A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding

Multi-omics integrated analyses indicated that non-polysaccharides of Sijunzi decoction ameliorated spleen deficiency syndrome via regulating microbiota-gut-metabolites axis and exerted synergistic compatibility

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As a classical traditional Chinese medicine formula to invigorating spleen and replenishing qi, Sijunzi decoction (SJZD) is composed of four herbs, which is applied to cure spleen deficiency syndrome (SDS) clinically. The non-polysaccharides (NPSs) of SJZD (SJZD_NPS) are important pharmacodynamic material basis. However, the amelioration mechanism of SJZD_NPS on SDS has not been fully elaborated. Additionally, the contribution of herbs compatibility to efficacy of this formula remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim was to explore the underlying mechanisms of SJZD_NPS on improving SDS, and uncover the scientific connotation in SJZD compatibility.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A strategy integrating incomplete formulae (called "Chai-fang" in Chinese) comparison, pharmacodynamics, gut microbiome, and metabolome was employed to reveal the role of each herb to SJZD compatibility against SDS. Additionally, the underlying mechanism harbored by SJZD_NPS was further explored through targeted metabolomics, network pharmacology, molecular docking, pseudo-sterile model, and metagenomics.

RESULTS

SJZD_NPS significantly alleviated diarrhea, disordered secretion of gastrointestinal hormones and neurotransmitters, damage of ileal morphology and intestinal barrier in SDS rats, which was superior to the NPSs of Chai-fang. 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metabolomics analyses revealed that SJZD_NPS effectively restored the disturbed gut microbiota community and abnormal metabolism caused by SDS, showing the most evident recovery. Moreover, SJZD_NPS recalled the levels of partial amino acids, short chain fatty acids and bile acids, which possessed strong binding affinity towards potential targets. The depletion of gut microbiota confirmed that the SDS-amelioration efficacy of SJZD_NPS is dependent on the intact gut microbiome, with the relative abundance of potential probiotics such as Lactobacillus_johnsonii and Lactobacillus_taiwanensis been enriched.

CONCLUSION

NPSs in SJZD can improve SDS-induced gastrointestinal-nervous system dysfunction through regulating microbiota-gut-metabolites axis, with four herbs exerting synergistic effects, which indicated the compatibility rationality of SJZD.

CRISPR/Cas9-induced LEAP2 and GHSR1a knockout mutant zebrafish displayed abnormal growth and impaired lipid metabolism

Investigating the principles of fish fat deposition and conducting related research are current focal points in fish nutrition. This study explores the endocrine regulation of LEAP2 and GHSR1a in zebrafish by constructing mutantmodels andexamining the effects of the endocrine factors LEAP2 and its receptor GHSR1a on zebrafish growth, feeding, and liver fat deposition. Compared to the wild type (WT), the mutation of LEAP2 results in increased feeding and decreased swimming in zebrafish. The impact is more pronounced in adult female zebrafish, characterized by increased weight, length, width, and accumulation of lipid droplets in the liver.Incontrast, deficiency in GHSR1a significantly reduces the growth of male zebrafish and markedly decreases liver fat deposition.These research findings indicate the crucial roles of LEAP2 and GHSR1a in zebrafish feeding, growth, and intracellular fat metabolism. This study, for the first time, investigated the endocrine metabolic regulation functions of LEAP2 and GHSR1a in the model organism zebrafish, providing initial insights into their effects and potential mechanisms on zebrafish fat metabolism.

The effects of ghrelin and LEAP-2 in energy homeostasis are modulated by thermoneutrality, high-fat diet and aging

PURPOSE

Liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP-2) has been recently identified as the endogenous non-competitive allosteric antagonist of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a). In rodents, LEAP-2 blunts ghrelin-induced feeding and its plasma levels are modulated in response to nutritional status, being decreased upon fasting and increased in high-fat diet (HFD) fed mice. Clinical data support the regulation of circulating LEAP-2 by nutrient availability in humans. In this work, our primary objective was to examine the chronic effects of ghrelin and LEAP-2 administration on food intake, adiposity, and energy expenditure in young mice subjected to standard and HFD at both room temperature and at thermoneutrality. Furthermore, we aimed to assess the impact of these two hormones on aging mice.

RESULTS

Our results indicate that LEAP-2 produces a significant decrease of body weight and adiposity, an increase in energy expenditure, and activation of the thermogenic program in white and brown adipose tissue depots. However, this effect is not maintained under HFD or under thermoneutral conditions and is only partially observed in aging mice.

CONCLUSION

In summary our studies describe the central effects of LEAP-2 within distinct experimental contexts, and contribute to the comprehension of LEAP-2's role in energy metabolism.

Multiple metabolic signals in the CeA regulate feeding: The role of AMPK

BACKGROUND

The central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) is part of the dopaminergic reward system and controls energy balance. Recently, a cluster of neurons was identified as responsive to the orexigenic effect of ghrelin and fasting. However, the signaling pathway by which ghrelin and fasting induce feeding is unknown. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a cellular energy sensor, and its Thr172 phosphorylation (AMPKThr172) in the mediobasal hypothalamus regulates food intake. However, whether the expression and activation of AMPK in CeA could be one of the intracellular signaling activated in response to ghrelin and fasting eliciting food intake is unknown.

AIM

To evaluate the activation of AMPK into CeA in response to ghrelin, fasting, and 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) and whether feeding accompanied these changes. In addition, to investigate whether the inhibition of AMPK into CeA could decrease food intake.

METHODS

On a chow diet, eight-week-old Wistar male rats were stereotaxically implanted with a cannula in the CeA to inject several modulators of AMPKα1/2Thr172 phosphorylation, and we performed physiological and molecular assays.

KEY FINDINGS

Fasting increased, and refeeding reduced AMPKThr172 in the CeA. Intra-CeA glucose injection decreased feeding, whereas injection of 2DG, a glucoprivation inductor, in the CeA, increased food intake and blood glucose, despite faint increases in AMPKThr172. Intra-CeA ghrelin injection increased food intake and AMPKThr172. To further confirm the role of AMPK in the CeA, chronic injection of Melanotan II (MTII) in CeA reduced body mass and food intake over seven days together with a slight decrease in AMPKThr172.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings identified that AMPK might be part of the signaling machinery in the CeA, which responds to nutrients and hormones contributing to feeding control. The results can contribute to understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of altered feeding behavior/consumption, such as binge eating of caloric-dense, palatable food.

Mapping GABAergic projections that mediate feeding

Neuroscience offers important insights into the pathogenesis and treatment of obesity by investigating neural circuits underpinning appetite and feeding. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), one of the most abundant neurotransmitters in the brain, and its associated receptors represent an array of pharmacologically targetable mediators of appetite signalling. Targeting the GABAergic system is therefore an increasingly investigated approach to obesity treatment. However, the many GABAergic projections that control feeding have yet to be collectively analysed. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between GABAergic signalling and appetite by examining both foundational studies and the results of newly emerging chemogenetic/optogenetic experiments. A current snapshot of these efforts to map GABAergic projections influencing appetite is provided, and potential avenues for further investigation are provided.

