Maintenance of a positive outlook during acute stress protects against pro-inflammatory reactivity and future depressive symptoms

Baseline circulating biomarkers, their changes, and subsequent suicidal ideation and depression severity at 6 months: A prospective analysis in patients with mood disorders

BACKGROUND

Identifying circulating biomarkers associated with prospective suicidal ideation (SI) and depression could help better understand the dynamics of these phenomena and identify people in need of intense care. In this study, we investigated the associations between baseline peripheral biomarkers implicated in neuroplasticity, vascular homeostasis and inflammation, and prospective SI and depression severity during 6 months of follow-up in patients with mood disorders.

METHODS

149 patients underwent a psychiatric evaluation and gave blood to measure 32 plasma soluble proteins. At follow-up, SI incidence over six months was measured with the Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale, and depressive symptoms were assessed with the Inventory for Depressive Symptomatology. Ninety-six patients provided repeated blood samples. Statistical analyses included Spearman partial correlation and Elastic Net regression, followed by the covariate-adjusted regression models.

RESULTS

51.4 % (N = 71) of patients reported SI during follow-up. After adjustment for covariates, higher baseline levels of interferon-γ were associated with SI occurrence during follow-up. Higher baseline interferon-γ and lower orexin-A were associated with increased depression severity, and atypical and anxious, but not melancholic, symptoms. There was also a tendency for associations of elevated baseline levels of interferon-γ, interleukin-1β, and lower plasma serotonin levels with SI at the six-month follow-up time point. Meanwhile, reduction in transforming growth factor- β1 (TGF-β1) plasma concentration correlated with atypical symptoms reduction.

CONCLUSION

We identified interferon-γ and orexin-A as potential predictive biomarkers of SI and depression, whereas TGF-β1 was identified as a possible target of atypical symptoms.

The influence of everyday emotions on mucosal immunity: An intensive longitudinal modeling approach

Mucosal immunity is a multifaceted system of immunological responses that provides a barrier against pathogenic invasion and can be regulated by psychosocial and neuroendocrine factors. The present study aims to elucidate the association between everyday emotional states, emotion regulation skills, and mucosal immunity by utilizing an ambulatory assessment approach. 30 healthy subjects (61% male; M = 30.18 years old) completed an emotion questionnaire (PANAS) and collected saliva samples via passive drool to determine salivary immunoglobulin-A (S-IgA) excretion rate three times a day over a period of 1 week. In a multi-level model, the influence of emotions on S-IgA, both on a within-subject and between-subject level, was estimated. We found that most of the variation in S-IgA (74%) was accounted for by within-subject changes rather than stable between-subject differences. On a within-subject level, negative emotions had a significant positive effect on S-IgA levels (b = 1.87, p = .015), while positive emotions had no effect. This effect of negative emotions was moderated by the individual emotion regulation skills, with higher regulation skills corresponding to smaller effects (b = -2.67, p = .046). Furthermore, S-IgA levels decreased over the course of a day, indicating circadian rhythmicity (b = -0.13, p = .034). These results highlight the possibilities of intensive longitudinal data to investigate the covariance between psychological and immunological states over time.

Associations between emotion reactivity to daily interpersonal stress and acute social-evaluative stress during late adolescence

Emotion reactivity refers to the intensity of changes in positive and negative emotion following a stimulus, typically studied with respect to daily stressors (e.g., arguments, demands) or laboratory stressors, including the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Yet, it is unclear whether emotion reactivity to daily and to laboratory stressors are related. The present study examined whether greater emotion reactivity to daily stressors (i.e., arguments, demands) is associated with greater reactivity to the TSST. Late adolescents (N = 82; Mage = 18.35, SD = 0.51, range 17-19; 56.1% female; 65.9% Latine, 34.2% European American) reported whether they experienced arguments and demands with friends, family, and individuals at school and their negative and positive emotion nightly for 15 days. They also completed the TSST, a validated paradigm for eliciting social-evaluative threat, and reported their emotion at baseline and immediately post-TSST. Multilevel models examined whether daily and laboratory emotion reactivity were related by testing whether the daily associations between arguments and demands with emotion differed by emotion reactivity to the TSST. Individuals with greater positive emotion reactivity (i.e., greater reductions in positive emotion) and greater negative emotion reactivity to the TSST showed greater positive emotion reactivity to daily demands. Emotion reactivity to the TSST was not significantly related to emotion reactivity to arguments. Findings provide preliminary evidence that emotion reactivity to the TSST relates to some aspects of daily emotion reactivity, with relations differing depending on type of daily stressor and valence of emotion. Results contextualise the implications of emotion reactivity to the TSST for daily stress processes.

Cognitive decline among older adults with depressive symptoms before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Whether the COVID-19 pandemic would induce accelerated cognitive decline in individuals with depressive symptoms is undetermined.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cognitive function among older adults with depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Data were from the Health and Retirement Study. The interval between wave 13 and wave 14 was defined as the prepandemic period, and the interval between wave 14 and wave 15 was defined as the pandemic period. Linear mixed models and modified Poisson regression models were employed to compare the differences in cognitive decline and incident dementia between participants with and without depressive symptoms before and during the pandemic.

RESULTS

A total of 9304 participants were included. During the prepandemic period, no significant difference was observed in changes in cognitive scores between participants with and without depressive symptoms. During the pandemic period, an accelerated decline in cognitive scores was found between the two groups (global cognition: -0.25, 95 % CI: -0.41 to -0.08, P = 0.004; memory: -0.16, 95 % CI: -0.31 to -0.02, P = 0.030; executive function: -0.08, 95 % CI: -0.15 to -0.02, P = 0.014). Participants with depressive symptoms had a higher risk of developing dementia during the pandemic (RR: 1.48, 95 % CI: 1.17 to 1.88, P < 0.001).

LIMITATIONS

Causal relationship cannot be concluded due to the observational study design.

CONCLUSIONS

Older adults with depressive symptoms suffered more severe cognitive deterioration and had a higher risk of incident dementia during the pandemic, underscoring the need to provide cognitive monitoring and interventions for those with depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Longitudinal association between positive affect and blood lipids in patients following acute myocardial infarction

OBJECTIVE

Unfavorable blood lipid profiles are robust risk factors in predicting atherosclerotic disease. Studies have shown that positive affect (PA) is associated with a favorable lipid profile. However, longitudinal studies regarding the course of PA and lipid profiles in myocardial infarction (MI) patients are lacking. Therefore, the aim of this study was to prospectively explore the association between PA and blood lipid levels across three inv estigations over 12 months following acute MI.

METHODS

Patients following an acute MI were examined at hospital admission (n = 190), and at 3 months (n = 154) and 12 months (n = 106) thereafter. Linear mixed effect regression models were used to evaluate the relation between PA, assessed with the Global Mood Scale, and blood lipid levels. Potential confounding variables were controlled for in the analysis.

RESULTS

Higher PA was significantly associated with higher high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels and a lower total cholesterol (TC)/HDL-C ratio over time, independent of demographic factors, indices of cardiac disease severity, comorbidity, medication use, health behaviors, serum cortisol and negative affect (p≤0.040). No association was found between PA and the two blood lipids low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides (TG).

CONCLUSIONS

Positive affect was independently associated with HDL-C levels and the TC/HDL-C ratio in patients up to 1 year after MI. The findings support a potential role of PA for cardiovascular health through an association with a favorable blood lipid profile.

