLC. Large-scale extraction yielded 1.34% BA based on dry weight, allowing for the isolation of BA on a multigram scale.

Anti C1q antibodies in cutaneous lupus erythematosus

Autoantibodies against C1q are strongly linked to immune-complex disorders like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Although anti-C1q antibodies have received much interest in the recent years, their biological functions remain unclear. Anti-C1q antibodies are strongly associated with lupus nephritis. Recent studies describe apoptosis as a key player in LE pathogenesis and C1q is an important opsonin, playing a central role in the uptake of apoptotic blebs. The aim of this study was to evaluate serum anti C1q antibodies, C1q with circulating immune complexes and correlation between serology and cutaneous apoptosis in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

79 subjects were recruited and divided into 4 groups-13 healthy controls, 26 with discoid chronic lupus (DLE), 23 with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and 17 with subacute lupus erythematosus (SCLE). Blood samples and skin punched-biopsy specimens were performed. Serum anti-C1q antibodies and C1q associated to the immune complexes concentrations were determined by ELISA. Cutaneous caspase-3 expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

SLE and SCLE patients had significantly higher levels of anti-C1q antibodies and serum C1q-CIC levels when compared to healthy controls (p < 0.05). Serum anti-C1q antibodies correlated with proteinuria in SLE patients (p < 0.05). Anti C1q antibodies levels also correlated with cutaneous caspase 3 expression in SLE and SCLE patients (both p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Anti C1q antibodies might play a pathogenic role in SCLE pathogenesis and being positively associated with cutaneous apoptosis markers might be associated with a negative prognosis and secondary SLE development.

Comparative acute toxicities and immunomodulatory potentials of five Eastern Nigeria mistletoes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditionally, mistletoes of Eastern Nigeria origin, Loranthus micranthus Linn. have been used as immunostimulant for the management of certain diseases with high profile immune depleting potentials. This practice has remained till date without scientific validation.

AIM OF STUDY

To obtain and validate evidence for or against its continued use as immunostimulant and afford data for further studies on this specie of mistletoe. The present work is an in vivo proof of ethnopharmacological concept of the age long immunomodulatory use of our local mistletoe.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aqueous-methanol extracts of the plant leaves from five different host trees were evaluated for immunomodulatory activity using four in vivo models in mice or rats, namely; total and differential leukocyte count (TLC and DLC), the cellular mediated delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction (DTHR) test, the humoral mediated antibody titration (AT) test and the cyclophosphamide-induced myelosuppression (CIM) test at different dose levels (100, 200 and 400 or 50, 100 and 250 mg kg(-1); depending on model) against standard controls. Phytochemical and acute toxicity tests were equally carried out on all the extracts.

RESULTS

Results obtained indicate that all the mistletoes contained the same phytochemical constituents, although in varying amounts. The mistletoes exhibited statistically significantly different (p < 0.05 or p < 0.001, ANOVA) immunomodulatory (up-regulatory) activities in the overall order of that from Kola acuminata > Citrus spp > Persia americana > Parkia biglobosa > Pentaclatra macrophylla. LD(50) values were generally greater than 5000 mg/kg.

CONCLUSION

The present study confirms the Eastern Nigeria mistletoe as a potent and safe alternative or complementary medicine for the management of immunodeficiency diseases.

Immunomodulating activities in bran extracts of Japanese red, black and brown rices

To determine the potent immunomodulating activities of different types of Japanese rice bran, we analyzed the effects of extracts of red, brown and black rice brans on the cell proliferation and cytokine production of mouse immunocompetent cells by cell culture experiments. Methanol extracts of these rice brans showed suppressive activities against the proliferative response (3H-thymidine incorporation) of mouse spleen cells induced by concanavalin A (Con A) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the cell culture experiments. Although the black and brown rice bran extracts showed suppressive effects on the production of interferon gamma (IFN gamma) or interleukin 6 (IL-6) in mouse spleen cells induced by Con A or LPS, the red rice bran extract exhibited stimulatory effects on the same cytokine-producing systems. Furthermore, when the effects of these extracts on the production of macropahage-derived inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) were assayed, the red rice bran extract caused a stimulatory effect on the IL-1alpha production from mouse macrophages induced by LPS, but did not show a significant effect on TNF-alpha production. However, the brown and black rice bran extracts exhibited significant inhibitory effects on the production of IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha in the same macrophage culture experiment. A possible mechanism of the immunomodulating activities of the rice bran extracts and the immunopharmacological significance of these findings are discussed.

