Virus-assisted mapping of neural inputs to a feeding center in the hypothalamus

In vivo dynamics of hard tissue-forming cell origins: Insights from Cre/loxP-based cell lineage tracing studies

Bone tissue provides structural support for our bodies, with the inner bone marrow (BM) acting as a hematopoietic organ. Within the BM tissue, two types of stem cells play crucial roles: mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) (or skeletal stem cells) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). These stem cells are intricately connected, where BM-MSCs give rise to bone-forming osteoblasts and serve as essential components in the BM microenvironment for sustaining HSCs. Despite the mid-20th century proposal of BM-MSCs, their in vivo identification remained elusive owing to a lack of tools for analyzing stemness, specifically self-renewal and multipotency. To address this challenge, Cre/loxP-based cell lineage tracing analyses are being employed. This technology facilitated the in vivo labeling of specific cells, enabling the tracking of their lineage, determining their stemness, and providing a deeper understanding of the in vivo dynamics governing stem cell populations responsible for maintaining hard tissues. This review delves into cell lineage tracing studies conducted using commonly employed genetically modified mice expressing Cre under the influence of LepR, Gli1, and Axin2 genes. These studies focus on research fields spanning long bones and oral/maxillofacial hard tissues, offering insights into the in vivo dynamics of stem cell populations crucial for hard tissue homeostasis.

IGF-1 and insulin receptors in LepRb neurons jointly regulate body growth, bone mass, reproduction, and metabolism

Leptin receptor (LepRb)-expressing neurons are known to link body growth and reproduction, but whether these functions are mediated via insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) signaling is unknown. IGF-1 and insulin can bind to each other's receptors, permitting IGF-1 signaling in the absence of IGF1R. Therefore, we created mice lacking IGF1R exclusively in LepRb neurons (IGF1RLepRb mice) and simultaneously lacking IGF1R and insulin receptor (IR) in LepRb neurons (IGF1R/IRLepRb mice) and then characterized their body growth, bone morphology, reproductive and metabolic functions. We found that IGF1R and IR in LepRb neurons were required for normal timing of pubertal onset, while IGF1R in LepRb neurons played a predominant role in regulating adult fertility and exerted protective effects against reproductive aging. Accompanying these reproductive deficits, IGF1RLepRb mice and IGF1R/IRLepRb mice had transient growth retardation. Notably, IGF1R in LepRb neurons was indispensable for normal trabecular and cortical bone mass accrual in both sexes. These findings suggest that IGF1R in LepRb neurons is involved in the interaction among body growth, bone development, and reproduction. Though only mild changes in body weight were detected, simultaneous deletion of IGF1R and IR in LepRb neurons caused dramatically increased fat mass composition, decreased lean mass composition, lower energy expenditure, and locomotor activity in both sexes. Male IGF1R/IRLepRb mice exhibited impaired insulin sensitivity. These findings suggest that IGF1R and IR in LepRb neurons jointly regulated body composition, energy balance, and glucose homeostasis. Taken together, our studies identified the sex-dependent complex roles of IGF1R and IR in LepRb neurons in regulating body growth, reproduction, and metabolism.

Semaphorin 6D tunes amygdalar circuits for emotional, metabolic, and inflammatory outputs

Regulated neural-metabolic-inflammatory responses are essential for maintaining physiological homeostasis. However, the molecular machinery that coordinates neural, metabolic, and inflammatory responses is largely unknown. Here, we show that semaphorin 6D (SEMA6D) coordinates anxiogenic, metabolic, and inflammatory outputs from the amygdala by maintaining synaptic homeostasis. Using genome-wide approaches, we identify SEMA6D as a pleiotropic gene for both psychiatric and metabolic traits in human. Sema6d deficiency increases anxiety in mice. When fed a high-fat diet, Sema6d-/- mice display attenuated obesity and enhanced myelopoiesis compared with control mice due to higher sympathetic activity via the β3-adrenergic receptor. Genetic manipulation and spatial and single-nucleus transcriptomics reveal that SEMA6D in amygdalar interneurons is responsible for regulating anxiogenic and autonomic responses. Mechanistically, SEMA6D is required for synaptic maturation and γ-aminobutyric acid transmission. These results demonstrate that SEMA6D is important for the normal functioning of the neural circuits in the amygdala, coupling emotional, metabolic, and inflammatory responses.

Induction of osteoblast apoptosis stimulates macrophage efferocytosis and paradoxical bone formation

Apoptosis is crucial for tissue homeostasis and organ development. In bone, apoptosis is recognized to be a main fate of osteoblasts, yet the relevance of this process remains underexplored. Using our murine model with inducible Caspase 9, the enzyme that initiates intrinsic apoptosis, we triggered apoptosis in a proportion of mature osteocalcin (OCN+) osteoblasts and investigated the impact on postnatal bone development. Osteoblast apoptosis stimulated efferocytosis by osteal macrophages. A five-week stimulation of OCN+ osteoblast apoptosis in 3-week-old male and female mice significantly enhanced vertebral bone formation while increasing osteoblast precursors. A similar treatment regimen to stimulate osterix+ cell apoptosis had no impact on bone volume or density. The vertebral bone accrual following stimulation of OCN+ osteoblast apoptosis did not translate in improved mechanical strength due to disruption of the lacunocanalicular network. The observed bone phenotype was not influenced by changes in osteoclasts but was associated with stimulation of macrophage efferocytosis and vasculature formation. Phenotyping of efferocytic macrophages revealed a unique transcriptomic signature and expression of factors including VEGFA. To examine whether macrophages participated in the osteoblast precursor increase following osteoblast apoptosis, macrophage depletion models were employed. Depletion of macrophages via clodronate-liposomes and the CD169-diphtheria toxin receptor mouse model resulted in marked reduction in leptin receptor+ and osterix+ osteoblast precursors. Collectively, this work demonstrates the significance of osteoblast turnover via apoptosis and efferocytosis in postnatal bone formation. Importantly, it exposes the potential of targeting this mechanism to promote bone anabolism in the clinical setting.