Sleep and Healthy Aging Research on Depression (SHARE-D) randomized controlled trial: Protocol overview of an experimental model of depression with insomnia, inflammation, and affect mechanisms in older adults

Depression, one of the most common diseases in older adults, carries significant risk for morbidity and mortality. Because of the burgeoning population of older adults, the enormous burden of late-life depression, and the limited efficacy of current antidepressants in older adults, biologically plausible models that translate into selective depression prevention strategies are needed. Insomnia predicts depression recurrence and is a modifiable target to prevent incident and recurrent depression in older adults. Yet, it is not known how insomnia gets converted into biological- and affective risk for depression, which is critical for identification of molecular targets for pharmacologic interventions, and for refinement of insomnia treatments that target affective responding to improve efficacy. Sleep disturbance activates inflammatory signaling and primes immune responses to subsequent inflammatory challenge. In turn, inflammatory challenge induces depressive symptoms, which correlate with activation of brain regions implicated in depression. This study hypothesizes that insomnia serves as a vulnerability factor for inflammation-related depression; older adults with insomnia will show heightened inflammatory- and affective responding to inflammatory challenge as compared to those without insomnia. To test this hypothesis, this protocol paper describes a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind study of low dose endotoxin in older adults (n = 160; 60-80 y) with insomnia vs. comparison controls without insomnia. The aims of this study are to examine differences in depressive symptoms, measures of negative affective responding, and measures of positive affective responding as a function of insomnia and inflammatory challenge. If the hypotheses are confirmed, older adults with two "hits", insomnia and inflammatory activation, would represent a high risk group to be prioritized for monitoring and for depression prevention efforts using treatments that target insomnia or inflammation. Moreover, this study will inform the development of mechanism-based treatments that target affect responses in addition to sleep behaviors, and which might also be coupled with efforts to reduce inflammation to optimize efficacy of depression prevention.

Targeting the cannabinoid system to counteract the deleterious effects of stress in Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized histologically in postmortem human brains by the presence of dense protein accumulations known as amyloid plaques and tau tangles. Plaques and tangles develop over decades of aberrant protein processing, post-translational modification, and misfolding throughout an individual’s lifetime. We present a foundation of evidence from the literature that suggests chronic stress is associated with increased disease severity in Alzheimer’s patient populations. Taken together with preclinical evidence that chronic stress signaling can precipitate cellular distress, we argue that chronic psychological stress renders select circuits more vulnerable to amyloid- and tau- related abnormalities. We discuss the ongoing investigation of systemic and cellular processes that maintain the integrity of protein homeostasis in health and in degenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease that have revealed multiple potential therapeutic avenues. For example, the endogenous cannabinoid system traverses the central and peripheral neural systems while simultaneously exerting anti-inflammatory influence over the immune response in the brain and throughout the body. Moreover, the cannabinoid system converges on several stress-integrative neuronal circuits and critical regions of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, with the capacity to dampen responses to psychological and cellular stress. Targeting the cannabinoid system by influencing endogenous processes or exogenously stimulating cannabinoid receptors with natural or synthetic cannabis compounds has been identified as a promising route for Alzheimer’s Disease intervention. We build on our foundational framework focusing on the significance of chronic psychological and cellular stress on the development of Alzheimer’s neuropathology by integrating literature on cannabinoid function and dysfunction within Alzheimer’s Disease and conclude with remarks on optimal strategies for treatment potential.

Ibudilast moderates the effect of mood on alcohol craving during stress exposure

Neuroinflammation is implicated in the development and maintenance of alcohol use disorder (AUD) and neuroimmune therapeutics show promise in treating AUD. Proinflammatory signaling contributes to progressive elevations in the dysfunction of mood and alcohol craving. The current study sought to examine potential biobehavioral mechanisms of neuroimmune modulation in AUD under experimental conditions. In a community sample of individuals with AUD who completed a placebo-controlled crossover trial of ibudilast, we tested the effect of ibudilast on the relationship between mood states and alcohol craving. Multilevel modeling analyses tested the hypothesis that ibudilast would moderate the effect of positive and negative mood states on alcohol craving during stress and cue exposures. Results revealed that after stress-induction, participants' feelings of depression and happiness were more strongly predictive of their craving for alcohol while taking ibudilast as compared with placebo (ps < .03). These results suggest that with neuroimmune modulation, positive and negative mood states may have a stronger influence on one's desire to drink, such that craving may be more mood dependent. No moderating effect of ibudilast on mood states and craving were observed after alcohol cue exposure. Given the potential of anti-inflammatory treatments to reduce depressive symptomatology, this strengthened relationship between mood and craving under ibudilast might reduce the likelihood of stress-related craving and subsequent drinking over time. Moreover, ibudilast may enhance the benefits of happiness, such that maintaining positive mood in the face of acute stress may attenuate craving. Future trials directly testing the clinical implications of these mechanistic findings are warranted. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Inflammatory stress responses and future mental health outcomes in people with type 2 diabetes

Background

Inflammatory dysregulation may be linked with mental health disturbances in people with Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), however no previous studies have examined longitudinal associations between inflammatory stress responses and mental health outcomes in T2D.

Purpose

To better understand the biological mechanisms that might predispose people with T2D to poor mental health in the future.

Methods

At baseline, 140 participants with T2D participated in a laboratory stress testing study (mean age = 64 years). Participants underwent two mental stress tasks and blood was sampled before and up to 45 min post-stress to detect plasma interleukin (IL)-6. The Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale and the Short Form-36 Health Survey were completed at baseline and 7.5 years later. We tested associations between IL-6 stress responses and a) depression symptoms and b) mental health-related quality of life (QoL) at baseline and at follow-up using linear regression analyses adjusting for age, sex, and body mass index (BMI). Results: Up to 66 participants provided follow-up data. In cross-sectional analyses, increased IL-6 stress responses immediately post-task were associated with lower mental health-related quality of life (B = -21.73, p = 0.005, 95% CI [-36.82, -6.63]) adjusting for age, sex, and BMI. In longitudinal analyses, increased IL-6 stress responses at 45 min post-task were associated with increased depressive symptoms (B = 10.31 p = 0.048, 95% CI [0.10, 20.51]) and decreased mental health-related QoL (B = -21.18 p = 0.031, 95% CI [-40.34, -2.02]) adjusting for age, sex, and BMI. The association between the 45-min IL-6 response and depressive symptoms at follow-up was diminished after further adjustment for physical health-related QoL and baseline depressive symptoms (B = 10.14, p = 0.055, 95% CI [-0.21,20.48]).

Conclusions

This study supports the link between inflammatory stress responsivity and future mental health outcomes in people with T2D. Further research involving a larger sample size is required.

Open and reproducible science practices in psychoneuroendocrinology: Opportunities to foster scientific progress

This perspective article was written by invitation of the editors in chief as a summary and extension of the symposium entitled Psychoneuroendocrine Research in the Era of the Replication Crisis which was held at the virtual meeting of the International Society of Psychoneuroendocrinology 2021. It highlights the opportunities presented by the application of open and reproducible scientific practices in psychoneuroendocrinology (PNE), an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of psychology, endocrinology, immunology, neurology, and psychiatry. It conveys an introduction to the topics preregistration, registered reports, quantifying the impact of equally-well justifiable analysis decisions, and open data and scripts, while emphasizing 'selfish' reasons to adopt such practices as individual researcher. Complementary to the call for adoption of open science practices, we highlight the need for methodological best practice guidelines in the field of PNE, which could further contribute to enhancing replicability of results. We propose concrete steps for future actions and provide links to additional resources for those interested in adopting open and reproducible science practices in future studies.

Interplay of Environmental, Individual and Genetic Factors in Rheumatoid Arthritis Provocation

In this review, we explore systemization of knowledge about the triggering effects of non-genetic factors in pathogenic mechanisms that contribute to the development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Possible mechanisms involving environmental and individual factors in RA pathogenesis were analyzed, namely, infections, mental stress, sleep deprivation ecology, age, perinatal and gender factors, eating habits, obesity and smoking. The non-genetic factors modulate basic processes in the body with the impact of these factors being non-specific, but these common challenges may be decisive for advancement of the disease in the predisposed body at risk for RA. The provocation of this particular disease is associated with the presence of congenital loci minoris resistentia. The more frequent non-genetic factors form tangles of interdependent relationships and, thereby, several interdependent external factors hit one vulnerable basic process at once, either provoking or reinforcing each other. Understanding the specific mechanisms by which environmental and individual factors impact an individual under RA risk in the preclinical stages can contribute to early disease diagnosis and, if the factor is modifiable, might be useful for the prevention or delay of its development.