Impact of endophyte-infected tall fescue seed consumption on endocrine changes associated with intake regulation and post-absorptive metabolism in growing steers

Fescue toxicosis is a syndrome occurring from the consumption of endophyte-infected tall fescue and results in substantial economic losses to the beef industry primarily from reduced growth accompanied by decreased dry matter intake (DMI); however, the associations characterizing this reduction in DMI have yet to be elucidated. The objective of this experiment was to identify endocrine changes associated with intake regulation post-consumption of endophyte-infected tall fescue seed (E+). Twelve Holstein steers were stratified by body weight and assigned to 1 of 3 treatments (n=4): 0 ppm ergovaline (ERV), 1.8 ppm ERV, or 2.7 ppm ERV. Treatments were achieved by combining differing proportions of ground E+ and non-endophyte-infected tall fescue seed. Steers were adapted to their diets for 7 d followed by a 7 d DMI collection period. Within treatment, steers were assigned to a sampling day (d 16 or d 17). Blood samples were collected every 20 min for 8 h, beginning 1 h before feeding. Intake data was analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS 9.4 (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC) with treatment, day, and the interaction as fixed effects. Hormone and metabolite data were analyzed with the fixed effect of treatment, time, and the interaction including time as a repeated measure and orthogonal contrasts. Dry matter intake was linearly decreased with increasing ERV in the diet (P < 0.001). Insulin and leptin concentrations exhibited a quadratic effect (P = 0.018 and P = 0.005) with insulin concentrations highest for the 2.7 ppm treatment and leptin concentrations highest for the 1.8 ppm treatment. No differences were detected for active ghrelin or β-hydroxybuytrate concentrations among treatment groups. Further, steers consuming both the 1.8 and 2.7 ppm ERV treatments had lower prolactin concentrations compared to the 0 ppm treatment (quadratic, P= 0.019). Glucose concentrations had a tendency for a linear increase as ERV concentrations increased (P = 0.091). A treatment × time interaction (P = 0.002) was noted in NEFA concentrations, with the 1.8 ppm ERV treatment showing increased pre-feeding concentrations, and the 2.7 ppm ERV treatment exhibiting elevated NEFA concentrations as time post-feeding progressed. The results suggest that E+ consumption reduces intake likely through alterations in intake-related hormones and post-absorptive metabolism and contributes to our current understanding of E+ effects on intake reduction while providing avenues for future research.

Detection of natural autoimmunity to ghrelin in diabetes mellitus

Objective

Ghrelin is an orexigenic peptide that becomes post-translationally modified. Natural autoantibodies to ghrelin (ghrelin-aAb) have been described in healthy subjects, in eating disorders and rheumatic diseases, with potential clinical relevance. Despite these important reports, the data base on the prevalence and physiological role is small and technical approaches for assessing ghrelin-aAb are few, encouraging respective research for improving knowledge on the potential endocrine significance.

Methods

A novel immunoprecipitation assay was generated based on a fusion protein of human ghrelin with a reporter gene. Assay quality was verified with commercial antibodies. Assay characteristics and matrix effects were determined, including stability of natural ghrelin-aAb to freezing, signal linearity in dilution experiments, and comparison of different matrices. Three groups of serum samples were analyzed for ghrelin-aAb, comprising commercial sera from healthy subjects and patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Results

The newly generated ghrelin-aAb assay proved sensitive, robust and reliable over a broad concentration range. Results from serum and plasma differed slightly. The signals from serum remained stable towards freezing and thawing, and in dilution experiments. Applying a mathematical criterion for outliers (P75 + 1.5-times IQR), an average prevalence of 11%-12% of positive samples was identified in the different human cohorts, with no significant sex-or disease-related difference.

General significance

A novel diagnostic autoantibody assay detected ghrelin-aAb with a similar prevalence in diabetic patients and controls, suggesting that autoimmunity to ghrelin plays little role in diabetes mellitus, but may be of relevance in other diseases where ghrelin signaling is essential.

Long-Term Effects of Oral Nutritional Supplements After Gastrectomy for Gastric Cancer: A Survival Analysis from a Multicenter, Open-Label, Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Weight loss (WL) after gastrectomy for gastric cancer is associated with both decreased compliance with adjuvant chemotherapy and impaired survival. This study examined the effects of administering oral nutritional supplements (ONS) for 3 months after gastrectomy in terms of compliance with adjuvant chemotherapy and survival outcomes.

METHODS

This large-scale, multicenter, open-label, randomized controlled trial enrolled 1,003 gastric cancer patients undergoing curative gastrectomy. Patients were assigned to the control group (n = 503) or ONS group (n = 500). In the ONS group, 400 kcal/day of ONS was recommended in addition to a regular diet for 3 months after gastrectomy. Compliance with adjuvant chemotherapy and survival outcomes were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

Compared with the control group, the ONS group showed significantly decreased WL at 3 months after gastrectomy (8.6 ± 6.1 vs. 7.2 ± 5.7%, respectively, P = 0.0004). The control and ONS groups did not differ regarding the induction rate of adjuvant chemotherapy (84.9 vs. 82.8%, respectively, P = 0.614) or the continuation rate at 3 months postoperatively (75.3 vs. 76.6%, respectively, P = 0.809). Oral nutritional supplements for 3 months showed no survival benefit; the 3- and 5-year overall survival (OS) rates were 91.3% and 87.6% in the control group and 89.6% and 86.4% in the ONS group, respectively, indicating no significant difference (P = 0.548). Subgroup analysis could not detect a population in which ONS administration increased OS.

CONCLUSIONS

Administration of ONS for 3 months after gastrectomy was not associated with increased compliance with adjuvant chemotherapy or with improved prognosis.

Hypothalamic hormone deficiency enables physiological anorexia in ground squirrels during hibernation

Mammalian hibernators survive prolonged periods of cold and resource scarcity by temporarily modulating normal physiological functions, but the mechanisms underlying these adaptations are poorly understood. The hibernation cycle of thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus) lasts for 5-7 months and comprises weeks of hypometabolic, hypothermic torpor interspersed with 24-48-h periods of an active-like interbout arousal (IBA) state. We show that ground squirrels, who endure the entire hibernation season without food, have negligible hunger during IBAs. These squirrels exhibit reversible inhibition of the hypothalamic feeding center, such that hypothalamic arcuate nucleus neurons exhibit reduced sensitivity to the orexigenic and anorexigenic effects of ghrelin and leptin, respectively. However, hypothalamic infusion of thyroid hormone during an IBA is sufficient to rescue hibernation anorexia. Our results reveal that thyroid hormone deficiency underlies hibernation anorexia and demonstrate the functional flexibility of the hypothalamic feeding center.

The influence of ghrelin agonist ipamorelin acetate on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in a cichlid fish, Oreochromis mossambicus

Ghrelin, a peptide found in the brain and gut, is predicted to play a significant role in the control of various physiological systems in fish. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of ipamorelin acetate (IPA), a ghrelin agonist, on the reproductive axis of the tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus. The administration of either 5 or 30 µg of IPA for 21 days led to a significant and dose-dependent rise in food intake concomitant with a significant increase in the numbers of primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, and early spermatids compared to the control group. There was a significant rise in the number of late spermatids, as well as the areas of the lobule and lumen, in fish treated with 30 µg of IPA, compared to the control group. Moreover, there was no significant difference in the percentage of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-immunoreactive fibres in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland across different groups. However, a significant elevation in the expression of androgen receptor protein was observed in fish treated with 30 µg of IPA. Furthermore, the concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH) and 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT) in the serum of fish treated with either 5 or 30 µg of IPA were significantly elevated in comparison to the control group. Collectively, these findings suggest that the administration of ghrelin enhances the development of germ cells during the meiosis-I phase and that this effect might be mediated via the stimulation of 11-KT and androgen receptors at the testicular level and LH at the pituitary level in the tilapia.

Effects of different winter paddock management of Thoroughbred weanlings and yearlings in the cold region of Japan on physiological function, endocrine function and growth

Effects of different winter paddock management of Thoroughbred weanlings and yearlings in Hokkaido, Japan, which is extremely cold in winter, on physiological function, endocrine function and growth were investigated. They were divided into two groups; those kept outdoors for 22 hr in the paddock (22hr group) and those kept outdoors for 7 hr in daytime with walking exercise for 1 hr using the horse-walker (7hr+W group), and the changes in daily distance travelled, body temperature (BT), heart rate (HR), HR variability (HRV), endocrine function and growth parameters were compared between the two groups from November at the year of birth to January at 1 year of age. The 7hr+W group could travel almost the same distance as the 22hr group by using the horse-walker. The 22hr group had a lower rate of increase in body weight than the 7hr+W group in January. In addition, lower in BT and HR were observed, and HRV analysis showed an increase in high frequency power spectral density, indicating that parasympathetic nervous activity was dominant. And also, changes in circulating cortisol and thyroxine were not observed despite cold environment. On the other hand, the 7hr+W group had higher prolactin and insulin like growth factor than the 22hr group in January, and cortisol and thyroxine were also increased. Physiological and endocrinological findings from the present study indicate that the management of the 7hr+W group is effective in promoting growth and maintaining metabolism during the winter season.