Variation in mesenchymal KITL/SCF and IGF1 expression in middle age underlies steady-state hematopoietic stem cell aging

ABSTRACT

Intrinsic molecular programs and extrinsic factors including proinflammatory molecules are understood to regulate hematopoietic aging. This is based on foundational studies using genetic perturbation to evaluate causality. However, individual organisms exhibit natural variation in the hematopoietic aging phenotypes and the molecular basis of this heterogeneity is poorly understood. Here, we generated individual single-cell transcriptomic profiles of hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cell types in 5 young adult and 9 middle-aged C57BL/6J female mice, providing a web-accessible transcriptomic resource for the field. Among all assessed cell types, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) exhibited the greatest phenotypic variation in expansion among individual middle-aged mice. We computationally pooled samples to define modules representing the molecular signatures of middle-aged HSCs and interrogated, which extrinsic regulatory cell types and factors would predict the variance in these signatures between individual middle-aged mice. Decline in signaling mediated by adiponectin, kit ligand (KITL) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) from mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) was predicted to have the greatest transcriptional impact on middle-aged HSCs, as opposed to signaling mediated by endothelial cells or mature hematopoietic cell types. In individual middle-aged mice, lower expression of Kitl and Igf1 in MSCs was highly correlated with reduced lymphoid lineage commitment of HSCs and increased signatures of differentiation-inactive HSCs. These signatures were independent of expression of aging-associated proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor α and RANTES. In sum, we find that Kitl and Igf1 expression are coregulated and variable between individual mice at the middle age and expression of these factors is predictive of HSC activation and lymphoid commitment independently of inflammation.

Hematopoietic stem cell niche generation and maintenance are distinguishable by an epitranscriptomic program

The niche is typically considered as a pre-established structure sustaining stem cells. Therefore, the regulation of its formation remains largely unexplored. Whether distinct molecular mechanisms control the establishment versus maintenance of a stem cell niche is unknown. To address this, we compared perinatal and adult bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), a key component of the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) niche. MSCs exhibited enrichment in genes mediating m6A mRNA methylation at the perinatal stage and downregulated the expression of Mettl3, the m6A methyltransferase, shortly after birth. Deletion of Mettl3 from developing MSCs but not osteoblasts led to excessive osteogenic differentiation and a severe HSC niche formation defect, which was significantly rescued by deletion of Klf2, an m6A target. In contrast, deletion of Mettl3 from MSCs postnatally did not affect HSC niche. Stem cell niche generation and maintenance thus depend on divergent molecular mechanisms, which may be exploited for regenerative medicine.

Fibrous periosteum repairs bone fracture and maintains the healed bone throughout mouse adulthood

Bone is regarded as one of few tissues that heals without fibrous scar. The outer layer of the periosteum is covered with fibrous tissue, whose function in bone formation is unknown. We herein developed a system to distinguish the fate of fibrous-layer periosteal cells (FL-PCs) from the skeletal stem/progenitor cells (SSPCs) in the cambium-layer periosteum and bone marrow in mice. We showed that FL-PCs did not participate in steady-state osteogenesis, but formed the main body of fibrocartilaginous callus during fracture healing. Moreover, FL-PCs invaded the cambium-layer periosteum and bone marrow after fracture, forming neo-SSPCs that continued to maintain the healed bones throughout adulthood. The FL-PC-derived neo-SSPCs expressed lower levels of osteogenic signature genes and displayed lower osteogenic differentiation activity than the preexisting SSPCs. Consistent with this, healed bones were thinner and formed more slowly than normal bones. Thus, the fibrous periosteum becomes the cellular origin of bones after fracture and alters bone properties permanently.

Loss of GIPR in LEPR cells impairs glucose control by GIP and GIP:GLP-1 co-agonism without affecting body weight and food intake in mice

OBJECTIVE

The glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) decreases body weight via central GIP receptor (GIPR) signaling, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we assessed whether GIP regulates body weight and glucose control via GIPR signaling in cells that express the leptin receptor (Lepr).

METHODS

Hypothalamic, hindbrain, and pancreatic co-expression of Gipr and Lepr was assessed using single cell RNAseq analysis. Mice with deletion of Gipr in Lepr cells were generated and metabolically characterized for alterations in diet-induced obesity (DIO), glucose control and leptin sensitivity. Long-acting single- and dual-agonists at GIPR and GLP-1R were further used to assess drug effects on energy and glucose metabolism in DIO wildtype (WT) and Lepr-Gipr knock-out (KO) mice.

RESULTS

Gipr and Lepr show strong co-expression in the pancreas, but not in the hypothalamus and hindbrain. DIO Lepr-Gipr KO mice are indistinguishable from WT controls related to body weight, food intake and diet-induced leptin resistance. Acyl-GIP and the GIPR:GLP-1R co-agonist MAR709 remain fully efficacious to decrease body weight and food intake in DIO Lepr-Gipr KO mice. Consistent with the demonstration that Gipr and Lepr highly co-localize in the endocrine pancreas, including the β-cells, we find the superior glycemic effect of GIPR:GLP-1R co-agonism over single GLP-1R agonism to vanish in Lepr-Gipr KO mice.

CONCLUSIONS

GIPR signaling in cells/neurons that express the leptin receptor is not implicated in the control of body weight or food intake, but is of crucial importance for the superior glycemic effects of GIPR:GLP-1R co-agonism relative to single GLP-1R agonism.

Identification of the metaphyseal skeletal stem cell building trabecular bone

Skeletal stem cells (SSCs) that are capable of self-renewal and multipotent differentiation contribute to bone development and homeostasis. Several populations of SSCs at different skeletal sites have been reported. Here, we identify a metaphyseal SSC (mpSSC) population whose transcriptional landscape is distinct from other bone mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs). These mpSSCs are marked by Sstr2 or Pdgfrb+Kitl-, located just underneath the growth plate, and exclusively derived from hypertrophic chondrocytes (HCs). These HC-derived mpSSCs have properties of self-renewal and multipotency in vitro and in vivo, producing most HC offspring postnatally. HC-specific deletion of Hgs, a component of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport, impairs the HC-to-mpSSC conversion and compromises trabecular bone formation. Thus, mpSSC is the major source of BMSCs and osteoblasts in bone marrow, supporting the postnatal trabecular bone formation.

Reassessing endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in mouse bone marrow: insights from lineage tracing models

Endothelial cells (ECs) and bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) play crucial roles in supporting hematopoiesis and hematopoietic regeneration. However, whether ECs are a source of BMSCs remains unclear. Here, we evaluate the contribution of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition to BMSC generation in postnatal mice. Single-cell RNA sequencing identifies ECs expressing BMSC markers Prrx1 and Lepr; however, this could not be validated using Prrx1-Cre and Lepr-Cre transgenic mice. Additionally, only a minority of BMSCs are marked by EC lineage tracing models using Cdh5-rtTA-tetO-Cre or Tek-CreERT2. Moreover, Cdh5+ BMSCs and Tek+ BMSCs show distinct spatial distributions and characteristic mesenchymal markers, suggestive of their origination from different progenitors rather than CDH5+ TEK+ ECs. Furthermore, myeloablation induced by 5-fluorouracil treatment does not increase Cdh5+ BMSCs. Our findings indicate that ECs hardly convert to BMSCs during homeostasis and myeloablation-induced hematopoietic regeneration, highlighting the importance of using appropriate genetic models and conducting careful data interpretation in studies concerning endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition.