Effects of Long-Term Enclosed Environment on Human Health Based on the Analysis of Salivary Microbiota and Cytokines

The long-term exposure to enclosed environments may lead to chronic stress in crewmembers and affect their physical and mental state. Salivary microbiome and biomarkers of immune function are increasingly used in human health research. The "Lunar Palace 365" project, which was a 370-day, multicrew, enclosed experiment carried out in a ground-based bioregenerative life support system platform named Lunar Palace 1 (LP1). We investigated the temporal dynamics of the salivary microbiota and cytokines in the third phase of the "Lunar Palace 365" experiment, including 1 month before entering LP1 and 1 month after leaving Lp1. Results reveal no regular temporal change pattern in these parameters (highly abundant phyla and genera) during the experiment. Although the crewmembers' oral microbiota temporally changed, it recovered quickly after the study subjects left the enclosed environment. The levels of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α in crewmembers' saliva decreased after leaving the normal environment for the enclosed environment, indicating that their oral inflammatory response level was reduced. There were significant individual differences in crewmembers' salivary microbiota, however, the shared living space reduced these differences. Moreover, air microbiota might have also played a significant role in reducing the individual differences. In summary, the enclosed environment did not result in persistent changes in human salivary microbiota and oral immunity. This study provides some insights for studying the effect of enclosed controlled environments on human immunity and microbiome. IMPORTANCE Long-term exposure to space environments may influence the human microbiome, the human immune system, and the intricate balance between the two, causing impaired immunity and increased disease susceptibility. It was previously believed that the main potential factors of long-term spaceflight on human health were microgravity and radiation. However, the effects of long-term enclosed environments on human health were unclear. Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) is a good experimental model for studying the effects of enclosed environments on human systemic microbiota and immune disorders. We monitored the microbiota and cytokines in the saliva of crewmembers before they entered BLSS, during their stay in BLSS, and after leaving BLSS. The results indicated long-term closed environment will not cause persistent changes in human salivary microbiota and immunity.

An immunogenomic phenotype predicting behavioral treatment response: Toward precision psychiatry for mothers and children with trauma exposure

Inflammatory pathways predict antidepressant treatment non-response among individuals with major depression; yet, this phenomenon may have broader transdiagnostic and transtherapeutic relevance. Among trauma-exposed mothers (M_age = 32 years) and their young children (M_age = 4 years), we tested whether genomic and proteomic biomarkers of pro-inflammatory imbalance prospectively predicted treatment response (PTSD and depression) to an empirically-supported behavioral treatment. Forty-three mother-child dyads without chronic disease completed Child Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) for roughly 9 months. Maternal blood was drawn pre-treatment, CD14 + monocytes isolated, gene expression derived from RNA sequencing (n = 34; Illumina HiSeq 4000;TruSeqcDNA library), and serum assayed (n = 43) for C-Reactive Protein (CRP) and interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß). Symptoms of PTSD and depression decreased significantly from pre- to post-treatment for both mothers and children (all p's < 0.01). Nonetheless, a higher pre-treatment maternal pro-inflammatory imbalance of M1-like versus M2-like macrophage-associated RNA expression (M1/M2) (ß = 0.476, p = .004) and IL-1ß (ß=0.333, p = .029), but not CRP, predicted lesser improvements in maternal PTSD symptoms, unadjusted and adjusting for maternal age, BMI, ethnicity, antidepressant use, income, education, and US birth. Only higher pre-treatment M1/M2 predicted a clinically-relevant threshold of PTSD non-response among mothers (OR = 3.364, p = .015; ROC-AUC = 0.78). Additionally, higher M1/M2 predicted lesser decline in maternal depressive symptoms (ß = 0.556, p = .001), though not independent of PTSD symptoms. For child outcomes, higher maternal IL-1ß significantly predicted poorer PTSD and depression symptom trajectories (ß's = 0.318-0.429, p's < 0.01), while M1/M2 and CRP were marginally associated with poorer PTSD symptom improvement (ß's = 0.295-0.333, p's < 0.056). Pre-treatment pro-inflammatory imbalance prospectively predicts poorer transdiagnostic symptom response to an empirically-supported behavioral treatment for trauma-exposed women and their young children.

Frequent Interpersonal Stress and Inflammatory Reactivity Predict Depressive-Symptom Increases: Two Tests of the Social-Signal-Transduction Theory of Depression

The social-signal-transduction theory of depression asserts that people who experience ongoing interpersonal stressors and mount a greater inflammatory response to social stress are at higher risk for depression. The current study tested this theory in two adult samples. In Study 1, physically healthy adults (N = 76) who reported more frequent interpersonal tension had heightened depressive symptoms at Visit 2, but only if they had greater inflammatory reactivity to a marital conflict at Visit 1. Similarly, in Study 2, depressive symptoms increased among lonelier and less socially supported breast-cancer survivors (N = 79). This effect was most pronounced among participants with higher inflammatory reactivity to a social-evaluative stressor at Visit 1. In both studies, noninterpersonal stress did not interact with inflammatory reactivity to predict later depressive symptoms.

Inflammation and Cognition in Depression: A Narrative Review

The authors aim to present a narrative review of research on the inflammatory aetiology of depression. Depression is a psychiatric disorder, constituting the most common reason of disability due to a health condition. It has been estimated that at least one in six people suffer from depression at some point of their lives. The aetiology of depression, although researched extensively all around the world, still remains unclear. Authors discuss the possible role of inflammation in depression, the neurodevelopmental theory of depression as well as associations between cognition and depression. Possible associations between memory dysfunction among depressive patients and inflammatory markers are included. The associations between the immune system, depression and cognition are observed. Possible mediating factors between these areas include personality traits, hormonal imbalance and functioning of the brain areas. The question as to what mediating factors are involved is still open to research.

Boosting stress resilience using flexibility as a framework to reduce depression risk

Stress exposure is inevitable, and major life events often precede depression onset. However, a majority do not develop depression after a major life event. Inflexible physiological responses to stress, in which the magnitude or duration is disproportionate to the stressor, may increase risk for depression - especially in the context of frequent or repetitive stress. Although past psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) research focused primarily on stress response magnitude, two relatively recent stress theories - the Perseverative Cognition Hypothesis and Generalized Unsafety Theory - shift the focus to response duration, including anticipatory reactivity and poor recovery. Using these theories as framework, this article reviews evidence suggesting that psychological inflexibility, such as perseverative cognition, and the inability to recognize safety promote heightened and prolonged (i.e., inflexible) physiological stress responses. Moreover, interventions that increase psychological flexibility or safety recognition may foster more flexible physiological responses to psychological stress. By adopting the lens of flexibility to examine physiological responses to stress, PNI will speak the same language as clinical psychology, which has identified inflexibility as an etiological and maintenance factor of depression.

Psychobiology of Stress and Adolescent Depression (PSY SAD) Study: Protocol overview for an fMRI-based multi-method investigation

Depression is a common, often recurrent disorder that causes substantial disease burden worldwide, and this is especially true for women following the pubertal transition. According to the Social Signal Transduction Theory of Depression, stressors involving social stress and rejection, which frequently precipitate major depressive episodes, induce depressive symptoms in vulnerable individuals in part by altering the activity and connectivity of stress-related neural pathways, and by upregulating components of the immune system involved in inflammation. To test this theory, we recruited adolescent females at high and low risk for depression and assessed their psychological, neural, inflammatory, and genomic responses to a brief (10 minute) social stress task, in addition to trait psychological and microbial factors affecting these responses. We then followed these adolescents longitudinally to investigate how their multi-level stress responses at baseline were related to their biological aging at baseline, and psychosocial and clinical functioning over one year. In this protocol paper, we describe the theoretical motivations for conducting this study as well as the sample, study design, procedures, and measures. Ultimately, our aim is to elucidate how social adversity influences the brain and immune system to cause depression, one of the most common and costly of all disorders.

