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Lorenzetti V, Solowij N, Yücel M. The Role of Cannabinoids in Neuroanatomic Alterations in Cannabis Users. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 79:e17-31. [PMID: 26858212 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The past few decades have seen a marked change in the composition of commonly smoked cannabis. These changes primarily involve an increase of the psychoactive compound ∆(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and a decrease of the potentially therapeutic compound cannabidiol (CBD). This altered composition of cannabis may be linked to persistent neuroanatomic alterations typically seen in regular cannabis users. In this review, we summarize recent findings from human structural neuroimaging investigations. We examine whether neuroanatomic alterations are 1) consistently observed in samples of regular cannabis users, particularly in cannabinoid receptor-high areas, which are vulnerable to the effects of high circulating levels of THC, and 2) associated either with greater levels of cannabis use (e.g., higher dosage, longer duration, and earlier age of onset) or with distinct cannabinoid compounds (i.e., THC and CBD). Across the 31 studies selected for inclusion in this review, neuroanatomic alterations emerged across regions that are high in cannabinoid receptors (i.e., hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum). Greater dose and earlier age of onset were associated with these alterations. Preliminary evidence shows that THC exacerbates, whereas CBD protects from, such harmful effects. Methodologic differences in the quantification of levels of cannabis use prevent accurate assessment of cannabis exposure and direct comparison of findings across studies. Consequently, the field lacks large "consortium-style" data sets that can be used to develop reliable neurobiological models of cannabis-related harm, recovery, and protection. To move the field forward, we encourage a coordinated approach and suggest the urgent development of consensus-based guidelines to accurately and comprehensively quantify cannabis use and exposure in human studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Lorenzetti
- Brain and Mental Health Laboratory, Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne; Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne
| | - Nadia Solowij
- School of Psychology, Centre for Health Initiatives and Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Brain and Mental Health Laboratory, Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne; Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne.
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152
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Rubino T, Parolaro D. The Impact of Exposure to Cannabinoids in Adolescence: Insights From Animal Models. Biol Psychiatry 2016; 79:578-85. [PMID: 26344755 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The regular use of cannabis during adolescence is of particular concern because use by this age group seems to be associated with an increased likelihood of deleterious consequences, as reported by several epidemiologic studies. However, despite their unquestionable value, epidemiologic data are inconclusive. Modeling the adolescent phase in animals appears to be a useful approach to investigate the impact of cannabis use on the adolescent brain. In these models, adolescent cannabinoid exposure has been reported to cause long-term impairment in specific components of learning and memory and to have differential effects on anxiety, social behavior, and depressive-like signs. These findings suggest that it may represent, per se or in association with other hits, a risk factor for developing psychotic-like symptoms in adulthood. The neurobiological bases of this association include the induction of alterations in the maturational events of the endocannabinoid system occurring in the adolescent brain. Alterations in the endocannabinoid system may profoundly dysregulate developmental processes in some neurotransmitter systems, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate, mainly in the cortex. The resulting picture strongly resembles the one present in schizophrenic patients, highlighting the translational value of this experimental approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizi, Italy..
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizi, Italy
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153
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Adolescent Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol Exposure Alters WIN55,212-2 Self-Administration in Adult Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:1416-26. [PMID: 26388146 PMCID: PMC4793126 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug worldwide, and use is typically initiated during adolescence. The endocannabinoid system has an important role in formation of the nervous system, from very early development through adolescence. Cannabis exposure during this vulnerable period might lead to neurobiological changes that affect adult brain functions and increase the risk of cannabis use disorder. The aim of this study was to investigate whether exposure to Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in adolescent rats might enhance reinforcing effects of cannabinoids in adulthood. Male adolescent rats were treated with increasing doses of THC (or its vehicle) twice/day for 11 consecutive days (PND 45-55). When the animals reached adulthood, they were tested by allowing them to intravenously self-administer the cannabinoid CB1-receptor agonist WIN55,212-2. In a separate set of animals given the same THC (or vehicle) treatment regimen, electrophysiological and neurochemical experiments were performed to assess possible modifications of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, which is critically involved in cannabinoid-induced reward. Behavioral data showed that acquisition of WIN55,212-2 self-administration was enhanced in THC-exposed rats relative to vehicle-exposed controls. Neurophysiological data showed that THC-exposed rats displayed a reduced capacity for WIN55,212-2 to stimulate firing of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area and to increase dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens shell. These findings-that early, passive exposure to THC can produce lasting alterations of the reward system of the brain and subsequently increase cannabinoid self-administration in adulthood-suggest a mechanism by which adolescent cannabis exposure could increase the risk of subsequent cannabis dependence in humans.