Induction of multispecific Th-1 type immune response against HCV in mice by protein immunization using CpG and Montanide ISA 720 as adjuvants

Recent studies demonstrate that Th1-type immune responses against a broad spectrum of hepatitis C virus (HCV) gene products are crucial to the resolution of acute HCV infection. We investigated new vaccine approaches to augment the strength of HCV-specific Th1-type immune responses. ELISPOT assay revealed that single or multiple protein immunization using both CpG ODN and Montanide ISA 720 as adjuvants induced much stronger IFN-gamma-producing Th1 responses against core, NS3 and NS5b targets than did the formulation without these adjuvants. Protein vaccination using CpG ODN and Montanide ISA 720 as adjuvants also greatly enhanced humoral responses to HCV core, E1/E2 and NS3. When specific IgG isotypes were assayed, protein immunization using CpG ODN and Montanide ISA 720 as adjuvants produced higher titers of IgG2a dominant antibodies than did protein immunization alone, indicating a more Th1-biased pathway. This increase in IgG2a is consistent with the induction of Th1 cells secreting IFN-gamma demonstrated by ELISPOT assay. In conclusion, protein immunization using CpG ODN and Montanide ISA 720 as adjuvants greatly enhanced cellular (Th1 type) as well as humoral immune responses against HCV in Balb/c mice. The use of adjuvants appears critical to the induction of Th1 immune responses during HCV vaccination with recombinant proteins.

[Role of immunological factors in the diagnosis and prediction of intrauterine fetal infections]

Comparative analysis of the data of immunological examination of pregnant women with markers of genitourinary infections (GUI), by taking into account the etiological factor, has established unidirectional changes in the levels cytokines and neopterin (NP). At the same time, the level of NP in all the groups of examinees with GUI was higher than that of cytokines. The highest content of NP in blood and cervical canal mucus (CCM) was noted in pregnant women with GUI of viral etiology. The changes in NP levels in infections caused by various viruses were similar. The study of the levels of cytokines and NP in the peripheral blood and CCM samples yielded information on the functional activity of different types of immunocompetent cells, the magnitude of an inflammatory process, its transition to the systemic level, and on the prediction of infection development.

[The role of chemokines CCL3/ MIP-1 alfa and CCL4/ MIP-1 beta in pathogenesis of dry eye syndrome]

PURPOSE

To evaluate the concentration of chemokines CCL3/ MIP-1 alfa and CCL4/ MIP-1 beta in film tears in patients with dry eye syndrome.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Tears samples were collected from 62 patients with dry eye syndrome and 18 patients from control group. The concentration of chemokines in film tears were determined by immunoenzymatic assay ELISA.

RESULTS

We found statistically increased levels of chemokines CCL3/ MIP-1 alfa and CCL4/ MIP-1 beta in film tears of patients with dry eye syndrom compared with control group.

CONCLUSION

Inflammation may play role in pathogenesis of dry eye syndrome.

Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect an immunomodulatory alpha-D-glucan-protein complex, MPG-1, in basidiomycete Tricholoma matsutake and related processed foods

We previously isolated a novel immunomodulatory alpha-(1,4)(1,6)(1,2)- d-glucan-protein complex (MPG-1) from mycelia of Tricholoma matsutake in basidiomycetes. In the present study, we raised a polyclonal antibody by immunizing rabbits with MPG-1 and constructed a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system to examine the distribution of MPG-1 among edible mushrooms and related processed foods. The system detected MPG-1 quantitatively at concentrations of more than 10 ng/mL, with a coefficient of variation of less than 10% by intra-assay and interassay precision. Analysis with the system of chemically modified MPG-1 suggested that the sugar moiety was mainly involved in the detection. The system detected MPG-1 in the extracts of the fruiting bodies of T. matsutake but not in those of 34 other basidiomycete species. Moreover, a significant amount of MPG-1 was detected in the extracts of their cultured mycelia. The antigenic structure of MPG-1 was relatively stable in terms of pH and temperature. MPG-1 was detected in processed foods supplemented with T. matsutake. These results suggest that MPG-1 is distributed predominantly in T. matsutake species and that the ELISA system can detect it in processed foods supplemented with T. matsutake.