The levels of soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) in saliva are influenced by acute stress

Although elevations in systemic suPAR levels have been associated with inflammatory conditions and with exposure to life stress and adversity, it is not yet clear whether acute psychological stress influences suPAR levels, either systemically and/or in saliva. The aim of this study was to investigate whether salivary suPAR levels are increased following exposure to acute psychological stress. Healthy subjects, aged 18-40 years, completed a laboratory psychological stressor and provided saliva samples before and after the stress test (60 min apart). Levels of suPAR as well as those of cytokines increased in the post-stress samples (all ps < .001). Baseline and post-stress IL-1β and TNF-α as well as post-stress IL-6 correlated significantly with suPAR (all ps < .01), but IL-10 and baseline IL-6 did not. These results show that suPAR levels in saliva are stress-reactive and suggest a potential application as stress biomarkers in saliva, particularly given the advantage of easily detectable concentrations.

Adversity in early life and pregnancy are immunologically distinct from total life adversity: macrophage-associated phenotypes in women exposed to interpersonal violence

Early childhood and pregnancy are two sensitive periods of heightened immune plasticity, when exposure to adversity may disproportionately increase health risks. However, we need deeper phenotyping to disentangle the impact of adversity during sensitive periods from that across the total lifespan. This study examined whether retrospective reports of adversity during childhood or pregnancy were associated with inflammatory imbalance, in an ethnically diverse cohort of 53 low-income women seeking family-based trauma treatment following exposure to interpersonal violence. Structured interviews assessed early life adversity (trauma exposure ≤ age 5), pregnancy adversity, and total lifetime adversity. Blood serum was assayed for pro-inflammatory (TNF-a, IL-1ß, IL-6, and CRP) and anti-inflammatory (IL-1RA, IL-4, and IL-10) cytokines. CD14+ monocytes were isolated in a subsample (n = 42) and gene expression assayed by RNA sequencing (Illumina HiSeq 4000; TruSeq cDNA library). The primary outcome was a macrophage-associated M1/M2 gene expression phenotype. To evaluate sensitivity and specificity, we contrasted M1/M2 gene expression with a second, clinically-validated macrophage-associated immunosuppressive phenotype (endotoxin tolerance) and with pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels. Adjusting for demographics, socioeconomic status, and psychopathology, higher adversity in early life (ß = .337, p = 0.029) and pregnancy (ß = .332, p = 0.032) were each associated with higher M1/M2 gene expression, whereas higher lifetime adversity (ß = -.341, p = 0.031) was associated with lower immunosuppressive gene expression. Adversity during sensitive periods was uniquely associated with M1/M2 imbalance, among low-income women with interpersonal violence exposure. Given that M1/M2 imbalance is found in sepsis, severe COVID-19 and myriad chronic diseases, these findings implicate novel immune mechanisms underlying the impact of adversity on health.

Omega-3 supplementation and stress reactivity of cellular aging biomarkers: an ancillary substudy of a randomized, controlled trial in midlife adults

Higher levels of omega-3 track with longer telomeres, lower inflammation, and blunted sympathetic and cardiovascular stress reactivity. Whether omega-3 supplementation alters the stress responsivity of telomerase, cortisol, and inflammation is unknown. This randomized, controlled trial examined the impact of omega-3 supplementation on cellular aging-related biomarkers following a laboratory speech stressor. In total, 138 sedentary, overweight, middle-aged participants (n = 93 women, n = 45 men) received either 2.5 g/d of omega-3, 1.25 g/d of omega-3, or a placebo for 4 months. Before and after the trial, participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test. Saliva and blood samples were collected once before and repeatedly after the stressor to measure salivary cortisol, telomerase in peripheral blood lymphocytes, and serum anti-inflammatory (interleukin-10; IL-10) and pro-inflammatory (interleukin-6; IL-6, interleukin-12, tumor necrosis factor-alpha) cytokines. Adjusting for pre-supplementation reactivity, age, sagittal abdominal diameter, and sex, omega-3 supplementation altered telomerase (p = 0.05) and IL-10 (p = 0.05) stress reactivity; both supplementation groups were protected from the placebo group's 24% and 26% post-stress declines in the geometric means of telomerase and IL-10, respectively. Omega-3 also reduced overall cortisol (p = 0.03) and IL-6 (p = 0.03) throughout the stressor; the 2.5 g/d group had 19% and 33% lower overall cortisol levels and IL-6 geometric mean levels, respectively, compared to the placebo group. By lowering overall inflammation and cortisol levels during stress and boosting repair mechanisms during recovery, omega-3 may slow accelerated aging and reduce depression risk. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00385723.

Predictive value of vascular response to cuff inflation-induced pain in the control arm for adverse cardiovascular events

Background

The high incidence rate of cardiovascular (CV) events had led to a comprehensive appraisal for identifying patients who are at risk for CV disease. However, CV traditional risk factors, such as Framingham risk score (FRS), failed exhaustively to predict CV events.

Methods

402 participants (mean age, 58 [12] years; 45% male) using fingertip peripheral artery tonometry at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, were recruited in the present study. Measurements included reactive hyperemia index (RHI) and pain-induced peripheral artery tonometry (PIPAT).

Results

After a median follow-up of 3.8 (2.7–7.7) years, 95 CV events occurred. Both first minute PIPAT and RHI were independently associated with events (hazard ratio [HR], 0.77 [95% CI, 0.61–0.98]; P = 0.038 and HR, 0.75 [95% CI, 0.59–0.96]; P = 0.019, respectively). The C statistic values of FRS, FRS + first minute PIPAT, FRS + RHI, and FRS + RHI + first minute PIPAT were 0.704, 0.722, 0.694, and 0.726, respectively. Furthermore, the addition of first minute PIPAT, RHI, and first minute PIPAT + RHI to FRS results in net reclassification improvement (NRI) in the intermediate-risk group (18.1%, P = 0.031; 18.1%, P = 0.035; 21%, P = 0.013).

Conclusion

First minute PIPAT is a risk marker for adverse CV. Addition of first minute PIPAT to FRS increased the discrimination in the receiver operating characteristic analysis. It also increased NRI compared with FRS alone.

Depression, Estrogens, and Neuroinflammation: A Preclinical Review of Ketamine Treatment for Mood Disorders in Women

Ketamine has been shown to acutely and rapidly ameliorate depression symptoms and suicidality. Given that women suffer from major depression at twice the rate of men, it is important to understand how ketamine works in the female brain. This review explores three themes. First, it examines our current understanding of the etiology of depression in women. Second, it examines preclinical research on ketamine's antidepressant effects at a neurobiological level as well as how ovarian hormones present a unique challenge in interpreting these findings. Lastly, the neuroinflammatory hypothesis of depression is highlighted to help better understand how ovarian hormones might interact with ketamine in the female brain.

Positive affect and peripheral inflammatory markers among adults: A narrative review

BACKGROUND

Previous research suggests that positive affect (PA) may promote health and longevity and that one potential mechanism involves inflammation. However, it remains unclear to what extent PA is associated with specific inflammatory markers and whether such associations are driven by main effects of PA and/or due to PA operating as a stress-buffer.

METHODS

The present narrative review incorporates studies (N = 28) that have examined the association between PA and peripheral inflammatory markers obtained using venous puncture or dried blood spots. We separate results by whether the study tested direct effects or stress-buffering, and by type of inflammatory marker [including C-reactive protein (CRP), and proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines], also paying close attention to type of PA assessment (state, aggregated state, or retrospective, the latter involving recall over one to two weeks), and study design (cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental).

RESULTS

Limited evidence suggests that studies were more supportive of a stress-buffering association, compared to a relatively direct association. When significant direct associations were observed, results suggested that studies using measures of state/aggregated PA exhibited more consistent associations with inflammatory markers than studies using retrospective PA. When significant, higher PA tended to be associated with lower pro- and anti-inflammatory markers, suggestive of lower overall inflammatory load.