Chronic Social Defeat Stress Increases Brain Permeability to Ghrelin in Male Mice

Ghrelin is a stomach-derived hormone that increases feeding and is elevated in response to chronic psychosocial stressors. The effects of ghrelin on feeding are mediated by the binding of ghrelin to the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), a receptor located in hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic regions important for regulating food intake and metabolic rate. The ability of ghrelin to enter the brain, however, seems to be restricted to circumventricular organs like the median eminence and the brainstem area postrema, whereas ghrelin does not readily enter other GHSR-expressing regions like the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Interestingly, social stressors result in increased blood-brain barrier permeability, and this could therefore facilitate the entry of ghrelin into the brain. To investigate this, we exposed mice to social defeat stress for 21 d and then peripherally injected a Cy5-labelled biologically active ghrelin analog. The results demonstrate that chronically stressed mice exhibit higher Cy5-ghrelin fluorescence in several hypothalamic regions in addition to the ARC, including the hippocampus and midbrain. Furthermore, Cy5-ghrelin injections resulted in increased FOS expression in regions associated with the reward system in chronically stressed mice. Further histologic analyses identified a reduction in the branching of hypothalamic astrocytes in the ARC-median eminence junction, suggesting increased blood-brain barrier permeability. These data support the hypothesis that during metabolically challenging conditions like chronic stress, ghrelin may be more able to cross the blood-brain barrier and diffuse throughout the brain to target GHSR-expressing brain regions away from circumventricular organs.

Impacts of Central Administration of the Novel Peptide, LEAP-2, in Different Food Intake Models in Conscious Rats

Liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide-2 (LEAP-2) has mutual antagonism with ghrelin, which evokes food intake under a freely fed state. Nevertheless, the impact of LEAP-2 on ghrelin under time-restricted feeding (TRF), which has benefits in the context of metabolic disease, is still unknown. This study aims to explore the impact of central administration of LEAP-2 on the ingestion behavior of rats, which was evaluated using their cumulative food intake in the TRF state. Before intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of O-n-octanoylated ghrelin (0.1 nmol/rat), as a food-stimulatory model, the rats received various doses of LEAP-2 (0.3, 1, 3 nmol/rat, ICV). Cumulative food intake was recorded at 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h after ICV injection under 12 h freely fed and TRF states in a light phase. In 12 h freely fed and TRF states, central administration of ghrelin alone induced feeding behavior. Pre-treatment with LEAP-2 (1 and 3 nmol/rat, ICV) suppressed ghrelin-induced food intake in a dose-dependent manner in a 12 h freely fed state instead of a TRF state, which may have disturbed the balance of ghrelin and LEAP-2. This study provides neuroendocrine-based evidence that may explain why TRF sometimes fails in fighting obesity/metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in clinics.

Gut hormones and appetite regulation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Various gut hormones interact with the brain through delicate communication, thereby influencing appetite and subsequent changes in body weight. This review summarizes the effects of gut hormones on appetite, with a focus on recent research.

RECENT FINDINGS

Ghrelin is known as an orexigenic hormone, whereas glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), cholecystokinin (CCK), postprandial peptide YY (PYY), and oxyntomodulin (OXM) are known as anorexigenic hormones. Recent human studies have revealed that gut hormones act differently in various systems, including adipose tissue, beyond appetite and energy intake, and even involve in high-order thinking. Environmental factors including meal schedule, food contents and quality, type of exercise, and sleep deprivation also play a role in the influence of gut hormone on appetite, weight change, and obesity. Recently published studies have shown that retatrutide, a triple-agonist of GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptor, and orforglipron, a GLP-1 receptor partial agonist, are effective in weight loss and improving various metabolic parameters associated with obesity.

SUMMARY

Various gut hormones influence appetite, and several drugs targeting these receptors have been reported to exert positive effects on weight loss in humans. Given that diverse dietary and environmental factors affect the actions of gut hormones and appetite, there is a need for integrated and largescale long-term studies in this field.

Ultrastructural study of neuronal cells and localization of ghrelin-like peptide and its receptor in the ganglia of the golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)

Pomacea canaliculata is an invasive snail species causing major problems in agriculture. The snail biology was then investigated. The main objective of the present study was to investigate the nervous system of the snail. The nervous system comprises pairs of cerebral, buccal, pedal, pleural, parietal ganglia and an unpaired visceral ganglion. Most neurons were concentrated at the periphery of the ganglia. The neurons were classified into four types: NR1, NR2, NR3, and NR4. The percentages of the NR3 and NR4 in the pleural and pedal ganglia were significantly higher than those of other ganglia. Ultrastructural study revealed that nuclei of all neuronal types exhibited mostly euchromatins. Many organelles including ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum were found in their cytoplasm. However, various mitochondria were found in the NR2 and NR3. The immunohistochemistry revealed immunoreactivity of ghrelin-like peptide in the neurons of the cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia. However, immunoreactivity of GHS-R1a-like peptide existed only in the neurons of the pleural and pedal ganglia. The present study is the first to demonstrate the existence of ghrelin-like peptide and its receptor in P. canaliculata nervous system.

Genetic or pharmacological GHSR blockade has sexually dimorphic effects in rodents on a high-fat diet

The stomach-derived hormone ghrelin regulates essential physiological functions. The ghrelin receptor (GHSR) has ligand-independent actions; therefore, GHSR gene deletion may be a reasonable approach to investigate the role of this system in feeding behaviors and diet-induced obesity (DIO). Here, we investigate the effects of a long-term (12-month) high-fat (HFD) versus regular diet on obesity-related measures in global GHSR-KO and wild-type (WT) Wistar male and female rats. Our main findings are that the GHSR gene deletion protects against DIO and decreases food intake during HFD in male but not in female rats. GHSR gene deletion increases thermogenesis and brain glucose uptake in male rats and modifies the effects of HFD on brain glucose metabolism in a sex-specific manner, as assessed with small animal positron emission tomography. We use RNA-sequencing to show that GHSR-KO rats have upregulated expression of genes responsible for fat oxidation in brown adipose tissue. Central administration of a novel GHSR inverse agonist, PF-5190457, attenuates ghrelin-induced food intake, but only in male, not in female mice. HFD-induced binge-like eating is reduced by inverse agonism in both sexes. Our results support GHSR as a promising target for new pharmacotherapies for obesity.

Acyl modifications in bovine, porcine, and equine ghrelins

Ghrelin is a peptide hormone with various important physiological functions. The unique feature of ghrelin is its serine 3 acyl-modification, which is essential for ghrelin activity. The major form of ghrelin is modified with n-octanoic acid (C8:0) by ghrelin O-acyltransferase. Various acyl modifications have been reported in different species. However, the underlying mechanism by which ghrelin is modified with various fatty acids remains to be elucidated. Herein, we report the purification of bovine, porcine, and equine ghrelins. The major active form of bovine ghrelin was a 27-amino acid peptide with an n-octanoyl (C8:0) modification at Ser3. The major active form of porcine and equine ghrelin was a 28-amino acid peptide. However, porcine ghrelin was modified with n-octanol (C8:0), whereas equine ghrelin was modified with n-butanol (C4:0) at Ser3. This study indicates the existence of structural divergence in ghrelin and suggests that it is necessary to measure the minor and major forms of ghrelin to fully understand its physiology.

Appetite- and Weight-Regulating Neuroendocrine Circuitry in Hypothalamic Obesity

Since hypothalamic obesity (HyOb) was first described over 120 years ago by Joseph Babinski and Alfred Fröhlich, advances in molecular genetic laboratory techniques have allowed us to elucidate various components of the intricate neurocircuitry governing appetite and weight regulation connecting the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, brainstem, adipose tissue, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract. On a background of an increasing prevalence of population-level common obesity, the number of survivors of congenital (eg, septo-optic dysplasia, Prader-Willi syndrome) and acquired (eg, central nervous system tumors) hypothalamic disorders is increasing, thanks to earlier diagnosis and management as well as better oncological therapies. Although to date the discovery of several appetite-regulating peptides has led to the development of a range of targeted molecular therapies for monogenic obesity syndromes, outside of these disorders these discoveries have not translated into the development of efficacious treatments for other forms of HyOb. This review aims to summarize our current understanding of the neuroendocrine physiology of appetite and weight regulation, and explore our current understanding of the pathophysiology of HyOb.