Essential role of MFSD1-GLMP-GIMAP5 in lymphocyte survival and liver homeostasis

We detected ENU-induced alleles of Mfsd1 (encoding the major facilitator superfamily domain containing 1 protein) that caused lymphopenia, splenomegaly, progressive liver pathology, and extramedullary hematopoiesis (EMH). MFSD1 is a lysosomal membrane-bound solute carrier protein with no previously described function in immunity. By proteomic analysis, we identified association between MFSD1 and both GLMP (glycosylated lysosomal membrane protein) and GIMAP5 (GTPase of immunity-associated protein 5). Germline knockout alleles of Mfsd1, Glmp, and Gimap5 each caused lymphopenia, liver pathology, EMH, and lipid deposition in the bone marrow and liver. We found that the interactions of MFSD1 and GLMP with GIMAP5 are essential to maintain normal GIMAP5 expression, which in turn is critical to support lymphocyte development and liver homeostasis that suppresses EMH. These findings identify the protein complex MFSD1-GLMP-GIMAP5 operating in hematopoietic and extrahematopoietic tissues to regulate immunity and liver homeostasis.

Leptin receptor+ cells promote bone marrow innervation and regeneration by synthesizing nerve growth factor

The bone marrow contains peripheral nerves that promote haematopoietic regeneration after irradiation or chemotherapy (myeloablation), but little is known about how this is regulated. Here we found that nerve growth factor (NGF) produced by leptin receptor-expressing (LepR+) stromal cells is required to maintain nerve fibres in adult bone marrow. In nerveless bone marrow, steady-state haematopoiesis was normal but haematopoietic and vascular regeneration were impaired after myeloablation. LepR+ cells, and the adipocytes they gave rise to, increased NGF production after myeloablation, promoting nerve sprouting in the bone marrow and haematopoietic and vascular regeneration. Nerves promoted regeneration by activating β2 and β3 adrenergic receptor signalling in LepR+ cells, and potentially in adipocytes, increasing their production of multiple haematopoietic and vascular regeneration growth factors. Peripheral nerves and LepR+ cells thus promote bone marrow regeneration through a reciprocal relationship in which LepR+ cells sustain nerves by synthesizing NGF and nerves increase regeneration by promoting the production of growth factors by LepR+ cells.

Loss of endothelial membrane KIT ligand affects systemic KIT ligand levels but not bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells

A critical regulatory role of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) vascular niches in the bone marrow has been implicated to occur through endothelial niche cell expression of KIT ligand. However, endothelial-derived KIT ligand is expressed in both a soluble and membrane-bound form and not unique to bone marrow niches, and it is also systemically distributed through the circulatory system. Here, we confirm that upon deletion of both the soluble and membrane-bound forms of endothelial-derived KIT ligand, HSCs are reduced in mouse bone marrow. However, the deletion of endothelial-derived KIT ligand was also accompanied by reduced soluble KIT ligand levels in the blood, precluding any conclusion as to whether the reduction in HSC numbers reflects reduced endothelial expression of KIT ligand within HSC niches, elsewhere in the bone marrow, and/or systemic soluble KIT ligand produced by endothelial cells outside of the bone marrow. Notably, endothelial deletion, specifically of the membrane-bound form of KIT ligand, also reduced systemic levels of soluble KIT ligand, although with no effect on stem cell numbers, implicating an HSC regulatory role primarily of soluble rather than membrane KIT ligand expression in endothelial cells. In support of a role of systemic rather than local niche expression of soluble KIT ligand, HSCs were unaffected in KIT ligand deleted bones implanted into mice with normal systemic levels of soluble KIT ligand. Our findings highlight the need for more specific tools to unravel niche-specific roles of regulatory cues expressed in hematopoietic niche cells in the bone marrow.

Loss of Grem1-lineage chondrogenic progenitor cells causes osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is characterised by an irreversible degeneration of articular cartilage. Here we show that the BMP-antagonist Gremlin 1 (Grem1) marks a bipotent chondrogenic and osteogenic progenitor cell population within the articular surface. Notably, these progenitors are depleted by injury-induced OA and increasing age. OA is also caused by ablation of Grem1 cells in mice. Transcriptomic and functional analysis in mice found that articular surface Grem1-lineage cells are dependent on Foxo1 and ablation of Foxo1 in Grem1-lineage cells caused OA. FGFR3 signalling was confirmed as a promising therapeutic pathway by administration of pathway activator, FGF18, resulting in Grem1-lineage chondrocyte progenitor cell proliferation, increased cartilage thickness and reduced OA. These findings suggest that OA, in part, is caused by mechanical, developmental or age-related attrition of Grem1 expressing articular cartilage progenitor cells. These cells, and the FGFR3 signalling pathway that sustains them, may be effective future targets for biological management of OA.

Ebf3+ niche-derived CXCL12 is required for the localization and maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells

Lympho-hematopoiesis is regulated by cytokines; however, it remains unclear how cytokines regulate hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) to induce production of lymphoid progenitors. Here, we show that in mice whose CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) is deleted from half HSC niche cells, termed CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12)-abundant reticular (CAR) cells, HSCs migrate from CXCL12-deficient niches to CXCL12-intact niches. In mice whose CXCL12 is deleted from all Ebf3+/leptin receptor (LepR)+ CAR cells, HSCs are markedly reduced and their ability to generate B cell progenitors is reduced compared with that to generate myeloid progenitors even when transplanted into wild-type mice. Additionally, CXCL12 enables the maintenance of B lineage repopulating ability of HSCs in vitro. These results demonstrate that CAR cell-derived CXCL12 attracts HSCs to CAR cells within bone marrow and plays a critical role in the maintenance of HSCs, especially lymphoid-biased or balanced HSCs. This study suggests an additional mechanism by which cytokines act on HSCs to produce B cells.

Perivascular niche cells sense thrombocytopenia and activate hematopoietic stem cells in an IL-1 dependent manner

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) residing in specialized niches in the bone marrow are responsible for the balanced output of multiple short-lived blood cell lineages in steady-state and in response to different challenges. However, feedback mechanisms by which HSCs, through their niches, sense acute losses of specific blood cell lineages remain to be established. While all HSCs replenish platelets, previous studies have shown that a large fraction of HSCs are molecularly primed for the megakaryocyte-platelet lineage and are rapidly recruited into proliferation upon platelet depletion. Platelets normally turnover in an activation-dependent manner, herein mimicked by antibodies inducing platelet activation and depletion. Antibody-mediated platelet activation upregulates expression of Interleukin-1 (IL-1) in platelets, and in bone marrow extracellular fluid in vivo. Genetic experiments demonstrate that rather than IL-1 directly activating HSCs, activation of bone marrow Lepr+ perivascular niche cells expressing IL-1 receptor is critical for the optimal activation of quiescent HSCs upon platelet activation and depletion. These findings identify a feedback mechanism by which activation-induced depletion of a mature blood cell lineage leads to a niche-dependent activation of HSCs to reinstate its homeostasis.