DISCUSSION

Recommendations for the field and future research are discussed, including the value of utilizing state/aggregated PA measures and of examining stress-buffering mechanisms.

Glucocorticoids prime the inflammatory response of human hippocampal cells through up-regulation of inflammatory pathways

Increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and an overactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis have both been implicated in the pathogenesis of depression. However, these explanations appear contradictory because glucocorticoids are well recognised for their anti-inflammatory effects. Two hypotheses exist to resolve this paradox: the mediating presence of glucocorticoid receptor resistance, or the possibility that glucocorticoids can potentiate inflammatory processes in some circumstances. We sought to investigate these hypotheses in a cell model with significant relevance to depression: human hippocampal progenitor cells. We demonstrated that dexamethasone in vitro given for 24 hours and followed by a 24 hours rest interval before an immune challenge potentiates inflammatory effects in these neural cells, that is, increases the IL-6 protein secretion induced by stimulation with IL-1β (10 ng/mL for 24 hours) by + 49% (P < 0.05) at a concentration of 100 nM and by + 70% (P < 0.01) for 1 μM. These effects are time- and dose-dependent and require activation of the glucocorticoid receptor. Gene expression microarray assays using Human Gene 2.1st Array Strips demonstrated that glucocorticoid treatment up-regulated several innate immune genes, including chemokines and Nod-like receptor, NLRP6; using transcription factor binding motifs we found limited evidence that glucocorticoid resistance was induced in the cells. Our data suggests a mechanism by which stress may prime the immune system for increased inflammation and suggests that stress and inflammation may be synergistic in the pathogenesis of depression.

Characterization of Cortisol Dysregulation in Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndromes: A State-Space Approach

OBJECTIVE

Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) are complicated medical disorders, with little known etiologies. The purpose of this research is to characterize FMS and CFS by studying the variations in cortisol secretion patterns, timings, amplitudes, the number of underlying pulses, as well as infusion and clearance rates of cortisol.

METHODS

Using a physiological state-space model with plausible constraints, we estimate the hormonal secretory events and the physiological system parameters (i.e., infusion and clearance rates).

RESULTS

Our results show that the clearance rate of cortisol is lower in FMS patients as compared to their matched healthy individuals based on a simplified cortisol secretion model. Moreover, the number, magnitude, and energy of hormonal secretory events are lower in FMS patients. During early morning hours, the magnitude and energy of the hormonal secretory events are higher in CFS patients.

CONCLUSION

Due to lower cortisol clearance rate, there is a higher accumulation of cortisol in FMS patients as compared to their matched healthy subjects. As the FMS patient accumulates higher cortisol residues, internal inhibitory feedback regulates the hormonal secretory events. Therefore, the FMS patients show a lower number, magnitude, and energy of hormonal secretory events. Though CFS patients have the same number of secretory events, they secrete lower quantities during early morning hours. When we compare the results for CFS patients against FMS patients, we observe different cortisol alteration patterns.

SIGNIFICANCE

Characterizing CFS and FMS based on the cortisol alteration will help us to develop novel methods for treating these disorders.

Heart rate variability: Can it serve as a marker of mental health resilience?: Special Section on "Translational and Neuroscience Studies in Affective Disorders" Section Editor, Maria Nobile MD, PhD

BACKGROUND

Stress resilience influences mental well-being and vulnerability to psychiatric disorders. Usually, measurement of resilience is based on subjective reports, susceptible to biases. It justifies the need for objective biological/physiological biomarkers of resilience. One promising candidate as biomarker of mental health resilience (MHR) is heart rate variability (HRV). The evidence for its use was reviewed in this study.

METHODS

We focused on the relationship between HRV (as measured through decomposition of RR intervals from electrocardiogram) and responses to laboratory stressors in individuals without medical and psychiatric diseases. We conducted a bibliographic search of publications in the PubMed for January 2010-September 2018.

RESULTS

Eight studies were included. High vagally mediated HRV before and/or during stressful laboratory tasks was associated with enhanced cognitive resilience to competitive/self-control challenges, appropriate emotional regulation during emotional tasks, and better modulation of cortisol, cardiovascular and inflammatory responses during psychosocial/mental tasks.

LIMITATIONS

All studies were cross-sectional, restricting conclusions that can be made. Most studies included only young participants, with some samples of only males or females, and a limited array of HRV indexes. Ecological validity of stressful laboratory tasks remains unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

Vagally mediated HRV may serve as a global index of an individual's flexibility and adaptability to stressors. This supports the idea of HRV as a plausible, noninvasive, and easily applicable biomarker of MHR. In future longitudinal studies, the implementation of wearable health devices, able to record HRV in naturalistic contexts of real-life, may be a valuable strategy to gain more reliable insight into this topic.

Interpersonal capitalization moderates the associations of chronic caregiving stress and depression with inflammation

Chronic stress and depression can enhance chronic low-grade inflammation. Interpersonal factors may buffer the impact of stress and depression on inflammation. Interpersonal capitalization is a social support process in which one discloses positive personal events and experiences to close others. Greater capitalization may attenuate the deleterious impact of chronic stress and depression. The goal of the current study was to assess whether interpersonal capitalization is associated with inflammation and whether it moderates the association of chronic stress and depression with inflammation. In this cross-sectional study of chronic caregiving stress, 222 caregiving mothers of adolescents with developmental disabilities or comparison mothers of typically developing adolescents completed a self-reported daily diary assessment of capitalization, the Center for Epidemiological Study-Depression scale, and provided blood samples to assess interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and C-reactive protein, three circulating inflammatory markers. Regression analysis indicated that there was no main effect of capitalization on inflammation, p = .24, R² = .006. However, there was a significant three-way interaction among capitalization, chronic caregiving stress, and depressive symptoms, p = .01, R² = .02. Among participants with lower capitalization, greater depressive symptoms were associated with higher inflammation in the caregiving group, but not in the comparison group. Among participants with higher capitalization, greater depressive symptoms were no longer significantly associated with higher inflammation among caregivers, but were marginally related to inflammation in the comparison group. Capitalization may thus be an interpersonal process mitigating the effects of chronic stress and depression on inflammation.

Executive Control, Cytokine Reactivity to Social Stress, and Depressive Symptoms: Testing the Social Signal Transduction Theory of Depression

Social Signal Transduction Theory of Depression hypothesizes that social stress upregulates inflammatory activity, which in turn contributes to depression for some individuals. However, the specific cognitive processes underlying social stress-induced increases in inflammatory activity remain unclear. We addressed this issue by examining two separate relations: (1) between executive control measured following a laboratory-based social stress induction and individuals' pro-inflammatory cytokine responses to the same stress induction and (2) between pro-inflammatory cytokine responses and participants' depressive symptom levels. Healthy young participants (Mage = 18.58 years old) were randomly assigned to either a stress condition or control condition. Executive control, and the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, were measured before and after the social stress induction or control task. Regression analyses (stress condition, n = 20; control condition, n = 16) demonstrated that in the stress condition only, greater increases in interleukin-6 were associated with more depressive symptoms. Additional analyses in the stress condition (n = 16) indicated that greater impairment in executive control following the social stress induction was related to greater social stress-induced increases in interleukin-6. These findings are consistent with Social Signal Transduction Theory of Depression and with the hypothesis that impairment in executive control during times of stress may be one process that contributes to stress-induced inflammatory activity, which may in turn increase risk for depression.Lay SummarySocial Signal Transduction Theory of Depression hypothesizes that social stress upregulates inflammatory activity, which in turn contributes to depression, and that cognitive processes play a role in structuring these effects. Consistent with this theory, greater social stress-induced increases in the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 were associated with more depressive symptoms. In addition, greater impairment in executive control following the social stress induction was related to greater social stress-induced increases in interleukin-6, highlighting potential links between social stress, cognition, inflammation, and depression.