Reagentless aptamer based impedance biosensor for monitoring a neuro-inflammatory cytokine PDGF

Neural prostheses often suffer from undesired chronic inflammatory tissue response. This can lead to neuronal loss and formation of glial scar tissue, which would serve as a barrier to neural signal transduction. In situ monitoring of neuro-inflammatory cytokines may improve our understanding of device induced inflammatory responses. Furthermore, early detection of the onset and degree of inflammation and releasing drugs accordingly may lead to improved long term performance of such implanted devices. For this reason, biosensor applying aptamer as probe and non-faradic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (NIS) as the detection method has been developed. Aptamers, certain kinds of DNA or RNA molecules which can bind variety of molecules at high specificity, have the overwhelming advantages over antibodies of low cost and ease of use. Platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB), one of the important cytokines involved in neural inflammation, has been selected as our detection target. Binding of PDGF to its aptamer immobilized on the silicon electrode surface lead to a decrease in capacitance measured by NIS. A good linear relationship between the decrease of capacitance and the logarithm of protein concentration was obtained, which proves the feasibility of quantitative measurements. By sweeping the applied electrode potential of potentiostatic EIS, -0.1 V to +0.1 V was determined to be the optimal range for achieving best discrimination between specific target binding and non-specific protein adsorption on aptamer-modified silicon surface. Under such conditions, the specificity of the detection measured by the ratio of the positive to negative control is around 10:1 and the detection limit is approximately 1 microg/ml (40 nM). The online measurement result exhibited negligible response for non-specific adsorption but significant signal changes for the specific target. Since the non-faradic strategy does not require any reagent to be loaded when performing the test, together with the ability of online measurements, this biosensor design is promising for in vivo monitoring.

Immunomodulatory activity of an extract of the novel fungal endophyte Entrophospora infrequens isolated from Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer

A novel camptothecin-producing endophytic fungus viz., Entrophospora infrequens was isolated from an important Indian medicinal plant Nothapodytes foetida. The present study reports evaluation ofbioactivities of two novel extracts viz., chloroform (CEEI) and methanolic (MEEI) extracts of Entrophospora infrequens with respect to their immunomodulatory potential in vitro and in vivo (in Balb/c mice). The endophyte E. infrequens was found to synthesize camptothecin, which tested positive in CEEI. The immunomodulatory potential of CEEI and MEEI was compared with standard camptothecin (CPT). Doses of the chloroform extract (CEEI) ranging from 12.5-100 mg/kg body weight, significantly (p < 0.05) stimulated the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in a dose-dependent manner. MEEI on the other hand significantly (p < 0.05) stimulated the delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction (by nearly 80%), plaque forming cell (PFC) assay (33%), phagocytic response (38%) and haemagglutination antibody (HA) titre [IgM by 79.07% and IgG by 62.05%] at a dose of 12.5 mg/kg body weight. The present study is the first report of the immunomodulatory potential of this neoteric camptothecin-producing endophyte from Nothapodytes foetida.

Mediators and cytokines in allergic and viral-triggered rhinitis

Intermittent allergic rhinitis and common cold constitute frequent conditions and show similar clinical symptoms. The purpose of this study was to investigate the pattern of cytokines in the nasal fluid of patients with acute symptoms caused by allergic and viral rhinitis. Nasal secretions were analyzed by immunosorbent assay techniques using a cytokine panel assay and routine ELISA. Allergic patients had significantly higher levels of eosinophil cationic protein (ECP), interleukin (IL)-5, and tryptase. Significantly elevated concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1b, IL-6, IL-7, IL-17, interferon [IFN] gamma, and tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha) as well as chemokines for cellular infiltration (IL-8, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and macrophage inflammatory protein 1beta), factors for cellular proliferation (granulocyte colony-stimulating factor [G-CSF] and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF]), and elastase were found in viral rhinitis. IL-10 was only detectable in viral rhinitis. IL-4 was significantly higher in patients with viral rhinitis than allergic rhinitis, and IL-5 was significantly elevated in viral rhinitis compared with controls. In viral-triggered rhinitis, we detected a predominantly Th1-type cytokine pattern with potent proinflammatory mediators. Factors reflecting a neutrophil and eosinophil immune response, due to IL-5, IL-8, GM-CSF, ECP, and elastase were shown. Nasal secretions of patients with allergic rhinitis showed highest concentrations of tryptase, IL-5, and ECP, reflecting a mast cell and eosinophil immune response. Nasal secretion levels of IL-4 did not show highest levels in allergic rhinitis but did in viral rhinitis. IL-4 also may play a role in limiting inflammatory processes by inhibiting the production of inflammatory cytokines.

[Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection in children based on stool antigen test]

BACKGROUND

During infancy, preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic efforts for Helicobacter pylori infection should be made.

AIM

To evaluate non-invasive diagnostic methods such as stool antigen test (HpSA) and serum anti-H pylori antibody detection (IgG e IgA), compared to endoscopy-based invasive methods (histology and urease test) for the diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty nine children (aged 3 to 14 years, 20 males) referred for upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, were studied. The gold standard to diagnose Helicobacter pylori infection was defined as a positive invasive diagnostic test (histology and/or urease test). Sensitivity (S), specificity (E) and positive (PPV) and negative (NPV) predictive values were obtained for HpSA and serum antibodies.