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154
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Sex and age specific effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol during the periadolescent period in the rat: The unique susceptibility of the prepubescent animal. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2016; 58:88-100. [PMID: 26898326 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2016.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adolescents who use marijuana are more likely to exhibit anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders, including psychotic-like symptoms. Additionally, the age at onset of use and the stress history of the individual can affect responses to cannabis. To examine the effect of early life experience on adolescent Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure, we exposed adolescent (postnatal day (P) 29-38) male and female rats, either shipped from a supplier or born in our vivarium, to once daily injections of 3mg/kg THC. Our findings suggest that males are more sensitive to the anxiolytic and antidepressant effects of THC, as measured by the elevated plus maze (EPM) and forced swim test (FST), respectively, than females. Exposure to the FST increased plasma corticosterone levels, regardless of drug treatment or origin and females had higher levels than males overall. Shipping increased THC responses in females (acoustic startle habituation) and in males (latency to immobility in FST). No significant effects of THC or shipping on pre-pulse inhibition were observed. Due to differences in timing of puberty in males and females during the P29-38 period of THC treatment, we also dosed female rats between P21-30 (pre-puberty) and male rats between P39-48 (puberty). Pre-pubertal animals showed reductions in anxiety on the EPM, an effect that was not seen in animals treated during puberty. These results suggest that both sexes are more susceptible to changes in emotional behavior when THC exposure occurs just prior to the onset of puberty. Within the animals dosed from P29-38, THC increased cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) mRNA expression and tended to decrease CP55,940 stimulated [35S]GTPγS binding in the central amygdala only of females. Therefore, early stress enhances THC responses in males (in FST) and females (ASR habituation), THC alters CB1R expression and function in females only and prepubescent rats are generally more responsive to THC than pubertal rats. In summary, THC and stress interact with the developing endocannabinoid system in a sex specific manner during the peri-pubertal period.
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155
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AKT1 genotype moderates the acute psychotomimetic effects of naturalistically smoked cannabis in young cannabis smokers. Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e738. [PMID: 26882038 PMCID: PMC4872423 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Smoking cannabis daily doubles an individual's risk of developing a psychotic disorder, yet indicators of specific vulnerability have proved largely elusive. Genetic variation is one potential risk modifier. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the AKT1 and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) genes have been implicated in the interaction between cannabis, psychosis and cognition, but no studies have examined their impact on an individual's acute response to smoked cannabis. A total 442 healthy young cannabis users were tested while intoxicated with their own cannabis-which was analysed for delta-9-tetrahydrocannbinol (THC) and cannabidiol content-and also ± 7 days apart when drug-free. Psychotomimetic symptoms and working memory were assessed on both the sessions. Variation at the rs2494732 locus of the AKT1 gene predicted acute psychotic response to cannabis along with dependence on the drug and baseline schizotypal symptoms. Working memory following cannabis acutely was worse in females, with some suggestion of an impact of COMT polymorphism on working memory when drug-free. These findings are the first to demonstrate that AKT1 mediates the acute response to cannabis in otherwise healthy individuals and implicate the AKT1 pathway as a possible target for prevention and treatment of cannabis psychosis.