The longitudinal relationship between changes in wellbeing and inflammatory markers: Are associations independent of depression?

OBJECTIVES

There is a large literature linking inflammation with mental ill health, but a much smaller literature focusing on mental wellbeing. Specifically, it remains unclear whether mental wellbeing is longitudinally and independently associated with inflammation or only via associated changes in mental ill health.

METHODS

This study used data from 8780 adults aged 50+ in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Hedonic wellbeing (both positive affect and life satisfaction) and eudemonic wellbeing (self-realisation and control-autonomy) were measured at data collection waves 2 (2004/05), 4 (2008/09) and 6 (20012/13), along with measures of C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen and white blood cells (WBC). Fixed effects modelling was performed to identify the longitudinal relationship between wellbeing and inflammation, adjusting for time-varying mental ill health and other identified confounders.

RESULTS

Both measured aspects of hedonic wellbeing were associated with lower WBC count, independent of mental ill health. For life satisfaction, this relationship was explained by confounders, whilst for positive affect it persisted. Both measured aspects of eudemonic wellbeing were associated with lower CRP, fibrinogen and WBC, independent of mental ill health. For control-autonomy, this relationship was explained by confounders, whilst for self-realisation it persisted. Results were present in both men and women, although more strongly in men, and were robust to a range of sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

This study builds on the strong literature showing a relationship between mental ill health and inflammation by showing that there is also an apparently independent relationship between mental wellbeing, in particular eudemonic wellbeing, and inflammation that is unexplained by socio-economic or other time-constant factors and in some instances persists independent of time-varying confounders.

Protective Effects of Ursolic Acid Against Cytotoxicity Induced by Corticosterone: Role of Protein Kinases

Neuronal hippocampal death can be induced by exacerbated levels of cortisol, a condition usually observed in patients with Major depressive disorder (MDD). Previous in vitro and in vivo studies showed that ursolic acid (UA) elicits antidepressant and neuroprotective properties. However, the protective effects of UA against glucocorticoid-induced cytotoxicity have never been addressed. Using an in vitro model of hippocampal cellular death induced by elevated levels of corticosterone, we investigated if UA prevents corticosterone-induced cytotoxicity in HT22 mouse hippocampal derived cells. Concentrations lower than 25 µM UA did not alter cell viability. Co-incubation with UA for 48 h was able to protect HT22 cells from the reduction on cell viability and from the increase in apoptotic cells induced by corticosterone. Inhibition of protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC) and, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), but not phosphoinositide 3-kinase(PI3K), by using the pharmacological the inhibitors: H-89, chelerythrine, KN-62, and LY294002, respectively totally abolished the cytoprotective effects of UA. Finally, UA abrogated the reduction in phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) but not in phospho-c-Jun kinases induced by corticosterone. These results indicate that the protective effect of UA against the cytotoxicity induced by corticosterone in HT22 cells may involve PKA, PKC, CaMKII, and ERK1/2 activation. The cytoprotective potential of UA against corticosterone-induced cytotoxicity and its ability to modulate intracellular signaling pathways involved in cell proliferation and survival suggest that UA may be a relevant strategy to manage stress-related disorders such as MDD.

Cultivating a healthy neuro‐immune network: A health psychology approach

The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) examines interactions among psychological and behavioral states, the brain, and the immune system. Research in PNI has elegantly documented effects of stress at multiple levels of the neuro-immune network, with profound implications for both physical and mental health. In this review, we consider how the neuro-immune network might be influenced by "positive" psychological and behavioral states, focusing on positive affect, eudaimonic well-being, physical activity, and sleep. There is compelling evidence that these positive states and behaviors are associated with changes in immune activity in the body, including reductions in peripheral inflammatory processes relevant for physical health. Growing evidence from animal models also suggests effects of positive states on immune cells in the brain and the blood-brain barrier, which then impact critical aspects of mood, cognition, and behavior. Tremendous advances are being made in our understanding of neuro-immune dynamics; one of the central goals of this review is to highlight recent preclinical research in this area and consider how we can leverage these findings to investigate and cultivate a healthy neuro-immune network in humans.

Stress and inflammation - The need to address the gap in the transition between acute and chronic stress effects

Stress responses help us navigate our environment and respond appropriately to threats. Stress systems communicate threats to the entire organism, and as such, also stimulate inflammatory mechanisms. This modulation might serve protective functions in the short term, but sustained low-grade inflammation has severe long-term health consequences. While we have reached a reasonable level of understanding of acute, as well as chronic stress effects on inflammatory mechanisms, there is a significant gap in our understanding of the transitional phase between acute and chronic stress. The purpose of this review is to first summarize current knowledge of our understanding of acute stress effects on inflammation, as well as of chronic stress effects on inflammation, and to then analyze the state of knowledge about the transitional phase between acute and chronic stress. Research discussed here shows that we are beginning to understand the early phase of repeated acute stress, but lack information on longer term exposure to repeated acute stress experiences. More research is needed to bridge this important gap und our conceptualization and understanding of the stress and health relationship.

Military Factors Associated with Smoking in Veterans

Introduction

Given the high prevalence of smoking among Veterans and the economic, social, and clinical implications, it is important to understand the factors that contribute to smoking in order to focus efforts to mitigate these factors and improve smoking cessation efforts among Veterans. The availability of research on smoking in Veterans compared with civilians is limited given the military-specific differences in their life course. We aimed to identify military-specific factors combined with sociodemographic factors for ever smoking and current smoking among Veterans to inform future interventions.

Materials and Methods

We used data from the 2010 National Survey of Veterans, the most current, to analyze the association of sociodemographic and military-specific factors with ever versus never smoking, and current versus past smoking using multiple variable logistic regression models (IRB#4125).

Results

Among 8,618 respondents, the proportions of current, past, and never smokers were 17%, 48%, and 34%, respectively. Sociodemographic factors associated with ever smoking were female gender, educational attainment of less than a bachelor's degree, and being divorced/separated/widowed. Military-specific factors associated with ever smoking were exposure to dead/dying/wounded soldiers during service, and past, current, and unsure enrollment in Veterans Affairs healthcare. Never smoking was associated with Hispanic ethnicity, income over $75,000, and reporting fair or poor health. Military factors associated with never smoking were presence of a service-connected disability and military service July 1964 or earlier (i.e., pre-Vietnam). Among 5,652 ever smokers, sociodemographic factors associated with current smoking were age less than 65, being non-Hispanic black, educational attainment of less than a bachelor's degree, being divorced/separated/widowed, never married, and having no insurance. Factors associated with reduced likelihood of current smoking compared with past smoking included income >$41,000 and reporting fair or poor health. Military-specific variables associated with reduced likelihood of current smoking were service era of May 1975 or later (i.e., post-Vietnam) and 5 or more years of service.

Conclusion

Military-specific variables are associated with smoking behaviors among Veterans. Findings from this study that exposure to dead/dying/wounded soldiers, service era, duration of service, service-connected disability status, and enrollment in VA care all influence smoking in Veterans, can inform prevention and cessation efforts in part by encouraging alternative healthy habits or cessation techniques in subgroups of Veterans with particular military backgrounds. By assessing risk factors in this unique population future research can leverage these findings to determine mechanisms that help explain these associations. Identifying factors associated with smoking offers insights for smoking cessation and prevention interventions given the military experiences and increased smoking incidence among Veterans.