Dysfunction of the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor latrophilin 1 (ADGRL1/LPHN1) increases the risk of obesity

Obesity is one of the diseases with severe health consequences and rapidly increasing worldwide prevalence. Understanding the complex network of food intake and energy balance regulation is an essential prerequisite for pharmacological intervention with obesity. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are among the main modulators of metabolism and energy balance. They, for instance, regulate appetite and satiety in certain hypothalamic neurons, as well as glucose and lipid metabolism and hormone secretion from adipocytes. Mutations in some GPCRs, such as the melanocortin receptor type 4 (MC4R), have been associated with early-onset obesity. Here, we identified the adhesion GPCR latrophilin 1 (ADGRL1/LPHN1) as a member of the regulating network governing food intake and the maintenance of energy balance. Deficiency of the highly conserved receptor in mice results in increased food consumption and severe obesity, accompanied by dysregulation of glucose homeostasis. Consistently, we identified a partially inactivating mutation in human ADGRL1/LPHN1 in a patient suffering from obesity. Therefore, we propose that LPHN1 dysfunction is a risk factor for obesity development.

Pre-prandial plasma liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP2) concentration in humans is inversely associated with hunger sensation in a ghrelin independent manner

PURPOSE

The liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide 2 (LEAP2) is a newly recognized peptide hormone that acts via the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR) blunting the effects of ghrelin and displaying ghrelin-independent actions. Since the implications of LEAP2 are beginning to be elucidated, we investigated if plasma LEAP2 concentration varies with feeding status or sex and whether it is associated with glucose metabolism and appetite sensations.

METHODS

We performed a single test meal study, in which plasma concentrations of LEAP2, ghrelin, insulin and glucose as well as visual analogue scales for hunger, desire to eat, prospective food consumption, fullness were assessed before and 60 min after breakfast in 44 participants (n = 21 females) with normal weight (NW) or overweight/obesity (OW/OB).

RESULTS

Pre-prandial plasma LEAP2 concentration was ~ 1.6-fold higher whereas ghrelin was ~ 2.0-fold lower in individuals with OW/OB (p < 0.001) independently of sex. After adjusting for body mass index (BMI) and sex, pre-prandial plasma LEAP2 concentration displayed a direct relationship with BMI (β: 0.09; 95%CI: 0.05, 0.13; p < 0.001), fat mass (β: 0.05; 95%CI: 0.01, 0.09; p = 0.010) and glycemia (β: 0.24; 95%CI: 0.05, 0.43; p = 0.021), whereas plasma ghrelin concentration displayed an inverse relationship with BMI and fat mass but not with glycemia. Postprandial plasma LEAP2 concentration increased ~ 58% in females with OW/OB (p = 0.045) but not in females with NW or in males. Pre-prandial plasma LEAP2 concentration displayed an inverse relationship with hunger score (β: - 11.16; 95% CI: - 18.52, - 3.79; p = 0.004), in a BMI-, sex- and ghrelin-independent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

LEAP2 emerges as a key hormone implicated in the regulation of metabolism and appetite in humans.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was retrospectively registered in clinicaltrials.gov (April 2023).

CLINICALTRIALS

gov Identifier: NCT05815641.

Maternal supplementation with konjac glucomannan improves maternal microbiota for healthier offspring during lactation

BACKGROUND

The maternal diet during gestation and lactation affects the health of the offspring. Konjac glucomannan (KGM) is a significantly functional polysaccharide in food research, possessing both antioxidant and prebiotic properties. However, the mechanisms of how KGM regulates maternal nutrition remain insufficient and limited. This study aimed to investigate maternal supplementation with KGM during late gestation and lactation to benefit both maternal and offspring generations.

RESULTS

Our findings indicate that KGM improves serum low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, the KGM group displayed a significant increase in the feed intake-related hormones neuropeptide tyrosine (NPY), Ghrelin, and adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase (AMPK) levels. KGM modified the relative abundance of Clostridium, Candidatus Saccharimonas, unclassified Firmicutes, and unclassified Christensenellaceae in sow feces. Acetate, valerate, and isobutyrate were also improved in the feces of sows in the KGM group. These are potential target bacterial genera that may modulate the host's health. Furthermore, Spearman's correlation analysis unveiled significant correlations between the altered bacteria genus and feed intake-related hormones. More importantly, KGM reduced interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels in milk, further improved IL-10 levels, and reduced zonulin levels in the serum of offspring.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, maternal dietary supplementation with KGM during late gestation and lactation improves maternal nutritional status by modifying maternal microbial and increasing lactation feed intake, which benefits the anti-inflammatory capacity of the offspring serum. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Vagal sensory pathway for the gut-brain communication

The communication between the gut and brain is crucial for regulating various essential physiological functions, such as energy balance, fluid homeostasis, immune response, and emotion. The vagal sensory pathway plays an indispensable role in connecting the gut to the brain. Recently, our knowledge of the vagal gut-brain axis has significantly advanced through molecular genetic studies, revealing a diverse range of vagal sensory cell types with distinct peripheral innervations, response profiles, and physiological functions. Here, we review the current understanding of how vagal sensory neurons contribute to gut-brain communication. First, we highlight recent transcriptomic and genetic approaches that have characterized different vagal sensory cell types. Then, we focus on discussing how different subtypes encode numerous gut-derived signals and how their activities are translated into physiological and behavioral regulations. The emerging insights into the diverse cell types and functional properties of vagal sensory neurons have paved the way for exciting future directions, which may provide valuable insights into potential therapeutic targets for disorders involving gut-brain communication.

Hypothalamic hormone deficiency enables physiological anorexia

Mammalian hibernators survive prolonged periods of cold and resource scarcity by temporarily modulating normal physiological functions, but the mechanisms underlying these adaptations are poorly understood. The hibernation cycle of thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus) lasts for 5-7 months and comprises weeks of hypometabolic, hypothermic torpor interspersed with 24-48-hour periods of an active-like interbout arousal (IBA) state. We show that ground squirrels, who endure the entire hibernation season without food, have negligible hunger during IBAs. These squirrels exhibit reversible inhibition of the hypothalamic feeding center, such that hypothalamic arcuate nucleus neurons exhibit reduced sensitivity to the orexigenic and anorexigenic effects of ghrelin and leptin, respectively. However, hypothalamic infusion of thyroid hormone during an IBA is sufficient to rescue hibernation anorexia. Our results reveal that thyroid hormone deficiency underlies hibernation anorexia and demonstrate the functional flexibility of the hypothalamic feeding center.

Regulation of peripheral tissue substrate metabolism by the gut-derived hormone ghrelin

Ghrelin increases in the circulation prior to entrained mealtimes, with the acylated (AG) form functioning to stimulate food intake and growth hormone release. Acutely, AG induces whole-body insulin resistance, potentially to maintain glycemia between meals. Alternatively, chronic administration of both AG and the unacylated isoform of ghrelin (unAG) is associated with improved skeletal muscle insulin sensitivity as well as reduced intramuscular lipids and inflammation. This may be due to effects on lipid metabolism, with ghrelin promoting storage of fat in adipose and liver while stimulating oxidation in skeletal muscle, preventing ectopic lipid accumulation. This is of specific relevance in the handling of meal-derived lipids, as ghrelin rises preprandially with effects persisting for 2-3 h following exposure in skeletal muscle, coinciding with elevated plasma FFAs. We hypothesize that ghrelin acts as a preparatory signal for incoming lipids, as well as a regulatory hormone for their use and storage. The effects of ghrelin on skeletal muscle are lost with high fat diet feeding and physical inactivity, potentially being implicated in the pathogenesis of metabolic disease. This review summarizes the metabolic effects of both ghrelin isoforms on peripheral tissues including the pancreas, adipose, liver, and skeletal muscle. Additionally, we speculate on the physiological relevance of these effects in vivo and suggest that ghrelin may be a key regulatory hormone for nutrient handling in the postprandial state.