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156
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Lee TTY, Hill MN, Lee FS. Developmental regulation of fear learning and anxiety behavior by endocannabinoids. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2016; 15:108-24. [PMID: 26419643 PMCID: PMC4713313 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The developing brain undergoes substantial maturation into adulthood and the development of specific neural structures occurs on differing timelines. Transient imbalances between developmental trajectories of corticolimbic structures, which are known to contribute to regulation over fear learning and anxiety, can leave an individual susceptible to mental illness, particularly anxiety disorders. There is a substantial body of literature indicating that the endocannabinoid (eCB) system critically regulates stress responsivity and emotional behavior throughout the life span, making this system a novel therapeutic target for stress- and anxiety-related disorders. During early life and adolescence, corticolimbic eCB signaling changes dynamically and coincides with different sensitive periods of fear learning, suggesting that eCB signaling underlies age-specific fear learning responses. Moreover, perturbations to these normative fluctuations in corticolimbic eCB signaling, such as stress or cannabinoid exposure, could serve as a neural substrate contributing to alterations to the normative developmental trajectory of neural structures governing emotional behavior and fear learning. In this review, we first introduce the components of the eCB system and discuss clinical and rodent models showing eCB regulation of fear learning and anxiety in adulthood. Next, we highlight distinct fear learning and regulation profiles throughout development and discuss the ontogeny of the eCB system in the central nervous system, and models of pharmacological augmentation of eCB signaling during development in the context of fear learning and anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany T.-Y. Lee
- Dept. of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, V6T 1Z4
| | - Matthew N. Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Mathison Center for Mental Health Research and Education, Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy & Psychiatry, University of Calgary, Calgary AB, Canada T2N4N1
| | - Francis S. Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
- Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
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157
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Spring MG, Schoolcraft KD, López HH. The effects of adolescent cannabinoid exposure on seizure susceptibility and lethality in adult male rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2015; 58:101-106. [PMID: 26711091 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2015.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
There is substantial evidence in rodent models that chronic exposure to cannabinoids during adolescence can alter the development of neurobiological systems that are implicated in regulating brain activity and seizure. The current study explored whether adolescent cannabinoid treatment affects subsequent, adult seizure susceptibility. Sixty male Wistar Kyoto rats were treated with either the synthetic cannabinoid, CP 55,940 (0.4mg/kg, one treatment per day), or vehicle between 35 and 45days old. Subjects were then allowed to mature to adulthood. At 68-69days of age, subjects were tested for seizure susceptibility using the pro-convulsant, pentylenetetrazol (PTZ). Subjects received an acute injection of either 35mg/kg or 50mg/kg PTZ immediately prior to a 30-min behavioral seizure test. PTZ doses were chosen to produce low-to-moderate levels of seizure activity in control subjects. There were no significant differences between treated and control subjects in: latency to first seizure, mean seizure severity, percentage who displayed any seizure activity, percentage who displayed clonic seizure, or percentage who displayed tonic-clonic seizure. However, CP 55,940-treated subjects had a higher mortality rate compared to controls at both PTZ doses, suggesting that adolescent cannabinoid exposure may increase the lethality of severe seizures experienced in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell G Spring
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States
| | - Kathleen D Schoolcraft
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States
| | - Hassan H López
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Skidmore College, 815 N. Broadway, Saratoga Springs, NY 12866, United States.
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158
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Zamberletti E, Gabaglio M, Prini P, Rubino T, Parolaro D. Cortical neuroinflammation contributes to long-term cognitive dysfunctions following adolescent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatment in female rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 25:2404-15. [PMID: 26499171 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Over 180 million people consume cannabis globally. Cannabis use peaks during adolescence with a trend for continued consumption by adults. Notably, several studies have shown that long-term and heavy cannabis use during adolescence can impair brain maturation and predispose to neurodevelopmental disorders, although the neurobiological mechanisms underlying this association remain largely unknown. In this study, we evaluated whether, in female rats, chronic administration of increasing doses of the psychotropic plant-derived cannabis constituent, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), during adolescence (PND 35-45) could affect microglia function in the long-term. Furthermore, we explored a possible contribution of microglia to the development of THC-induced alterations in mood and cognition in adult female rats. Present data indicate that adolescent THC administration induces a persistent neuroinflammatory state specifically localized within the adult prefrontal cortex (PFC), characterized by increased expression of the pro-inflammatory markers, TNF-α, iNOS and COX-2, and reduction of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10. This neuroinflammatory phenotype is associated with down-regulation of CB1 receptor on neuronal cells and up-regulation of CB2 on microglia cells, conversely. Interestingly, blocking microglia activation with ibudilast during THC treatment significantly attenuates short-term memory impairments in adulthood, simultaneously preventing the increases in TNF-α, iNOS, COX-2 levels as well as the up-regulation of CB2 receptors on microglia cells. In contrast, THC-induced depressive-like behaviors were unaffected by ibudilast treatment. Our findings demonstrate that adolescent THC administration is associated with persistent neuroinflammation within the PFC and provide evidence for a causal association between microglial activation and the development long-term cognitive deficits induced by adolescent THC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Zamberletti
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy; Zardi Gori Foundation, Milan, Italy
| | - Marina Gabaglio
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy
| | - Pamela Prini
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy
| | - Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy; Zardi Gori Foundation, Milan, Italy.