Loss of Notch signaling in skeletal stem cells enhances bone formation with aging

Skeletal stem and progenitor cells (SSPCs) perform bone maintenance and repair. With age, they produce fewer osteoblasts and more adipocytes leading to a loss of skeletal integrity. The molecular mechanisms that underlie this detrimental transformation are largely unknown. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that Notch signaling becomes elevated in SSPCs during aging. To examine the role of increased Notch activity, we deleted Nicastrin, an essential Notch pathway component, in SSPCs in vivo. Middle-aged conditional knockout mice displayed elevated SSPC osteo-lineage gene expression, increased trabecular bone mass, reduced bone marrow adiposity, and enhanced bone repair. Thus, Notch regulates SSPC cell fate decisions, and moderating Notch signaling ameliorates the skeletal aging phenotype, increasing bone mass even beyond that of young mice. Finally, we identified the transcription factor Ebf3 as a downstream mediator of Notch signaling in SSPCs that is dysregulated with aging, highlighting it as a promising therapeutic target to rejuvenate the aged skeleton.

Hematopoietic cell-derived IL-15 supports NK cell development in scattered and clustered localization within the bone marrow

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune cells critical for protective immune responses against infection and cancer. Although NK cells differentiate in the bone marrow (BM) in an interleukin-15 (IL-15)-dependent manner, the cellular source of IL-15 remains elusive. Using NK cell reporter mice, we show that NK cells are localized in the BM in scattered and clustered manners. NK cell clusters overlap with monocyte and dendritic cell accumulations, whereas scattered NK cells require CXCR4 signaling. Using cell-specific IL-15-deficient mice, we show that hematopoietic cells, but not stromal cells, support NK cell development in the BM through IL-15. In particular, IL-15 produced by monocytes and dendritic cells appears to contribute to NK cell development. These results demonstrate that hematopoietic cells are the IL-15 niche for NK cell development in the BM and that BM NK cells are present in scattered and clustered compartments by different mechanisms, suggesting their distinct functions in the immune response.

The Past, Present, and Future of Genetically Engineered Mouse Models for Skeletal Biology

The ability to create genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) has exponentially increased our understanding of many areas of biology. Musculoskeletal biology is no exception. In this review, we will first discuss the historical development of GEMMs and how these developments have influenced musculoskeletal disease research. This review will also update our 2008 review that appeared in BONEKey, a journal that is no longer readily available online. We will first review the historical development of GEMMs in general, followed by a particular emphasis on the ability to perform tissue-specific (conditional) knockouts focusing on musculoskeletal tissues. We will then discuss how the development of CRISPR/Cas-based technologies during the last decade has revolutionized the generation of GEMMs.

Leptin receptor neurons in the dorsomedial hypothalamus input to the circadian feeding network

Salient cues, such as the rising sun or availability of food, entrain biological clocks for behavioral adaptation. The mechanisms underlying entrainment to food availability remain elusive. Using single-nucleus RNA sequencing during scheduled feeding, we identified a dorsomedial hypothalamus leptin receptor-expressing (DMHLepR) neuron population that up-regulates circadian entrainment genes and exhibits calcium activity before an anticipated meal. Exogenous leptin, silencing, or chemogenetic stimulation of DMHLepR neurons disrupts the development of molecular and behavioral food entrainment. Repetitive DMHLepR neuron activation leads to the partitioning of a secondary bout of circadian locomotor activity that is in phase with the stimulation and dependent on an intact suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Last, we found a DMHLepR neuron subpopulation that projects to the SCN with the capacity to influence the phase of the circadian clock. This direct DMHLepR-SCN connection is well situated to integrate the metabolic and circadian systems, facilitating mealtime anticipation.

Olfactory modulation of stress-response neural circuits

Stress responses, which are crucial for survival, are evolutionally conserved throughout the animal kingdom. The most common endocrine axis among stress responses is that triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons (CRHNs) in the hypothalamus. Signals of various stressors are detected by different sensory systems and relayed through individual neural circuits that converge on hypothalamic CRHNs to initiate common stress hormone responses. To investigate the neurocircuitry mechanisms underlying stress hormone responses induced by a variety of stressors, researchers have recently developed new approaches employing retrograde transsynaptic viral tracers, providing a wealth of information about various types of neural circuits that control the activity of CRHNs in response to stress stimuli. Here, we review earlier and more recent findings on the stress neurocircuits that converge on CRHNs, focusing particularly on olfactory systems that excite or suppress the activities of CRHNs and lead to the initiation of stress responses. Because smells are arguably the most important signals that enable animals to properly cope with environmental changes and survive, unveiling the regulatory mechanisms by which smells control stress responses would provide broad insight into how stress-related environmental cues are perceived in the animal brain.

Transneuronal Circuit Analysis with Pseudorabies Viruses

Our ability to understand the function of the nervous system is dependent upon defining the connections of its constituent neurons. Development of methods to define connections within neural networks has always been a growth industry in the neurosciences. Transneuronal spread of neurotropic viruses currently represents the best means of defining synaptic connections within neural networks. The method exploits the ability of viruses to invade neurons, replicate, and spread through the intimate synaptic connections that enable communication among neurons. Since the method was first introduced in the 1970s, it has benefited from an increased understanding of the virus life cycle, the function of viral genomes, and the ability to manipulate the viral genome in support of directional spread of virus and the expression of transgenes. In this article, we review these advances in viral tracing technology and the ways in which they may be applied for functional dissection of neural networks. © 2023 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Retrograde infection of CNS circuits by peripheral injection of virus Basic Protocol 2: Transneuronal analysis by intracerebral injection Alternate Protocol 1: Transneuronal analysis with multiple recombinant strains Alternate Protocol 2: Conditional replication and spread of PRV Alternate Protocol 3: Conditional reporters of PRV infection and spread Alternate Protocol 4: Reporters of neural activity in polysynaptic circuits Support Protocol 1: Growing and titering a PRV viral stock Support Protocol 2: Immunohistochemical processing and detection Support Protocol 3: Dual-immunofluorescence localization.

Directed stepwise tracing of polysynaptic neuronal circuits with replication-deficient pseudorabies virus

Brain functions are accomplished by polysynaptic circuits formed by neurons wired together through multiple orders of synaptic connections. Polysynaptic connectivity has been difficult to examine due to a lack of methods of continuously tracing the pathways in a controlled manner. Here, we demonstrate directed, stepwise retrograde polysynaptic tracing by inducible reconstitution of replication-deficient trans-neuronal pseudorabies virus (PRVΔIE) in the brain. Furthermore, PRVΔIE replication can be temporally restricted to minimize its neurotoxicity. With this tool, we delineate a wiring diagram between the hippocampus and striatum-two major brain systems for learning, memory, and navigation-that consists of projections from specific hippocampal domains to specific striatal areas via distinct intermediate brain regions. Therefore, this inducible PRVΔIE system provides a tool for dissecting polysynaptic circuits underlying complex brain functions.