The role of inflammation and the gut microbiome in depression and anxiety

The study of the gut microbiome has increasingly revealed an important role in modulating brain function and mental health. In this review, we underscore specific pathways and mechanisms by which the gut microbiome can promote the development of mental disorders such as depression and anxiety. First, we review the involvement of the stress response and immune system activation in the development of depression and anxiety. Then, we examine germ-free murine models used to uncover the role of the gut microbiome in developing and modulating pertinent activity in the brain and the immune system. We also document multiple pathways by which stress-induced inflammation harms brain function and ultimately affects mental health, and review how probiotic and prebiotic treatments have shown to be beneficial. Lastly, we provide an overview of gut microbiome-derived compounds (short-chain fatty acids, tryptophan catabolites, microbial pattern recognition) and related mechanisms (vagal nerve activity and fecal microbiota transplants) involved in mediating the influence of the gut microbiome to mental health. Overall, a picture of the gut microbiome playing a facilitating role between stress response, inflammation, and depression, and anxiety is emerging. Future research is needed to firmly establish the microbiome's causal role, to further elucidate the mechanisms by which gut microbes influence brain function and mental health, and to possibly develop treatments that improve mental health through microbiotic targets.

The impact of psychosocial stress and stress management on immune responses in patients with cancer

The range of psychosocial stress factors/processes (eg, chronic stress, distress states, coping, social adversity) were reviewed as they relate to immune variables in cancer along with studies of psychosocial interventions on these stress processes and immune measures in cancer populations. The review includes molecular, cellular, and clinical research specifically examining the effects of stress processes and stress-management interventions on immune variables (eg, cellular immune function, inflammation), which may or may not be changing directly in response to the cancer or its treatment. Basic psychoneuroimmunologic research on stress processes (using animal or cellular/tumor models) provides leads for investigating biobehavioral processes that may underlie the associations reported to date. The development of theoretically driven and empirically supported stress-management interventions may provide important adjuncts to clinical cancer care going forward.

The Interplay Between Stress, Inflammation, and Emotional Attention: Relevance for Depression

Depression is among the most significant public mental health issues. A growing body of research implicates inflammation in the etiology and pathophysiology of depression. Yet, the results are somewhat inconsistent, leading to burgeoning attempts to identify associations between components of innate immune system involved in inflammation and specific symptoms of depression, including attention to emotional information. Negative attentional bias, defined as a tendency to direct attention toward negatively valenced information, is one of the core cognitive features of depression and is reliably demonstrated in depressed and vulnerable individuals. Altered attentional processing of emotional information and immunological changes are often precipitated by stressful events. Psychological stress triggers inflammatory activity and affective-cognitive changes that play a critical role in the onset, maintenance, and recurrence of depression. Using various designs, recent studies have reported a positive relationship between markers of inflammation and negative attentional bias on behavioral and neural levels, suggesting that the association between inflammation and emotional attention might represent a neurobiological pathway linking stress and depression. This mini-review summarizes current research on the reciprocal relationships between different types of stressors, emotional attention, inflammation, and depression, and discusses potential neurobiological mechanisms underlying these interactions. The integration provided aims to contribute toward understanding how biological and psychological processes interact to influence depression outcomes.

How mindfulness training promotes positive emotions: Dismantling acceptance skills training in two randomized controlled trials

Mindfulness meditation interventions-which train skills in monitoring present-moment experiences with a lens of acceptance-have shown promise for increasing positive emotions. Using a theory-based approach, we hypothesized that learning acceptance skills in mindfulness interventions helps people notice more positive experiences in daily life, and tested whether removing acceptance training from mindfulness interventions would eliminate intervention-related boosts in positive affect. In 2 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of stressed community adults, mindfulness skills were dismantled into 2 structurally equivalent interventions: (a) training in both monitoring and acceptance (Monitor + Accept) and (b) training in monitoring only (Monitor Only) without acceptance training. Study 1 tested 8-week group-based Monitor + Accept and Monitor Only interventions compared with a no treatment control group. Study 2 tested 2-week smartphone-based Monitor + Accept and Monitor Only interventions compared with an active control training. In both studies, end-of-day and momentary positive affect and negative affect were measured in daily life for 3 days pre- and post-intervention using ambulatory assessments. As predicted, across 2 RCTs, Monitor + Accept training increased positive affect compared with both Monitor Only and control groups. In Study 1, this effect was observed in end-of-day positive affect. In Study 2, this effect was found in both end-of-day and momentary positive affect outcomes. In contrast, all active interventions in Studies 1 and 2 decreased negative affect. These studies provide the first experimental evidence that developing an orientation of acceptance toward present-moment experiences is a central mechanism of mindfulness interventions for boosting positive emotions in daily life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Is Autophagy Involved in the Diverse Effects of Antidepressants?

Autophagy has received increased attention as a conserved process governing cellular energy and protein homeostasis that is thus relevant in a range of physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Recently, autophagy has also been linked to depression, mainly through its involvement in the action of antidepressants. Some antidepressant drugs and psychotropic medication have been reported to exert beneficial effects in other diseases, for example, in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. This review collates the evidence for the hypothesis that autophagy contributes to the effects of antidepressants beyond depression treatment.

Pain-induced peripheral artery tonometry scores in the control arm are impaired in patients with apical ballooning syndrome

Mental and physical stress is thought to play an important causative factor in apical ballooning syndrome (ABS) likely secondary to the vasomotor dysfunction. However, there are currently few data related to the impact of physical stress in this unique cardiomyopathy.A total 18 patients, including 8 females with history of ABS and 10 post-menopausal controls, underwent physical and mental tests. Assessments included the pain-induced peripheral artery tonometry scores (PIPATs) and mental stress peripheral artery tonometry scores (PATs).Compared with control group, PIPATs were significantly attenuated in patients with ABS in both baseline and post-mental stress (0.94 ± 0.08 vs1.30 ± 0.54, P <.05 and 0.87 ± 0.19 vs1.24 ± 0.21 P = .01, respectively); mental stress PATs were significantly lower in patients with ABS, both in Stroop test (0.79 ± 0.30 vs 1.24 ± 0.43, P = .01) and arithmetic test (0.91 ± 0.27 vs 1.36 ± 0.57, P = .01). PIPATs correlated significantly with mental stress PATs, both in arithmetic and Stroop test (P <.05).The PIPATs were attenuated in female with history of ABS and the vascular response to pain may provide a different pathogenesis mechanism on detecting patients with ABS.

Anti-cytokine agents for anhedonia: targeting inflammation and the immune system to treat dimensional disturbances in depression

The etiology of mood disorders is mechanistically heterogeneous, underscoring the need for a dimensional approach to identify and develop targeted treatments in psychiatry. Accumulating evidence implicates inflammation as an important contributor to the pathophysiology of depression and presents the immune system as a viable therapeutic target that may be more proximate to the pathogenic nexus of brain-based disorders in specific subpopulations. Anhedonia is a transdiagnostic (e.g. Parkinson's disease, diabetes mellitus, rheumatic diseases), yet specific, and clinically relevant symptom dimension subserved by well-characterized neurobiological and neurophysiological substrates of the positive valence systems (PVS). Brain circuits, nodes, and networks, as well as cellular and molecular pathways (e.g. dopaminergic transmission; excitotoxicity; synaptic plasticity), subserving anhedonia are preferentially affected by inflammatory processes. To our knowledge, no published randomized, controlled clinical trial in populations with mood disorders has, to date, primarily sought to determine the effects of an anti-inflammatory agent on PVS functions or pathophysiology. Three ongoing clinical trials aim to investigate the effects of anti-TNF-alpha biologic infliximab on measures of anhedonia [ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02363738], motivational behavior and circuitry [ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03006393], and glutamatergic changes in the basal ganglia [ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03004443] in clinical populations with unipolar or bipolar depression. Positive results would further instantiate the relevance of inflammatory processes and the immune system in the pathophysiology of mood disorders and provide the impetus to develop scalable treatments targeting inflammation and the immune system to mitigate transdiagnostic, dimensional disturbances in brain-based disorders.