RESULTS

Ten children (26%) were infected with H pylori. S, E, PPV and NPV for HpSA were 90, 100, 100 and 97%, respectively. The figures for serum IgG were 81, 97, 89 and 93%, respectively and for IgA, 90, 76, 36 and 96%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

HpSA was sensitive and specific as a clinical and epidemiological tool to evaluate H pylori infection in children. Serology was not as accurate, but IgG had a better performance than IgA.

Evaluation of salivary nitric oxide levels in oral mucosal diseases: A controlled clinical trial

Lichen planus is a common dermatologic disease to manifest in the oral cavity. Recurrent aphthous ulcers are the most common ulcers of the oral cavity causing discomfort to the patients. These two diseases have different clinical manifestations which require appropriate treatment after correct diagnosis. Though numerous etiological factors have been proposed for these diseases, their true etio-pathogenesis is not yet established and therefore all therapies are palliative and none is effective universally. In light of this, the role of nitric oxide as a mediator in the etio-pathogenesis of these diseases was considered. The present study was undertaken to note the salivary nitric oxide levels as measured through its product nitrite in oral mucosal diseases like lichen planus and recurrent aphthous ulcers and also to ascertain whether salivary nitric oxide level has a role to play as a pathophysiological mediator in these diseases

Multiplex bead array assay for detection of 25 soluble cytokines in blister fluid of patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1

Inflammatory processes are known to be involved at least in the early phase of complex regional pain syndrome type 1 (CRPS1). Blister fluid obtained from the involved extremities displayed increased amounts of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNFα compared with the noninvolved extremities. The aim of this paper is to investigate the involvement of mediators by measurement of several other cytokines using new detection techniques that enable multiple cytokine measurement in small samples. The use of a multiplex-25 bead array cytokine assay and Luminex technology enabled simultaneous measurement of representative (1) proinflammatory cytokines such as GM-CSF, IL-1β, IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α; (2) Th1/Th2 distinguishing cytokines IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-2R, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10; (3) nonspecific acting cytokines IFN-α, IL-7, IL-12p40/p70, IL-13, IL-15, and IL-17; and (4) chemokines eotaxin, IP-10, MCP-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MIG, and RANTES. Although minimal detection levels are significantly higher in the bead array system than those in common ELISA assays, in blister fluid, IL-1RA, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, IL-12p40/p70, MCP-1, and MIP-1β were detectable and increased in CRPS1 affected extremities. Levels of IL-6 and TNF-α simultaneously measured by ELISA (Sanquin Compact kit) and by multiplex-25 bead array assay (Biosource) were highly correlated (r = 0.85, P < .001 for IL-6 and r = 0.88, P < .001 for TNF-α). Furthermore, IP-10 and eotaxin were detectable but diminished in CRPS1, whereas detectable amounts of IL-10 were similar in involved and noninvolved extremities. Multiplex bead array assays are useful systems to establish the involvement of cytokines in inflammatory processes by measurements in blister fluids of CRPS1. Ten representative cytokines were detectable. However, detection levels and amounts measured are at least 3 times higher in the multiplex-25 array assay than in the ELISA assays used simultaneously for the measurement of cytokines.

Eosinophil cationic protein: is it useful in asthma? A systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) has been widely investigated as a potential biomarker of airway inflammation.

METHOD

A systematic review was performed using Medline with key terms eosinophil cationic protein and asthma, limiting the search to titles or abstracts. Out of 688 potential papers found, abstracts were reviewed based on the following criteria: (1) ECP was used as a biological marker, (2) asthma was the index disease studied, (3) it was a controlled clinical study and (4) ECP was assessed as a diagnostic, assessment or management tool. One hundred and sixty-nine articles satisfied the selection criteria and their full-text versions were reviewed. Only 53 papers were found to provide clinically useful information.

RESULTS

ECP has been measured in serum, plasma, sputum, saliva and broncho-alveolar lavage fluids but serum and sputum are the most established. Levels of ECP in normal and asthmatic subjects in various body fluids were identified. ECP correlates well with airway inflammation but not airway hyper-responsiveness. It is raised in other atopic diseases and hence is not diagnostic for asthma. However, it has been shown to be useful in assessing asthma severity, compliance with anti-inflammatory asthma therapy and as a guide to tailing down inhaled corticosteroid therapy. Although there is some evidence that ECP levels are affected by age, smoking, circadian rhythm and seasonal variation, only smoking appears to be of clinical significance.

DISCUSSION

Despite its limitations, ECP remains potentially useful in asthma management. Future research on ECP should focus on using serial measurements and combining it with other markers of asthma which may increase its clinical usefulness.