Systematic dissection of coordinated stromal remodeling identifies Sox10+ glial cells as a therapeutic target in myelofibrosis

Remodeling of the tissue niche is often evident in diseases, yet, the stromal alterations and their contribution to pathogenesis are poorly characterized. Bone marrow fibrosis is a maladaptive feature of primary myelofibrosis (PMF). We performed lineage tracing and found that most collagen-expressing myofibroblasts were derived from leptin-receptor-positive (LepR+) mesenchymal cells, whereas a minority were from Gli1-lineage cells. Deletion of Gli1 did not impact PMF. Unbiased single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) confirmed that virtually all myofibroblasts originated from LepR-lineage cells, with reduced expression of hematopoietic niche factors and increased expression of fibrogenic factors. Concurrently, endothelial cells upregulated arteriolar-signature genes. Pericytes and Sox10+ glial cells expanded drastically with heightened cell-cell signaling, suggesting important functional roles in PMF. Chemical or genetic ablation of bone marrow glial cells ameliorated fibrosis and improved other pathology in PMF. Thus, PMF involves complex remodeling of the bone marrow microenvironment, and glial cells represent a promising therapeutic target.

Harnessing matrix stiffness to engineer a bone marrow niche for hematopoietic stem cell rejuvenation

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) self-renewal and aging are tightly regulated by paracrine factors from the bone marrow niche. However, whether HSC rejuvenation could be achieved by engineering a bone marrow niche ex vivo remains unknown. Here, we show that matrix stiffness fine-tunes HSC niche factor expression by bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). Increased stiffness activates Yap/Taz signaling to promote BMSC expansion upon 2D culture, which is largely reversed by 3D culture in soft gelatin methacrylate hydrogels. Notably, 3D co-culture with BMSCs promotes HSC maintenance and lymphopoiesis, reverses aging hallmarks of HSCs, and restores their long-term multilineage reconstitution capacity. In situ atomic force microscopy analysis reveals that mouse bone marrow stiffens with age, which correlates with a compromised HSC niche. Taken together, this study highlights the biomechanical regulation of the HSC niche by BMSCs, which could be harnessed to engineer a soft bone marrow niche for HSC rejuvenation.

Endothelial and Leptin Receptor+ cells promote the maintenance of stem cells and hematopoiesis in early postnatal murine bone marrow

Mammalian hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) colonize the bone marrow during late fetal development, and this becomes the major site of hematopoiesis after birth. However, little is known about the early postnatal bone marrow niche. We performed single-cell RNA sequencing of mouse bone marrow stromal cells at 4 days, 14 days, and 8 weeks after birth. Leptin-receptor-expressing (LepR⁺) stromal cells and endothelial cells increased in frequency during this period and changed their properties. At all postnatal stages, LepR⁺ cells and endothelial cells expressed the highest stem cell factor (Scf) levels in the bone marrow. LepR⁺ cells expressed the highest Cxcl12 levels. In early postnatal bone marrow, SCF from LepR⁺/Prx1⁺ stromal cells promoted myeloid and erythroid progenitor maintenance, while SCF from endothelial cells promoted HSC maintenance. Membrane-bound SCF in endothelial cells contributed to HSC maintenance. LepR⁺ cells and endothelial cells are thus important niche components in early postnatal bone marrow.

Subset of the periodontal ligament expressed leptin receptor contributes to part of hard tissue-forming cells

The lineage of periodontal ligament (PDL) stem cells contributes to alveolar bone (AB) and cementum formation, which are essential for tooth-jawbone attachment. Leptin receptor (LepR), a skeletal stem cell marker, is expressed in PDL; however, the stem cell capacity of LepR⁺ PDL cells remains unclear. We used a Cre/LoxP-based approach and detected LepR-cre-labeled cells in the perivascular around the root apex; their number increased with age. In the juvenile stage, LepR⁺ PDL cells differentiated into AB-embedded osteocytes rather than cementocytes, but their contribution to both increased with age. The frequency of LepR⁺ PDL cell-derived lineages in hard tissue was < 20% per total cells at 1-year-old. Similarly, LepR⁺ PDL cells differentiated into osteocytes following tooth extraction, but their frequency was < 9%. Additionally, both LepR⁺ and LepR^- PDL cells demonstrated spheroid-forming capacity, which is an indicator of self-renewal. These results indicate that both LepR⁺ and LepR^- PDL populations contributed to hard tissue formation. LepR^- PDL cells increased the expression of LepR during spheroid formation, suggesting that the LepR^- PDL cells may hierarchically sit upstream of LepR⁺ PDL cells. Collectively, the origin of hard tissue-forming cells in the PDL is heterogeneous, some of which express LepR.

Dynamic crosstalk between hematopoietic stem cells and their niche from emergence to aging

The behavior of somatic stem cells is regulated by their niche. Interaction between hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and their niches are a representative model to understand stem cell-niche interplay. Here, we provide an overview of crosstalk between HSCs and their niches in bone marrow and extramedullary organs following the life journey of HSCs from emergence, development, maturation until aging. We highlight the unique differences of HSC niches in different life stages within various organs focusing on recent literature to propose new speculations and hypotheses.

Molecular Dissection of Somatic Skeletal Disease in Neurofibromatosis Type 1

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is a tumor predisposition syndrome caused by heterozygous NF1 gene mutations. Patients with NF1 present with pleiotropic somatic secondary manifestations, including development of bone pseudarthrosis after fracture. Somatic NF1 gene mutations were reproducibly identified in patient-derived pseudarthrosis specimens, suggesting a local mosaic cell population including somatic pathologic cells. The somatic cellular pathogenesis of NF1 pseudarthroses remains unclear, though defects in osteogenesis have been posited. Here, we applied time-series single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) to patient-matched control and pseudarthrosis-derived primary bone stromal cells (BSCs). We show that osteogenic specification to an osteoblast progenitor cell population was evident for control bone-derived cells and haploinsufficient pseudarthrosis-derived cells. Similar results were observed for somatic patient fracture-derived NF1^-/- cells; however, expression of genetic pathways associated with skeletal mineralization were significantly reduced in NF1^-/- cells compared with fracture-derived NF1^+/- cells. In mice, we show that Nf1 expressed in bone marrow osteoprogenitors is required for the maintenance of the adult skeleton. Results from our study implicate impaired Clec11a-Itga11-Wnt signaling in the pathogenesis of NF1-associated skeletal disease. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Kruppel-like Factors in Skeletal Physiology and Pathologies

Kruppel-like factors (KLFs) belong to a large group of zinc finger-containing transcription factors with amino acid sequences resembling the Drosophila gap gene Krüppel. Since the first report of molecular cloning of the KLF family gene, the number of KLFs has increased rapidly. Currently, 17 murine and human KLFs are known to play crucial roles in the regulation of transcription, cell proliferation, cellular differentiation, stem cell maintenance, and tissue and organ pathogenesis. Recent evidence has shown that many KLF family molecules affect skeletal cells and regulate their differentiation and function. This review summarizes the current understanding of the unique roles of each KLF in skeletal cells during normal development and skeletal pathologies.