Gastric mechanosensitive channel Piezo1 regulates ghrelin production and food intake

Ghrelin, produced mainly by gastric X/A-like cells, triggers a hunger signal to the central nervous system to stimulate appetite. It remains unclear whether X/A-like cells sense gastric distention and thus regulate ghrelin production. Here we show that PIEZO1 expression in X/A-like cells decreases in patients with obesity when compared to controls, whereas it increases after sleeve gastrectomy. Male and female mice with specific loss of Piezo1 in X/A-like cells exhibit hyperghrelinaemia and hyperphagia and are more susceptible to overweight. These phenotypes are associated with impairment of the gastric CaMKKII/CaMKIV-mTOR signalling pathway. Activation of PIEZO1 by Yoda1 or gastric bead implantation inhibits ghrelin production, decreases energy intake and induces weight loss in mice. Inhibition of ghrelin production by Piezo1 through the CaMKKII/CaMKIV-mTOR pathway can be recapitulated in a ghrelin-producing cell line mHypoE-42. Our study reveals a mechanical regulation of ghrelin production and appetite by PIEZO1 of X/A-like cells, which suggests a promising target for anti-obesity therapy.

Weight Regain after Metabolic Surgery: Beyond the Surgical Failure

Patients undergoing metabolic surgery have factors ranging from anatomo-surgical, endocrine metabolic, eating patterns and physical activity, mental health and psychological factors. Some of the latter can explain the possible pathophysiological neuroendocrine, metabolic, and adaptive mechanisms that cause the high prevalence of weight regain in postbariatric patients. Even metabolic surgery has proven to be effective in reducing excess weight in patients with obesity; some of them regain weight after this intervention. In this vein, several studies have been conducted to search factors and mechanisms involved in weight regain, to stablish strategies to manage this complication by combining metabolic surgery with either lifestyle changes, behavioral therapies, pharmacotherapy, endoscopic interventions, or finally, surgical revision. The aim of this revision is to describe certain aspects and mechanisms behind weight regain after metabolic surgery, along with preventive and therapeutic strategies for this complication.

Remnant gastritis in gastric cancer patients causes loss of muscle mass 6 months after gastrectomy: a retrospective cohort study of Helicobacter pylori infection

PURPOSE

In this study, we assessed the relationship between remnant gastritis and muscle mass loss and then investigated the potential relationship between Helicobacter pylori (HP) infection and remnant gastritis and muscle loss.

METHODS

We reviewed the medical records of 463 patients who underwent distal gastrectomy between January 2017 and March 2020. Of these patients, 100 with pStage I after laparoscopic surgery were included in this analysis.

RESULTS

A multivariate analysis showed that the total Residue, Gastritis, Bile (RGB) classification score, which indicates the degree of gastritis, was significantly associated with the rate of change (rate of decrease) in the psoas muscle area (PMA) during the first 6 months after surgery (p = 0.014). Propensity score matching was performed according to HP infection, and the rate of change in the PMA and the degree of remnant gastritis in 56 patients were compared. Neither was significantly associated with HP infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Remnant gastritis did contribute to psoas muscle mass loss during the initial 6 months after gastrectomy, and HP infection was not significantly associated with either remnant gastritis or psoas muscle mass loss. Nevertheless, the potential for HP eradication to prevent muscle loss and improve the survival prognosis for gastrectomy patients merits further research.

Risk of Sleep Apnea Is Associated with Abdominal Obesity Among Asian Americans: Comparing Waist-to-Hip Ratio and Body Mass Index

OBJECTIVE

This study examines associations between the risk of sleep apnea and abdominal obesity (assessed by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)) and general obesity (assessed by body mass index (BMI)) in a sample of Chinese and Korean American immigrants.

METHODS

The dataset included Chinese and Korean participants aged 50-75 who were recruited from primary care physicians' clinics from April 2018 to June 2020 in the Baltimore-Washington D.C. Metropolitan area (n = 394). Abdominal obesity was determined if WHR ≥ 0.9 in men and WHR ≥ 0.85 in women. General obesity was determined if BMI ≥ 30. The risk of sleep apnea was determined by using the Berlin questionnaire. Poisson regression models examined associations between sleep apnea risk and obesity. Models controlled for socio-demographic risk factors.

RESULTS

Twelve percent of the study participants were classified as a high risk for sleep apnea, and 75% had abdominal obesity whereas 6.4% had general obesity. High risk of sleep apnea was positively associated with abdominal obesity (PR = 1.31, 95% CI: 1.17-1.47) and general obesity (PR = 2.19, 95% CI: 0.90-5.32), marginally significant at p < 0.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Chinese and Korean immigrants living in the USA who are at high risk of sleep apnea have higher abdominal obesity, even after accounting for sociodemographic characteristics. Abdominal obesity may be a better indicator than general obesity when examining the risk of sleep apnea among Asian Americans.

INFORMATION ON CLINICAL TRIAL

Name: Screening To Prevent ColoRectal Cancer (STOP CRC) among At-Risk Asian American Primary Care Patients NCT Number: NCT03481296; Date of registration: March 29, 2018 URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03481296?term=Sunmin+Lee&draw=2&rank=1.

Update on Feeding Regulation by Ghrelin in Birds: Focused on Brain Network

Ghrelin is known to be a feeding stimulatory hormone in mammals, but in birds, in contrast to mammals, the feeding behavior is regulated in inhibitory manners. This is because the neuropeptides associated with the regulation in the brain are different from those in mammals, i.e., it has been shown that, in chickens, a corticotropin-releasing hormone family peptide, urocortin, which is a feeding-inhibitory peptide, is mainly involved in the inhibitory mechanism. However, feeding is also regulated by various neurotransmitters in the brain, and recently, their interaction with the mechanisms underlying feeding inhibition by ghrelin in birds has been intensively studied and clarified. This review summarizes these findings.

Changes in Circulating Acylated Ghrelin and Neutrophil Elastase in Diabetic Retinopathy

Background and Objectives: The role and the levels of ghrelin in diabetes-induced retinal damage have not yet been explored. The present study aimed to measure the serum levels of total ghrelin (TG), and its acylated (AG) and des-acylated (DAG) forms in patients with the two stages of diabetic retinopathy (DR), non-proliferative (NPDR) and proliferative (PDR). Moreover, the correlation between serum ghrelin and neutrophil elastase (NE) levels was investigated. Materials and Methods: The serum markers were determined via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in 12 non-diabetic subjects (CTRL), 15 diabetic patients without DR (Diabetic), 15 patients with NPDR, and 15 patients with PDR. Results: TG and AG serum levels were significantly decreased in Diabetic (respectively, p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 vs. CTRL), NPDR (p < 0.01 vs. Diabetic), and in PDR patients (p < 0.01 vs. NPDR). AG serum levels were inversely associated with DR abnormalities (microhemorrhages, microaneurysms, and exudates) progression (r = -0.83, p < 0.01), serum neutrophil percentage (r = -0.74, p < 0.01), and serum NE levels (r = -0.73, p < 0.01). The latter were significantly increased in the Diabetic (p < 0.05 vs. CTRL), NPDR (p < 0.01 vs. Diabetic), and PDR (p < 0.01 vs. PDR) groups. Conclusions: The two DR stages were characterized by decreased AG and increased NE levels. In particular, serum AG levels were lower in PDR compared to NPDR patients, and serum NE levels were higher in the PDR vs. the NPDR group. Together with the greater presence of retinal abnormalities, this could underline a distinctive role of AG in PDR compared to NPDR.