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159
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Kokras N, Antoniou K, Mikail HG, Kafetzopoulos V, Papadopoulou-Daifoti Z, Dalla C. Forced swim test: What about females? Neuropharmacology 2015; 99:408-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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160
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Wakeford AGP, Flax SM, Pomfrey RL, Riley AL. Adolescent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure fails to affect THC-induced place and taste conditioning in adult male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 140:75-81. [PMID: 26577749 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescent initiation of drug use has been linked to problematic drug taking later in life and may represent an important variable that changes the balance of the rewarding and/or aversive effects of abused drugs which may contribute to abuse vulnerability. The current study examined the effects of adolescent THC exposure on THC-induced place preference (rewarding effects) and taste avoidance (aversive effects) conditioning in adulthood. METHODS Forty-six male Sprague-Dawley adolescent rats received eight injections of an intermediate dose of THC (3.2mg/kg) or vehicle. After these injections, animals were allowed to mature and then trained in a combined CTA/CPP procedure in adulthood (PND ~90). Animals were given four trials of conditioning with intervening water-recovery days, a final CPP test and then a one-bottle taste avoidance test. RESULTS THC induced dose-dependent taste avoidance but did not produce place conditioning. None of these effects was impacted by adolescent THC exposure. CONCLUSIONS Adolescent exposure to THC had no effect on THC taste and place conditioning in adulthood. The failure to see an effect of adolescent exposure was addressed in the context of other research that has assessed exposure of drugs of abuse during adolescence on drug reactivity in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G P Wakeford
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
| | - Shaun M Flax
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Rebecca L Pomfrey
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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161
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Lee TTY, Gorzalka BB. Evidence for a Role of Adolescent Endocannabinoid Signaling in Regulating HPA Axis Stress Responsivity and Emotional Behavior Development. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 125:49-84. [PMID: 26638764 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is a period characterized by many distinct physical, behavioral, and neural changes during the transition from child- to adulthood. In particular, adolescent neural changes often confer greater plasticity and flexibility, yet with this comes the potential for heightened vulnerability to external perturbations such as stress exposure or recreational drug use. There is substantial evidence to suggest that factors such as adolescent stress exposure have longer lasting and sometimes more deleterious effects on an organism than stress exposure during adulthood. Moreover, the adolescent neuroendocrine response to stress exposure is different from that of adults, suggesting that further maturation of the adolescent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is required. The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is a potential candidate underlying these age-dependent differences given that it is an important regulator of the adult HPA axis and neuronal development. Therefore, this review will focus on (1) the functionality of the adolescent HPA axis, (2) eCB regulation of the adult HPA axis, (3) dynamic changes in eCB signaling during the adolescent period, (4) the effects of adolescent stress exposure on the eCB system, and (5) modulation of HPA axis activity and emotional behavior by adolescent cannabinoid treatment. Collectively, the emerging picture suggests that the eCB system mediates interactions between HPA axis stress responsivity, emotionality, and maturational stage. These findings may be particularly relevant to our understanding of the development of affective disorders and the risks of adolescent cannabis consumption on emotional health and stress responsivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany T-Y Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Boris B Gorzalka
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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162
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Pagliaccio D, Barch DM, Bogdan R, Wood PK, Lynskey MT, Heath AC, Agrawal A. Shared Predisposition in the Association Between Cannabis Use and Subcortical Brain Structure. JAMA Psychiatry 2015; 72:994-1001. [PMID: 26308883 PMCID: PMC4624286 DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Prior neuroimaging studies have suggested that alterations in brain structure may be a consequence of cannabis use. Siblings discordant for cannabis use offer an opportunity to use cross-sectional data to disentangle such causal hypotheses from shared effects of genetics and familial environment on brain structure and cannabis use. OBJECTIVES To determine whether cannabis use is associated with differences in brain structure in a large sample of twins/siblings and to examine sibling pairs discordant for cannabis use to separate potential causal and predispositional factors linking lifetime cannabis exposure to volumetric alterations. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS Cross-sectional diagnostic interview, behavioral, and neuroimaging data were collected from community sampling and established family registries from August 2012 to September 2014. This study included data from 483 participants (22-35 years old) enrolled in the ongoing Human Connectome Project, with 262 participants reporting cannabis exposure (ie, ever used cannabis in their lifetime). MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Cannabis exposure was measured with the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism. Whole-brain, hippocampus, amygdala, ventral striatum, and orbitofrontal cortex volumes were related to lifetime cannabis use (ever used, age at onset, and frequency of use) using linear regressions. Genetic (ρg) and environmental (ρe) correlations between cannabis use and brain volumes were estimated. Linear mixed models were used to examine volume differences in sex-matched concordant unexposed (n = 71 pairs), exposed (n = 81 pairs), or exposure discordant (n = 89 pairs) sibling pairs. RESULTS Among 483 study participants, cannabis exposure was related to smaller left amygdala (approximately 2.3%; P = .007) and right ventral striatum (approximately 3.5%; P < .005) volumes. These volumetric differences were within the range of normal variation. The association between left amygdala volume and cannabis use was largely owing to shared genetic factors (ρg = -0.43; P = .004), while the origin of the association with right ventral striatum volumes was unclear. Importantly, brain volumes did not differ between sex-matched siblings discordant for use (fixed effect = -7.43; t = -0.93, P = .35). Both the exposed and unexposed siblings in pairs discordant for cannabis exposure showed reduced amygdala volumes relative to members of concordant unexposed pairs (fixed effect = 12.56; t = 2.97; P = .003). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this study, differences in amygdala volume in cannabis users were attributable to common predispositional factors, genetic or environmental in origin, with little support for causal influences. Causal influences, in isolation or in conjunction with predispositional factors, may exist for other brain regions (eg, ventral striatum) or at more severe levels of cannabis involvement and deserve further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Pagliaccio
- The Program in Neuroscience Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
,Corresponding author: Washington University in St Louis, Campus Box 1125, One Brookings Drive, St Louis, MO 63130, USA,
| | - Deanna M. Barch
- Department of Psychiatry Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
,Department of Psychology Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
,Department of Radiology Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Ryan Bogdan
- Department of Psychology Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | | | - Michael T. Lynskey
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, Department of Addictions, Kings College, London, UK
| | - Andrew C. Heath
- Department of Psychiatry Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Arpana Agrawal
- Department of Psychiatry Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
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163
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Korpi ER, den Hollander B, Farooq U, Vashchinkina E, Rajkumar R, Nutt DJ, Hyytiä P, Dawe GS. Mechanisms of Action and Persistent Neuroplasticity by Drugs of Abuse. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:872-1004. [DOI: 10.1124/pr.115.010967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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164
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Heitzeg MM, Cope LM, Martz ME, Hardee JE, Zucker RA. Brain activation to negative stimuli mediates a relationship between adolescent marijuana use and later emotional functioning. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2015; 16:71-83. [PMID: 26403581 PMCID: PMC4691419 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
This work investigated the impact of heavy marijuana use during adolescence on emotional functioning, as well as the brain functional mediators of this effect. Participants (n=40) were recruited from the Michigan Longitudinal Study (MLS). Data on marijuana use were collected prospectively beginning in childhood as part of the MLS. Participants were classified as heavy marijuana users (n=20) or controls with minimal marijuana use. Two facets of emotional functioning-negative emotionality and resiliency (a self-regulatory mechanism)-were assessed as part of the MLS at three time points: mean age 13.4, mean age 19.6, and mean age 23.1. Functional neuroimaging data during an emotion-arousal word task were collected at mean age 20.2. Negative emotionality decreased and resiliency increased across the three time points in controls but not heavy marijuana users. Compared with controls, heavy marijuana users had less activation to negative words in temporal, prefrontal, and occipital cortices, insula, and amygdala. Activation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to negative words mediated an association between marijuana group and later negative emotionality. Activation of the cuneus/lingual gyrus mediated an association between marijuana group and later resiliency. Results support growing evidence that heavy marijuana use during adolescence affects later emotional outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary M Heitzeg
- Department of Psychiatry, Addiction Research Center, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Lora M Cope
- Department of Psychiatry, Addiction Research Center, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Meghan E Martz
- Department of Psychiatry, Addiction Research Center, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 2044 East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA.
| | - Jillian E Hardee
- Department of Psychiatry, Addiction Research Center, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Robert A Zucker
- Department of Psychiatry, Addiction Research Center, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 2044 East Hall, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA.