Viral Tools for Neural Circuit Tracing

Neural circuits provide an anatomical basis for functional networks. Therefore, dissecting the structure of neural circuits is essential to understanding how the brain works. Recombinant neurotropic viruses are important tools for neural circuit tracing with many advantages over non-viral tracers: they allow for anterograde, retrograde, and trans-synaptic delivery of tracers in a cell type-specific, circuit-selective manner. In this review, we summarize the recent developments in the viral tools for neural circuit tracing, discuss the key principles of using viral tools in neuroscience research, and highlight innovations for developing and optimizing viral tools for neural circuit tracing across diverse animal species, including nonhuman primates.

Bone marrow and periosteal skeletal stem/progenitor cells make distinct contributions to bone maintenance and repair

A fundamental question in bone biology concerns the contributions of skeletal stem/progenitor cells (SSCs) in the bone marrow versus the periosteum to bone repair. We found that SSCs in adult bone marrow can be identified based on Lepr^cre and Adiponectin-cre/creER expression while SSCs in adult periosteum can be identified based on Gli1^creERT2 expression. Under steady-state conditions, new bone arose primarily from bone marrow SSCs. After bone injuries, both SSC populations began proliferating but made very different contributions to bone repair. Drill injuries were primarily repaired by LepR⁺/Adiponectin⁺ bone marrow SSCs. Conversely, bicortical fractures were primarily repaired by Gli1⁺ periosteal SSCs, though LepR⁺/Adiponectin⁺ bone marrow cells transiently formed trabecular bone at the fracture site. Gli1⁺ periosteal cells also regenerated LepR⁺ bone marrow stromal cells that expressed hematopoietic niche factors at fracture sites. Different bone injuries are thus repaired by different SSCs, with periosteal cells regenerating bone and marrow stroma after non-stabilized fractures.

Pharmacological FGF21 signals to glutamatergic neurons to enhance leptin action and lower body weight during obesity

OBJECTIVE

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is a peripherally-derived endocrine hormone that acts on the central nervous system (CNS) to regulate whole body energy homeostasis. Pharmacological administration of FGF21 promotes weight loss in obese animal models and human subjects with obesity. However, the central targets mediating these effects are incompletely defined.

METHODS

To explore the mechanism for FGF21's effects to lower body weight, we pharmacologically administer FGF21 to genetic animal models lacking the obligate FGF21 co-receptor, β-klotho (KLB), in either glutamatergic (Vglut2-Cre) or GABAergic (Vgat-Cre) neurons. In addition, we abolish FGF21 signaling to leptin receptor (LepR-Cre) positive cells. Finally, we examine the synergistic effects of FGF21 and leptin to lower body weight and explore the importance of physiological leptin levels in FGF21-mediated regulation of body weight.

RESULTS

Here we show that FGF21 signaling to glutamatergic neurons is required for FGF21 to modulate energy expenditure and promote weight loss. In addition, we demonstrate that FGF21 signals to leptin receptor-expressing cells to regulate body weight, and that central leptin signaling is required for FGF21 to fully stimulate body weight loss during obesity. Interestingly, co-administration of FGF21 and leptin synergistically leads to robust weight loss.

CONCLUSIONS

These data reveal an important endocrine crosstalk between liver- and adipose-derived signals which integrate in the CNS to modulate energy homeostasis and body weight regulation.

MicroRNA-7 regulates melanocortin circuits involved in mammalian energy homeostasis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) modulate physiological responses by repressing the expression of gene networks. We found that global deletion of microRNA-7 (miR-7), the most enriched miRNA in the hypothalamus, causes obesity in mice. Targeted deletion of miR-7 in Single-minded homolog 1 (Sim1) neurons, a critical component of the hypothalamic melanocortin pathway, causes hyperphagia, obesity and increased linear growth, mirroring Sim1 and Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) haplo-insufficiency in mice and humans. We identified Snca (α-Synuclein) and Igsf8 (Immunoglobulin Superfamily Member 8) as miR-7 target genes that act in Sim1 neurons to regulate body weight and endocrine axes. In humans, MIR-7-1 is located in the last intron of HNRNPK, whose promoter drives the expression of both genes. Genetic variants at the HNRNPK locus that reduce its expression are associated with increased height and truncal fat mass. These findings demonstrate that miR-7 suppresses gene networks involved in the hypothalamic melanocortin pathway to regulate mammalian energy homeostasis.

DDRGK1 is required for the proper development and maintenance of the growth plate cartilage

Loss-of-function mutations in DDRGK1 have been shown to cause Shohat type spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia (SEMD). In zebrafish, loss of function of ddrgk1 leads to defects in early cartilage development. Ddrgk1-/- mice show delayed mesenchymal condensation in the limb buds and early embryonic lethality. Mechanistically, Ddrgk1 interacts with Sox9 and reduces ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation of Sox9 protein. To investigate the cartilage-specific role of DDRGK1, conditional knockout mice were generated by intercrossing Prx1-Cre transgenic mice with Ddrgkfl/fl mice to delete its expression in limb mesenchymal cells. Mutant mice showed progressive severe shortening of the limbs and joint abnormalities. The growth plate showed disorganization with shortened proliferative zone and enlarged hypertrophic zone. In correlation with these findings, Sox9 and Col2a1 protein levels were decreased, while Col10a1 expression was expanded. These data demonstrate the importance of Ddrgk1 during growth plate development. In contrast, deletion of Ddrgk1 with the osteoblast-specific Osteocalcin-Cre and Leptin receptor-Cre lines did not show bone phenotypes, suggesting that the effect on limb development is cartilage-specific. To evaluate the role of DDRGK1 in cartilage postnatal homeostasis, inducible Agc1-CreERT2; Ddrgklfl/fl mice were generated. Mice in which Ddrgk1 was deleted at 3 months of age showed disorganized growth plate, with significant reduction in proteoglycan deposition. These data demonstrate a postnatal requirement for Ddrgk1 in maintaining normal growth plate morphology. Together, these findings highlight the physiological role of Ddrgk1 in the development and maintenance of the growth plate cartilage. Furthermore, these genetic mouse models recapitulate the clinical phenotype of short stature and joint abnormalities observed in patients with Shohat type SEMD.