ANMCO (Italian Association of Hospital Cardiologists) scientific statement: obesity in adults-an approach for cardiologists

Obesity is a complex, chronic disease requiring a multidisciplinary approach to its management. In clinical practice, body mass index and waist-related measurements can be used for obesity screening. The estimated prevalence of obesity among adults worldwide is 12%. With the expected further increase in overall obesity prevalence, clinicians will increasingly be managing patients with obesity. Energy balance is regulated by a complex neurohumoral system that involves the central nervous system and circulating mediators, among which leptin is the most studied. The functioning of these systems is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Obesity generally occurs when a genetically predisposed individual lives in an obesogenic environment for a long period. Cardiologists are deeply involved in evaluating patients with obesity. Cardiovascular risk profile is one of the most important items to be quantified to understand the health risk due to obesity and the clinical benefit that a single patient can obtain with weight loss. At the individual level, appropriate patient involvement, the detection of potential obesity causes, and a multidisciplinary approach are tools that can improve clinical outcomes. In the near future, we will probably have new pharmacological tools at our disposal that will facilitate achieving and maintaining weight loss. However, pharmacological treatment alone cannot cure such a complex disease. The aim of this paper is to summarize some key points of this field, such as obesity definition and measurement tools, its epidemiology, the main mechanisms underlying energy homeostasis, health consequences of obesity with a focus on cardiovascular diseases and the obesity paradox.Level of evidence V: report of expert committees.

Synaptic plasticity and the role of astrocytes in central metabolic circuits

Neural circuits in the brain, primarily in the hypothalamus, are paramount to the homeostatic control of feeding and energy utilization. They integrate hunger, satiety, and body adiposity cues from the periphery and mediate the appropriate behavioral and physiological responses to satisfy the energy demands of the animal. Notably, perturbations in central homeostatic circuits have been linked to the etiology of excessive feeding and obesity. Considering the ever-changing energy requirements of the animal and required adaptations, it is not surprising that brain-feeding circuits remain plastic in adulthood and are subject to changes in synaptic strength as a consequence of nutritional status. Indeed, synapse density, probability of presynaptic transmitter release, and postsynaptic responses in hypothalamic energy balance centers are tailored to behavioral and physiological responses required to sustain survival. Mounting evidence supports key roles of astrocytes facilitating some of this plasticity. Here we discuss these synaptic plasticity mechanisms and the emerging roles of astrocytes influencing energy and glucose balance control in health and disease. This article is categorized under: Cancer > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Neurological Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.

Dynamic, sex- and diet-specific pleiotropism in the PAC1 receptor-mediated regulation of arcuate proopiomelanocortin and Neuropeptide Y/Agouti related peptide neuronal excitability by anorexigenic ventromedial nucleus PACAP neurons

This study furthers the investigation of how pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) and the PAC1 receptor (PAC1R) regulate the homeostatic energy balance circuitry. We hypothesized that apoptotic ablation of PACAP neurones in the hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus (VMN) would affect both energy intake and energy expenditure. We also hypothesized that selective PAC1R knockdown would impair the PACAP-induced excitation in anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurones and inhibition of orexigenic neuropeptide Y (NPY)/agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurones in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC). The results show CASPASE-3-induced ablation of VMN PACAP neurones leads to increased energy intake and meal frequency as well as decreased energy expenditure in lean animals. The effects were more robust in obese males, whereas we saw the opposite effects in obese females. We then utilized visualized whole-cell patch clamp recordings in hypothalamic slices. PAC1R knockdown in POMC neurones diminishes the PACAP-induced depolarization, increase in firing, decreases in energy intake and meal size, as well as increases in CO2 production and O2 consumption. Similarly, the lack of expression of the PAC1R in NPY/AgRP neurones greatly attenuates the PACAP-induced hyperpolarization, suppression of firing, decreases in energy intake and meal frequency, as well as increases in energy expenditure. The PACAP response in NPY/AgRP neurones switched from predominantly inhibitory to excitatory in fasted animals. Finally, the anorexigenic effect of PACAP was potentiated when oestradiol was injected into the ARC in ovariectomized females. This study demonstrates the critical role of anorexigenic VMN PACAP neurones and the PAC1R in exciting POMC and inhibiting NPY/AgRP neurons to control homeostatic feeding.

Leptin and energy balance: exploring Leptin's role in the regulation of energy intake and energy expenditure

Leptin is a tonic appetite-regulating hormone, which is integral for the long-term regulation of energy balance. The current evidence suggests that the typical orexigenic or anorexigenic response of many of these appetite-regulating hormones, most notably ghrelin and cholecystokinin (CCK), require leptin to function whereas glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is required for leptin to function, and these responses are altered when leptin injection or gene therapy is administered in combination with these same hormones or respective agonists. The appetite-regulatory pathway is complex, thus peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), orexin-A (OXA), and amylin also maintain ties to leptin, however these are less well understood. While reviews to date have focused on the existing relationships between leptin and the various neuropeptide modulators of appetite within the central nervous system (CNS) or it's role in thermogenesis, no review paper has synthesised the information regarding the interactions between appetite-regulating hormones and how leptin as a chronic regulator of energy balance can influence the acute appetite-regulatory response. Current evidence suggests that potential relationships exist between leptin and the circulating peripheral appetite hormones ghrelin, GLP-1, CCK, OXA and amylin to exhibit either synergistic or opposing effects on appetite inhibition. Though more research is warranted, leptin appears to be integral in both energy intake and energy expenditure. More specifically, functional leptin receptors appear to play an essential role in these processes.

The 5:2 diet does not increase adult hippocampal neurogenesis or enhance spatial memory in mice

New neurones are generated throughout life in the mammalian brain in a process known as adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN). Since this phenomenon grants a high degree of neuroplasticity influencing learning and memory, identifying factors that regulate AHN may be important for ameliorating age-related cognitive decline. Calorie restriction (CR) has been shown to enhance AHN and improve memory, mediated by the stomach hormone, ghrelin. Intermittent fasting (IF), a dietary strategy offering more flexibility than conventional CR, has also been shown to promote aspects of AHN. The 5:2 diet is a popular form of IF; however, its effects on AHN are not well characterised. To address this, we quantified AHN in adolescent and adult wild-type and ghrelin-receptor-deficient mice following 6 weeks on a 5:2 diet. We report an age-related decline in neurogenic processes. However, the 5:2 diet does not increase AHN nor enhance memory performance, suggesting that this specific form of IF is ineffective in promoting brain plasticity to support learning.

Association of serum leptin and ghrelin levels with smoking status on body weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background and aims

Smoking cigarettes is a major global health problem that affects appetite and weight. The aim of this systematic review was to determine how smoking affected plasma leptin and ghrelin levels.

Methods

A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Ovid was conducted using a well-established methodology to gather all related publications.

Results

A total of 40 studies were included in the analysis of 11,336 patients. The overall effect showed a with a mean difference (MD) of -1.92[95%CI; -2.63: -1.20] and p = 0.00001. Subgroup analysis by study design revealed significant differences as well, but with high heterogeneity within the subgroups (I2 of 82.3%). Subgroup by sex showed that there was a significant difference in mean difference between the smoking and non-smoking groups for males (MD = -5.75[95% CI; -8.73: -2.77], p = 0.0002) but not for females (MD = -3.04[95% CI; -6.6:0.54], p = 0.10). Healthy, pregnant, diabetic and CVD subgroups found significant differences in the healthy (MD = -1.74[95% CI; -03.13: -0.35], p = 0.01) and diabetic (MD = -7.69[95% CI, -1.64: -0.73], p = 0.03). subgroups, but not in the pregnant or cardiovascular disease subgroups. On the other hand, the meta-analysis found no statistically significant difference in Ghrelin serum concentration between smokers and non-smokers (MD = 0.52[95% CI, -0.60:1.63], p = 0.36) and observed heterogeneity in the studies (I2 = 68%).

Conclusion

This study demonstrates a correlation between smoking and serum leptin/ghrelin levels, which explains smoking's effect on body weight.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/ prospero/display_record.php, identifier (Record ID=326680).

Smell, taste and food habits changes along body mass index increase: an observational study

PURPOSE

To evaluate the changes in gustatory and olfactory sensitivity and dietary habits between healthy lean subjects (LS) and participants affected by overweight (OW), stage I and II obesity and to estimate possible impact of these factors on body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

After a general and ear-nose-throat evaluation, taste and olfactory function testing by means of taste strips and sniffin' stick tests, respectively, and food habits analysis by means of food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), 221 participants (68 LS [33 female; mean age = 53.01 ± 7.54 years]; 51 OW [26 female; mean age = 51.5 ± 12.16 years]; 50 stage I obesity [24 female; mean age = 50.78 ± 13.71 years] and 52 stage II obesity [24 female; mean age = 52.21 ± 13.35 years]) were enrolled in the study.