Attention to Emotional Information Is Associated With Cytokine Responses to Psychological Stress

This study aimed to investigate the impact of mental stress on salivary cytokines and attention to emotional stimuli, as well as associations between stress-induced changes of immune and cognitive parameters. In a randomized order a total of 60 young adults were assigned to one of two stress conditions with varying stress intensity. High stress was induced by a socially evaluated Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). As a low stress task a paper-and-pencil version of PASAT was administered. Salivary cytokines were measured before, 5 min after, and 45 min after completion of the stress task, and were assayed for pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Three distinct types of attention – alerting, orienting, and executive control – were measured by the modified Emotional Attention Network Test Integration (E-ANTI). IL-1β and IL-6 increased only in the high-stress group. Significant increases in IFN-α, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-10 at 45 min after stress induction (all p’s < 0.05) were observed in both the high-stress and the low-stress group. Alerting attention was positively related to more pronounced increases in IFN-α and TNF-α in both groups. Further, better orienting attention after presentation of negative cues was associated with higher increases in IFN-α, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-5, and IL-10 in both groups, and higher overall levels of IFN-α, IFN-γ, and IL-12p70 in the high-stress group. There were no systematic gender differences in cytokine responses. We conclude that attention processes modulate the increases of salivary cytokines after stress exposure, and that these effects depend on stress level, particular attention network, and stimulus valence.

Genetic disposition to inflammation and response to antidepressants in major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Inflammation may play an important role in depression and its treatment. A previous study found that increased C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of systemic inflammation, is associated with worse response to the serotonergic antidepressant escitalopram and better response to the noradrenergic antidepressant nortriptyline. It is unclear whether this reflects genetic disposition to inflammation.

METHODS

We analyzed genotype data and weekly Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale scores (MADRS) from 755 unrelated individuals obtained over a 12-week period in the Genome-Based Therapeutic Drugs for Depression (GENDEP) study. We calculated a polygenic risk score for CRP level based on genome-wide meta-analysis results from the CHARGE Consortium.

RESULTS

A higher polygenic risk score for CRP was associated with slightly better response to escitalopram and slightly worse response to nortriptyline, reflected in a statistically significant interaction between polygenic risk score and drug (beta = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.26-1.87, p = 0.0093).

DISCUSSION

A differential association between CRP-PRS and antidepressant drug that is in a direction opposite to that found with serum CRP measurement suggests that previously observed effect of inflammation on antidepressant efficacy may be driven by state factors distinct from genetic influences on systemic inflammation.

Cumulative trauma, emotion reactivity and salivary cytokine levels following acute stress in healthy women

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

To better understand how trauma leads to poor health, this study examined whether cumulative trauma and emotion reactivity contribute to pro- (IL-1β) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) salivary cytokine levels after stress.

DESIGN

Seventy-three women, screened to be physically and mentally healthy, completed an acute stress paradigm and measures of lifetime trauma exposure.

METHOD

Saliva was collected 10 min before (i.e., baseline) and 35 min after the onset of a 10-min stressor. State negative and positive emotion were measured at baseline and post-stress.

RESULTS

Most participants reported exposure to at least one trauma, with a mean of five. Cumulative trauma was associated with higher post-stress IL-1β and IL-1β/IL-10, but not with IL-10 or changes in emotion. Declines in positive emotion correlated with greater post-stress IL-1β.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that both cumulative trauma exposure and positive emotion have implications for salivary cytokine responses to acute stress. The inclusion of healthy women strengthens internal validity, and increases confidence that observed associations between trauma and salivary cytokine responses can be attributed to trauma, rather than to confounding health problems. This study adds to the growing literature examining how trauma may connect to cytokines, and ultimately, poor health.

How to measure glucocorticoid receptor's sensitivity in patients with stress-related psychiatric disorders

Stress is a state of derailed homeostasis and a main environmental risk factor for psychiatric diseases. Chronic or uncontrollable stress may lead to a dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is a common feature of stress-related psychiatric disorders. One of the key mechanisms underlying a disturbed HPA axis is an impaired function of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) with an enhanced or reduced feedback sensitivity for glucocorticoids and subsequently altered concentrations of peripheral cortisol. GR function is regulated by a multiprotein complex including the different expression of the hsp90 co-chaperone FK 506 binding protein 51 (FKBP5) that may be genetically determined or acquired in response to stressful stimuli. Specific patterns of a dysregulation of the HPA axis and GR function are found in different stress-related psychiatric entities e.g. major depression, job-related exhaustion or posttraumatic stress disorder. GR challenge tests like the dexamethasone-suppression test (DST), the dexamethasone-corticotropin-releasing hormone (dex-CRH) test or most recently the analysis of the dexamethasone-induced gene expression are employed to sensitively measure HPA axis activity in these disorders. They provide information for a stratification of phenotypic similar but neurobiological diverse psychiatric disorders. In this review we present a synopsis of GR challenge tests with a focus on the application of the DST, the CRH test and the dex-CRH test as well as the dexamethasone-induced gene expression in stress-related psychiatric entities.

The short-term stress response - Mother nature's mechanism for enhancing protection and performance under conditions of threat, challenge, and opportunity

Our group has proposed that in contrast to chronic stress that can have harmful effects, the short-term (fight-or-flight) stress response (lasting for minutes to hours) is nature's fundamental survival mechanism that enhances protection and performance under conditions involving threat/challenge/opportunity. Short-term stress enhances innate/primary, adaptive/secondary, vaccine-induced, and anti-tumor immune responses, and post-surgical recovery. Mechanisms and mediators include stress hormones, dendritic cell, neutrophil, macrophage, and lymphocyte trafficking/function and local/systemic chemokine and cytokine production. Short-term stress may also enhance mental/cognitive and physical performance through effects on brain, musculo-skeletal, and cardiovascular function, reappraisal of threat/anxiety, and training-induced stress-optimization. Therefore, short-term stress psychology/physiology could be harnessed to enhance immuno-protection, as well as mental and physical performance. This review aims to provide a conceptual framework and targets for further investigation of mechanisms and conditions under which the protective/adaptive aspects of short-term stress/exercise can be optimized/harnessed, and for developing pharmacological/biobehavioral interventions to enhance health/healing, and mental/cognitive/physical performance.

The effect of mindfulness meditation training on biological acute stress responses in generalized anxiety disorder

Mindfulness-Based interventions have increased in popularity in psychiatry, but the impact of these treatments on disorder-relevant biomarkers would greatly enhance efficacy and mechanistic evidence. If Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is successfully treated, relevant biomarkers should change, supporting the impact of treatment and suggesting improved resilience to stress. Seventy adults with GAD were randomized to receive either Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) or an attention control class; before and after, they underwent the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Area-Under-the-Curve (AUC) concentrations were calculated for adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. MBSR participants had a significantly greater reduction in ACTH AUC compared to control participants. Similarly, the MBSR group had a greater reduction in inflammatory cytokines' AUC concentrations. We found larger reductions in stress markers for patients with GAD in the MBSR class compared to control; this provides the first combined hormonal and immunological evidence that MBSR may enhance resilience to stress.

Peer victimization predicts heightened inflammatory reactivity to social stress in cognitively vulnerable adolescents

BACKGROUND

During adolescence, peer victimization is a potent type of social stressor that can confer enduring risk for poor mental and physical health. Given recent research implicating inflammation in promoting a variety of serious mental and physical health problems, this study examined the role that peer victimization and cognitive vulnerability (i.e. negative cognitive styles and hopelessness) play in shaping adolescents' pro-inflammatory cytokine responses to an acute social stressor.

METHODS

Adolescent girls at risk for psychopathology (n = 157; Mage  = 14.73 years; SD = 1.38) were exposed to a laboratory-based social stressor before and after which we assessed salivary levels of three key pro-inflammatory cytokines - interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α).

RESULTS

As hypothesized, adolescents with greater peer victimization exposure exhibited greater increases in IL-6 and IL1-β in response to the laboratory-based social stressor. Moreover, for all three cytokines individually, as well as for a combined latent factor of inflammation, peer victimization predicted enhanced inflammatory responding most strongly for adolescents with high levels of hopelessness.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings reveal a biological pathway by which peer victimization may interact with cognitive vulnerability to influence health in adolescence.