Hedgehog signaling reprograms hair follicle niche fibroblasts to a hyper-activated state

Hair follicle stem cells are regulated by dermal papilla fibroblasts, their principal signaling niche. Overactivation of Hedgehog signaling in the niche dramatically accelerates hair growth and induces follicle multiplication in mice. On single-cell RNA sequencing, dermal papilla fibroblasts increase heterogeneity to include new Wnt5a^high states. Transcriptionally, mutant fibroblasts activate regulatory networks for Gli1, Alx3, Ebf1, Hoxc8, Sox18, and Zfp239. These networks jointly upregulate secreted factors for multiple hair morphogenesis and hair-growth-related pathways. Among these is non-conventional TGF-β ligand Scube3. We show that in normal mouse skin, Scube3 is expressed only in dermal papillae of growing, but not in resting follicles. SCUBE3 protein microinjection is sufficient to induce new hair growth, and pharmacological TGF-β inhibition rescues mutant hair hyper-activation phenotype. Moreover, dermal-papilla-enriched expression of SCUBE3 and its growth-activating effect are partially conserved in human scalp hair follicles. Thus, Hedgehog regulates mesenchymal niche function in the hair follicle via SCUBE3/TGF-β mechanism.

Sox2 in the dermal papilla regulates hair follicle pigmentation

Within the hair follicle (HF) niche, dermal papilla (DP) cells are well known for the hair induction capacity; however, DP cell signaling also regulates HF pigmentation. Here we describe how Sox2 in the DP is a key regulator of melanocyte signaling. To study the largely unknown regulatory role the DP has on hair pigmentation, we characterize leptin receptor (Lepr) expression in the skin and as a genetic tool to target the DP. Sox2 ablation in the DP results in a phenotypic switch from eumelanin to pheomelanin. Mechanistically, we describe a temporal upregulation of Agouti and downregulation of Corin, directly by Sox2 in the DP. We also show that bone morphogenic protein (BMP) signaling regulation by Sox2 is responsible for downregulating MC1R, Dct, and Tyr in melanocytes of Sox2 cKO mice. Thus, we demonstrate that Sox2 in the DP regulates not only the choice of hair pigment but also the overall HF pigment production.

Loss of Parathyroid Hormone Receptor Signaling in Osteoprogenitors Is Associated With Accumulation of Multiple Hematopoietic Lineages in the Bone Marrow

Osteoblasts and their progenitors play an important role in the support of hematopoiesis within the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment. We have previously reported that parathyroid hormone receptor (PTH1R) signaling in osteoprogenitors is required for normal B cell precursor differentiation, and for trafficking of maturing B cells out of the BM. Cells of the osteoblast lineage have been implicated in the regulation of several other hematopoietic cell populations, but the effects of PTH1R signaling in osteoprogenitors on other maturing hematopoietic populations have not been investigated. Here we report that numbers of maturing myeloid, T cell, and erythroid populations were increased in the BM of mice lacking PTH1R in Osx-expressing osteoprogenitors (PTH1R-OsxKO mice; knockout [KO]). This increase in maturing hematopoietic populations was not associated with an increase in progenitor populations or proliferation. The spleens of PTH1R-OsxKO mice were small with decreased numbers of all hematopoietic populations, suggesting that trafficking of mature hematopoietic populations between BM and spleen is impaired in the absence of PTH1R in osteoprogenitors. RNA sequencing (RNAseq) of osteoprogenitors and their descendants in bone and BM revealed increased expression of vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (VCAM-1) and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12), factors that are involved in trafficking of several hematopoietic populations. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Hematopoietic stem cell regeneration through paracrine regulation of the Wnt5a/Prox1 signaling axis

The crosstalk between the BM microenvironment (niche) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is critical for HSC regeneration. Here, we show that in mice, deletion of the Fanconi anemia (FA) genes Fanca and Fancc dampened HSC regeneration through direct effects on HSCs and indirect effects on BM niche cells. FA HSCs showed persistent upregulation of the Wnt target Prox1 in response to total body irradiation (TBI). Accordingly, lineage-specific deletion of Prox1 improved long-term repopulation of the irradiated FA HSCs. Forced expression of Prox1 in WT HSCs mimicked the defective repopulation phenotype of FA HSCs. WT mice but not FA mice showed significant induction by TBI of BM stromal Wnt5a protein. Mechanistically, FA proteins regulated stromal Wnt5a expression, possibly through modulating the Wnt5a transcription activator Pax2. Wnt5a treatment of irradiated FA mice enhanced HSC regeneration. Conversely, Wnt5a neutralization inhibited HSC regeneration after TBI. Wnt5a secreted by LepR⁺CXCL12⁺ BM stromal cells inhibited β-catenin accumulation, thereby repressing Prox1 transcription in irradiated HSCs. The detrimental effect of deregulated Wnt5a/Prox1 signaling on HSC regeneration was also observed in patients with FA and aged mice. Irradiation induced upregulation of Prox1 in the HSCs of aged mice, and deletion of Prox1 in aged HSCs improved HSC regeneration. Treatment of aged mice with Wnt5a enhanced hematopoietic repopulation. Collectively, these findings identified the paracrine Wnt5a/Prox1 signaling axis as a regulator of HSC regeneration under conditions of injury and aging.

Strategies for Targeting Neural Circuits: How to Manipulate Neurons Using Virus Vehicles

Viral strategies are the leading methods for mapping neural circuits. Viral vehicles combined with genetic tools provide the possibility to visualize entire functional neural networks and monitor and manipulate neural circuit functions by high-resolution cell type- and projection-specific targeting. Optogenetics and chemogenetics drive brain research forward by exploring causal relationships among different brain regions. Viral strategies offer a fresh perspective for the analysis of the structure-function relationship of the neural circuitry. In this review, we summarize current and emerging viral strategies for targeting neural circuits and focus on adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors.

Subversion of Serotonin Receptor Signaling in Osteoblasts by Kynurenine Drives Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Remodeling of the microenvironment by tumor cells can activate pathways that favor cancer growth. Molecular delineation and targeting of such malignant-cell nonautonomous pathways may help overcome resistance to targeted therapies. Herein we leverage genetic mouse models, patient-derived xenografts, and patient samples to show that acute myeloid leukemia (AML) exploits peripheral serotonin signaling to remodel the endosteal niche to its advantage. AML progression requires the presence of serotonin receptor 1B (HTR1B) in osteoblasts and is driven by AML-secreted kynurenine, which acts as an oncometabolite and HTR1B ligand. AML cells utilize kynurenine to induce a proinflammatory state in osteoblasts that, through the acute-phase protein serum amyloid A (SAA), acts in a positive feedback loop on leukemia cells by increasing expression of IDO1-the rate-limiting enzyme for kynurenine synthesis-thereby enabling AML progression. This leukemia-osteoblast cross-talk, conferred by the kynurenine-HTR1B-SAA-IDO1 axis, could be exploited as a niche-focused therapeutic approach against AML, opening new avenues for cancer treatment.