RESULTS

Significant (p < 0.008) reductions in total and subtest taste and smell scores were found in stage I and II obesity when compared to LS and OW participants. FFQ depicted a progressive intake increase of nutrients along the BMI stages. Significant associations were found between BMI and taste/smell subtests sugar taste carbs, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrated for the first time a parallel impairment in smell and taste in a large sample size of participants from lean to stage II obesity and could reinforce those previous theories claiming that the greater the ability in taste or smell qualities perception, the lower the preference for them, resulting in a lower intake of specific foods.

Role and molecular mechanism of ghrelin in degenerative musculoskeletal disorders

Ghrelin is a brain-gut peptide, and the first 28-peptide that was found in the gastric mucosa. It has a growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone-like effect and can potently promote the release of GH from pituitary GH cells; however, it is unable to stimulate GH synthesis. Therefore, ghrelin is believed to play a role in promoting bone growth and development. The correlation between ghrelin and some degenerative diseases of the musculoskeletal system has been reported recently, and ghrelin may be one of the factors influencing degenerative pathologies, such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, sarcopenia and intervertebral disc degeneration. With population ageing, the risk of health problems caused by degenerative diseases of the musculoskeletal system gradually increases. In this article, the roles of ghrelin in musculoskeletal disorders are summarized to reveal the potential effects of ghrelin as a key target in the treatment of related bone and muscle diseases and the need for further research.

Crosstalk between Gut Sensory Ghrelin Signaling and Adipose Tissue Sympathetic Outflow Regulates Metabolic Homeostasis

The stomach-derived orexigenic hormone ghrelin is a key regulator of energy homeostasis and metabolism in humans. The ghrelin receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR), is widely expressed in the brain and gastrointestinal vagal sensory neurons, and neuronal GHSR knockout results in a profoundly beneficial metabolic profile and protects against diet-induced obesity (DIO) and insulin resistance. Here we show that in addition to the well characterized vagal GHSR, GHSR is robustly expressed in gastrointestinal sensory neurons emanating from spinal dorsal root ganglia. Remarkably, sensory neuron GHSR deletion attenuates DIO through increased energy expenditure and sympathetic outflow to adipose tissue independent of food intake. In addition, neuronal viral tract tracing reveals prominent crosstalk between gut non-vagal sensory afferents and adipose sympathetic outflow. Hence, these findings demonstrate a novel gut sensory ghrelin signaling pathway critical for maintaining energy homeostasis.

CRH neurons in the lateral hypothalamic area regulate feeding behavior of mice

Food cues serve as pivotal triggers for eliciting physiological responses that subsequently influence food consumption. The magnitude of response induced by these cues stands as a critical determinant in the context of obesity risk. Nonetheless, the underlying neural mechanism that underpins how cues associated with edible food potentiate feeding behaviors remains uncertain. In this study, we revealed that corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)-expressing neurons in the lateral hypothalamic area played a crucial role in promoting consummatory behaviors in mice, shedding light on this intricate process. By employing an array of diverse assays, we initially established the activation of these neurons during feeding. Manipulations using optogenetic and chemogenetic assays revealed that their activation amplified appetite and promoted feeding behaviors, whereas inhibition decreased them. Additionally, our investigation identified downstream targets, including the ventral tegmental area, and underscored the pivotal involvement of the CRH neuropeptide itself in orchestrating this regulatory network. This research casts a clarifying light on the neural mechanism underlying the augmentation of appetite and the facilitation of feeding behaviors in response to food cues. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Unripe fruits of Litchi chinensis (Gaertn.) Sonn.: An overview of its toxicity

Litchi (Litchi chinensis) is a widely consumed fruit that has been used in many food and health-promoting products worldwide. Litchi is a good source of nutrients including vitamin and minerals, dietary fibers, proteins, and carbohydrates. Of note, several studies have reported that the constituents of litchi fruits elicit antioxidant properties and help to maintain blood pressure, and reduce the risk of stroke and heart attack. An unclearly explained outbreak occurred in June 2019 in Muzaffarpur (Bihar), India resulted in the death of more than 150 children in a week, followed by a total of 872 cases and 176 deaths. This outbreak was associated with the consumption of Litchi fruits and the occurrence of acute encephalitis syndrome. In this high Litchi production region, a huge number of acute encephalitis syndrome cases have been registered in children in the past two decades with high mortality due to these neurological disorders linked to the consumption of litchi. While finding out the causes for this recurrent outbreak, whether or not it is caused by a virus or the phytotoxins of litchi is to be considered critical. Amongst the probable causes were observed to be methylene cyclopropyl acetic acid and hypoglycin-A found in unripe Litchi fruits which can cause hypoglycemia and as a plausible cause of AES outbreaks. This review addresses this recurrent outbreak in-depth exploring the possible causes and discusses the possible mechanisms by which phytotoxins of litchi such as hypoglycin A and methylene cyclopropylglycine which may elicit such toxic effects.

Pharmacological GHSR (ghrelin receptor) blockade reduces alcohol binge-like drinking in male and female mice

Ghrelin is a peptide that is produced by endocrine cells that are primarily localized in the stomach. Ghrelin receptors (GHSR) are expressed in the brain and periphery. Preclinical and clinical studies support a role for ghrelin in alcohol drinking and seeking. The GHSR has been suggested to be a potential pharmacotherapeutic target for alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, the role of the ghrelin system and its potential modulation by biological sex on binge-like drinking has not been comprehensively investigated. The present study tested six GHSR antagonists in an alcohol binge-like drinking procedure in male and female mice. Systemic administration of the GHSR antagonists JMV2959, PF-5190457, PF-6870961, and HM-04 reduced alcohol intake in both male and female mice. YIL-781 decreased intake in males, and LEAP2 (likely peripherally restricted) did not reduce intake in mice of either sex. We also administered LEAP2 and JMV2959 intracerebroventricularly to investigate whether the effects of GHSR blockade on alcohol intake are mediated by central receptors. The central administration of LEAP2 and JMV2959 decreased alcohol intake, particularly in high-drinking animals. Finally, in a preliminary experiment, an anti-ghrelin vaccine was examined for its potential effect on binge-like drinking and had no effect. In all experiments, there was a lack of meaningful sex differences. These findings suggest that central GHSR mediates binge-like alcohol intake. These data reveal novel pharmacological compounds with translational potential in the treatment of AUD and provide further evidence of the GHSR as a potential treatment target for AUD.

Involvement of Sirtuin 1 in the Growth Hormone/Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 Signal Transduction and Its Impact on Growth Processes in Children

The regulation of growth processes in children depends on the synthesis of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Insulin-like growth factor 1, which is mainly secreted in the liver in response to GH, is the main peripheral mediator of GH action. Newly discovered factors regulating GH secretion and its effects are being studied recently. One of them is sirtuin 1 (SIRT1). This NAD+-dependent deacetylase, by modulating the JAK2/STAT pathway, is involved in the transduction of the GH signal in hepatocytes, leading to the synthesis of IGF-1. In addition, it participates in the regulation of the synthesis of GHRH in the hypothalamus and GH in the somatotropic cells. SIRT1 is suggested to be involved in growth plate chondrogenesis and longitudinal bone growth as it has a positive effect on the epiphyseal growth plate. SIRT1 is also implicated in various cellular processes, including metabolism, cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, oxidative stress response, and DNA repair. Thus, its expression varies depending on the different metabolic states. During malnutrition, SIRT1 blocks GH signal transduction in hepatocytes to reduce the IGF-1 secretion and prevent hypoglycemia (i.e., it causes transient GH resistance). In this review, we focused on the influence of SIRT1 on GH signal transduction and the implications that may arise for growth processes in children.

Genetic or pharmacological GHSR blockade has sexually dimorphic effects in rodents on a high-fat diet

The stomach-derived hormone ghrelin regulates essential physiological functions. The ghrelin receptor (GHSR) has ligand-independent actions, therefore, GHSR gene deletion may be a reasonable approach to investigate the role of this system in feeding behaviors and diet-induced obesity (DIO). Here we investigated the effects of a long-term (12 month) high-fat (HFD) versus regular diet on obesity-related measures in global GHSR-KO and wild type (WT) Wistar male and female rats. Our main findings were that the GHSR gene deletion protects against DIO and decreases food intake during HFD in male but not in female rats. GHSR gene deletion increased thermogenesis and brain glucose uptake in male rats and modified the effects of HFD on brain glucose metabolism in a sex-specific manner, as assessed with small animal positron emission tomography. RNA-sequencing was also used to show that GHSR-KO rats had upregulated expression of genes responsible for fat oxidation in brown adipose tissue. Central administration of a novel GHSR inverse agonist, PF-5190457, attenuated ghrelin-induced food intake, but only in male, not in female mice. HFD-induced binge-like eating was reduced by inverse agonism in both sexes. Our results support GHSR as a promising target for new pharmacotherapies for obesity.

Fish processing side streams are promising ingredients in diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) - Effects on growth physiology, appetite, and intestinal health

Due to the growth of aquaculture and the finite supply of fishmeal and oil, alternative marine protein and lipid sources are highly sought after. Particularly promising is the use of side streams from the fish processing industry, allowing for the recovery and retention of otherwise lost nutrients in the food production chain. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the potential of three fish processing side streams as fish feed ingredients. The side streams originated from different stages of the production chain, were used without further processing, and included sprat trimmings (heads, frames, viscera), marinated herring (fillets) and mackerel in tomato sauce (fillets and sauce). The three side streams contained moderate levels of protein (28-32% dry matter) and high levels of lipid (34-43%). The sprat trimmings included ca. 29% ash and 1.5% phosphorous which may add value due to the high level of essential minerals but needs to be considered in feed formulations. Three diets were formulated to include 50% of each side stream replacing all fishmeal and ca. 80% of the fish oil of the control diet, which contained 35% fishmeal and 10% fish oil. The diets were evaluated in a 12-week feeding trial using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish fed the sprat diet displayed the highest feed intake and growth, and showed no negative effects on the intestinal health. The mackerel side stream displayed a good digestibility but resulted in lower growth rates compared to the sprat trimmings. Fish fed the herring diet, displayed the lowest performance regarding growth, feed intake and digestibility. They further exhibited a reduction in nutrient uptake in both proximal and distal intestine, likely contributing to the observed lower digestibility and growth, and a reduction in plasma ghrelin levels. As part of a circular approach to increase marine lipid and protein production for fish feed, the tested sprat and mackerel side streams are promising raw materials however additional studies using more commercial-like feed formulations are encouraged.

Bridging Energy Need and Feeding Behavior: The Impact of eIF2α Phosphorylation in AgRP Neurons

Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) is a key mediator of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced unfolded protein response (UPR). In mammals, eIF2α is phosphorylated by overnutrition-induced ER stress and is related to the development of obesity. Here, we studied the function of phosphorylated eIF2α (p-eIF2α) in agouti-related peptide (AgRP) neurons using a mouse model (AgRPeIF2αA/A) with an AgRP neuron-specific substitution from Ser 51 to Ala in eIF2α, which impairs eIF2α phosphorylation in AgRP neurons. These AgRPeIF2αA/A mice had decreases in starvation-induced AgRP neuronal activity and food intake and an increased responsiveness to leptin. Intriguingly, impairment of eIF2α phosphorylation produced decreases in the starvation-induced expression of UPR and autophagy genes in AgRP neurons. Collectively, these findings suggest that eIF2α phosphorylation regulates AgRP neuronal activity by affecting intracellular responses such as the UPR and autophagy during starvation, thereby participating in the homeostatic control of whole-body energy metabolism.

ARTICLE HIGHLIGHTS

This study examines the impact of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) phosphorylation, triggered by an energy deficit, on hypothalamic AgRP neurons and its subsequent influence on whole-body energy homeostasis. Impaired eIF2α phosphorylation diminishes the unfolded protein response and autophagy, both of which are crucial for energy deficit-induced activation of AgRP neurons. This study highlights the significance of eIF2α phosphorylation as a cellular marker indicating the availability of energy in AgRP neurons and as a molecular switch that regulates homeostatic feeding behavior.

Effects of ketone bodies on energy expenditure, substrate utilization, and energy intake in humans

The potential of ketogenic approaches to regulate energy balance has recently gained attention since ketones may influence both energy expenditure and energy intake. In this narrative review, we summarized the most relevant evidence about the role of ketosis on energy expenditure, substrate utilization, and energy intake in humans. We considered different strategies to induce ketosis, such as fasting, dietary manipulation, and exogenous ketone sources. In general, ketosis does not have a major influence on energy expenditure but promotes a shift in substrate utilization towards ketone body oxidation. The strategies to induce ketosis by reduction of dietary carbohydrate availability (e.g., ketogenic diets) do not independently influence energy intake, being thus equally effective for weight loss as diets with higher carbohydrate content. In contrast, the intake of medium-chain triglycerides and ketone esters induces ketosis and appears to increase energy expenditure and reduce energy intake in the context of high carbohydrate availability. These latter strategies lead to slightly enhanced weight loss. Unfortunately, distinguishing the effects of the various ketogenic strategies per se from the effects of other physiological responses is not possible with the available human data. Highly controlled, inpatient studies using targeted strategies to isolate the independent effects of ketones are required to adequately address this knowledge gap.

Chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal toxicity: Pathogenesis and current management

Chemotherapy is the most common treatment for malignant tumors. However, chemotherapy-induced gastrointestinal toxicity (CIGT) has been a major concern for cancer patients, which reduces their quality of life and leads to treatment intolerance and even cessation. Nevertheless, prevention and treatment for CIGT are challenging, due to the prevalence and complexity of the condition. Chemotherapeutic drugs directly damage gastrointestinal mucosa to induce CIGT, including nausea, vomiting, anorexia, gastrointestinal mucositis, and diarrhea, etc. The pathogenesis of CIGT involves multiple factors, such as gut microbiota disorders, inflammatory responses and abnormal neurotransmitter levels, that synergistically contribute to its occurrence and development. In particular, the dysbiosis of gut microbiota is usually linked to abnormal immune responses that increases inflammatory cytokines' expression, which is a common characteristic of many types of CIGT. Chemotherapy-induced intestinal neurotoxicity is also a vital concern in CIGT. Currently, modern medicine is the dominant treatment of CIGT, however, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has attracted interest as a complementary and alternative therapy that can greatly alleviate CIGT. Accordingly, this review aimed to comprehensively summarize the pathogenesis and current management of CIGT using PubMed and Google Scholar databases, and proposed that future research for CIGT should focus on the gut microbiota, intestinal neurotoxicity, and promising TCM therapies, which may help to develop more effective interventions and optimize managements of CIGT.

The efficacy and safety of anamorelin for patients with cancer-related anorexia/cachexia syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Cancer-related anorexia/cachexia syndrome (CACS) is characterized by anorexia and loss of body weight. Evidence is insufficient to strongly endorse any pharmacologic agent for the treatment of CACS. In this systematic review, we assessed the efficacy of oral anamorelin treatment for patients with CACS. On July 6, 2022, we systematically searched the following databases for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of adults with CACS comparing oral anamorelin versus placebo: CENTRAL, PubMed, EMBASE, and ICHUSHI. The primary outcomes were total body weight (TBW), patient-reported quality of life (QOL), and adverse events (AEs). Secondary outcomes included lean body mass (LBM), overall survival (OS), non-dominant hand grip strength (HGS), and appetite. We included seven RCTs with a total of 1944 CACS patients. Anamorelin significantly increased TBW (mean difference (MD) 1.73, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.34-2.13, p < 0.00001), LBM (MD 1.06, 95% CI 0.30-1.81, p = 0.006), and QOL (standardized mean difference (SMD) 0.16, 95% CI 0.04-0.27, p = 0.006) compared with placebo without a significant difference in all AEs, severe AEs, OS, HGS or appetite. Anamorelin may be an effective treatment for CACS patients; however, further studies are needed to confirm the efficacy and safety of this drug.