SIGNIFICANCE

AML remains recalcitrant to treatments due to the emergence of resistant clones. We show a leukemia-cell nonautonomous progression mechanism that involves activation of a kynurenine-HTR1B-SAA-IDO1 axis between AML cells and osteoblasts. Targeting the niche by interrupting this axis can be pharmacologically harnessed to hamper AML progression and overcome therapy resistance. This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 873.

Lepr+ mesenchymal cells sense diet to modulate intestinal stem/progenitor cells via Leptin-Igf1 axis

Diet can impact on gut health and disease by modulating intestinal stem cells (ISCs). However, it is largely unknown if and how the ISC niche responds to diet and influences ISC function. Here, we demonstrate that Lepr⁺ mesenchymal cells (MCs) surrounding intestinal crypts sense diet change and provide a novel niche signal to maintain ISC and progenitor cell proliferation. The abundance of these MCs increases upon administration of a high-fat diet (HFD) but dramatically decreases upon fasting. Depletion of Lepr⁺ MCs resulted in fewer intestinal stem/progenitor cells, compromised the architecture of crypt-villus axis and impaired intestinal regeneration. Furthermore, we showed that IGF1 secreted by Lepr⁺ MCs is an important effector that promotes proliferation of ISCs and progenitor cells in the intestinal crypt. We conclude that Lepr⁺ MCs sense diet alterations and, in turn, modulate intestinal stem/progenitor cell function via a stromal IGF1-epithelial IGF1R axis. These findings reveal that Lepr⁺ MCs are important mediators linking systemic diet changes to local ISC function and might serve as a novel therapeutic target for gut diseases.

High-resolution intravital imaging of the murine hypothalamus using GRIN lenses and confocal microscopy

Intravital studies of cellular morphology in structures such as the hypothalamus are challenging because of their location at the bottom of the brain. Here, we describe an intravital imaging protocol based on gradient refractive index (GRIN) lenses in conjunction with confocal microscopy to inspect fluorescent cells at high resolution in deep-brain areas. The approach relies on implanted guide-tubes for the interchangeable use of GRIN lenses, thereby allowing imaging at different magnifications and increasing the effective field of view.

For complete details on the use and execution of this profile, please refer to Butiaeva et al. (2021).

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A protocol for deep-brain intravital imaging at subcellular resolution in mouse

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A technique to longitudinally track fluorescently labelled cells and blood vessels

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A microendoscope and guide cannula-based imaging approach to expand field of view

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In vivo inspection of deeply seated brain structures at different magnifications

Single-cell transcriptomics of LepR-positive skeletal cells reveals heterogeneous stress-dependent stem and progenitor pools

Leptin receptor (LepR)-positive cells are key components of the bone marrow hematopoietic microenvironment, and highly enrich skeletal stem and progenitor cells that maintain homeostasis of the adult skeleton. However, the heterogeneity and lineage hierarchy within this population has been elusive. Using genetic lineage tracing and single-cell RNA sequencing, we found that Lepr-Cre labels most bone marrow stromal cells and osteogenic lineage cells in adult long bones. Integrated analysis of Lepr-Cre-traced cells under homeostatic and stress conditions revealed dynamic changes of the adipogenic, osteogenic, and periosteal lineages. Importantly, we discovered a Notch3+ bone marrow sub-population that is slow-cycling and closely associated with the vasculatures, as well as key transcriptional networks promoting osteo-chondrogenic differentiation. We also identified a Sca-1+ periosteal sub-population with high clonogenic activity but limited osteo-chondrogenic potential. Together, we mapped the transcriptomic landscape of adult LepR+ stem and progenitor cells and uncovered cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying their maintenance and lineage specification.

A distinct hypothalamus-to-β cell circuit modulates insulin secretion

The central nervous system has long been thought to regulate insulin secretion, an essential process in the maintenance of blood glucose levels. However, the anatomical and functional connections between the brain and insulin-producing pancreatic β cells remain undefined. Here, we describe a functional transneuronal circuit connecting the hypothalamus to β cells in mice. This circuit originates from a subpopulation of oxytocin neurons in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN^OXT), and it reaches the islets of the endocrine pancreas via the sympathetic autonomic branch to innervate β cells. Stimulation of PVN^OXT neurons rapidly suppresses insulin secretion and causes hyperglycemia. Conversely, silencing of these neurons elevates insulin levels by dysregulating neuronal signaling and secretory pathways in β cells and induces hypoglycemia. PVN^OXT neuronal activity is triggered by glucoprivation. Our findings reveal that a subset of PVN^OXT neurons form functional multisynaptic circuits with β cells in mice to regulate insulin secretion, and their function is necessary for the β cell response to hypoglycemia.

Application of AAV1 for Anterograde Transsynaptic Circuit Mapping and Input-Dependent Neuronal Cataloging

Viruses that spread transsynaptically provide a powerful means to study interconnected circuits in the brain. Here we describe the use of adeno-associated virus, serotype 1 (AAV1), as a tool to achieve robust, anterograde transsynaptic spread in a variety of unidirectional pathways. A protocol for performing intracranial AAV1 injections in mice is presented, along with additional guidance for planning experiments, sourcing materials, and optimizing the approach to achieve the most successful outcomes. By following the methods presented here, researchers will be able to reveal postsynaptically connected neurons downstream of a given AAV1 injection site and access these input-defined cells for subsequent mapping, recording, and manipulation to characterize their anatomical and functional properties. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol: Stereotaxic injection of AAV1 for anterograde transsynaptic spread.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Laying Hens Revealed the Role of Aging-Related Genes during Forced Molting

Molting in birds provides us with an ideal genetic model for understanding aging and rejuvenation since birds present younger characteristics for reproduction and appearance after molting. Forced molting (FM) by fasting in chickens causes aging of their reproductive system and then promotes cell redevelopment by providing water and feed again. To reveal the genetic mechanism of rejuvenation, we detected blood hormone indexes and gene expression levels in the hypothalamus and ovary of hens from five different periods during FM. Three hormones were identified as participating in FM. Furthermore, the variation trends of gene expression levels in the hypothalamus and ovary at five different stages were found to be basically similar using transcriptome analysis. Among them, 45 genes were found to regulate cell aging during fasting stress and 12 genes were found to promote cell development during the recovery period in the hypothalamus. In addition, five hub genes (INO80D, HELZ, AGO4, ROCK2, and RFX7) were identified by WGCNA. FM can restart the reproductive function of aged hens by regulating expression levels of genes associated with aging and development. Our study not only enriches the theoretical basis of FM but also provides insights for the study of antiaging in humans and the conception mechanism in elderly women.