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165
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Lee TTY, Hill MN, Hillard CJ, Gorzalka BB. Disruption of peri-adolescent endocannabinoid signaling modulates adult neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to stress in male rats. Neuropharmacology 2015; 99:89-97. [PMID: 26192544 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is known to regulate neural, endocrine and behavioral responses to stress in adults; however there is little knowledge regarding how this system governs the development and maturation of these responses. Previous work has reported dynamic and time-specific changes in CB1 receptor expression, N-arachidonylethanolamine (AEA) content and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) activity within corticolimbic structures throughout the peri-adolescent period. To examine whether fluctuations in adolescent eCB activity contribute to the development of adult stress responsivity and emotionality, we treated male Sprague-Dawley rats daily with the CB1R antagonist, AM-251 (5 mg/kg), or vehicle between post-natal days (PND) 35-45. Following this treatment, emotional behavior, HPA axis stress reactivity and habituation to repeated restraint stress, as well as corticolimbic eCB content were examined in adulthood (PND 75). Behaviorally, AM-251-treated males exhibited more active stress-coping behavior in the forced swim test, greater risk assessment behavior in the elevated plus maze and no significant differences in general motor activity. Peri-adolescent AM-251 treatment modified corticosterone habituation to repeated restraint exposure compared to vehicle. Peri-adolescent CB1R antagonism induced moderate changes in adult corticolimbic eCB signaling, with a significant decrease in amygdalar AEA, an increase in hypothalamic AEA and an increase in prefrontal cortical CB1R expression. Together, these data indicate that peri-adolescent endocannabinoid signaling contributes to the maturation of adult neurobehavioral responses to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany T-Y Lee
- Dept. of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Dept. of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Cecilia J Hillard
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Boris B Gorzalka
- Dept. of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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166
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Silva L, Harte-Hargrove L, Izenwasser S, Frank A, Wade D, Dow-Edwards D. Sex-specific alterations in hippocampal cannabinoid 1 receptor expression following adolescent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatment in the rat. Neurosci Lett 2015; 602:89-94. [PMID: 26118897 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2015] [Revised: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana use by adolescents has been on the rise since the early 1990s. With recent legalization and decriminalization acts passed, cannabinoid exposure in adolescents will undoubtedly increase. Human studies are limited in their ability to examine underlying changes in brain biochemistry making rodent models valuable. Studies in adult and adolescent animals show region and sex specific downregulation of the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor following chronic cannabinoid treatment. However, although sex-dependent changes in behavior have been observed during the drug abstinence period following adolescent cannabinoid exposure, little is known about CB1 receptor expression during this critical time. In order to characterize CB1 receptor expression following chronic adolescent Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure, we used [(3)H] CP55,940 binding to assess CB1 receptor expression in the dentate gyrus and areas CA1, CA2, and CA3 of the hippocampus in both male and female adolescent rats at both 24h and 2 weeks post chronic THC treatment. Consistent with other reported findings, we found downregulation of the CB1 receptor in the hippocampal formation at 24h post treatment. While this downregulation persisted in both sexes following two weeks of abstinence in the CA2 region, in females, this downregulation also persisted in areas CA1 and CA3. Expression in the dentate gyrus returned to the normal range by two weeks. These data suggest that selective regions of the hippocampus show persistent reductions in CB1 receptor expression and that these reductions are more widespread in female compared to male adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Silva
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450Clarkson Ave, Mail Stop 29, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
| | - Lauren Harte-Hargrove
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450Clarkson Ave, Mail Stop 29, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
| | - Sari Izenwasser
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, Room 4113A (D-80), Miami, FL 33136 USA
| | - Ashley Frank
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, Room 4113A (D-80), Miami, FL 33136 USA
| | - Dean Wade
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Avenue, Room 4113A (D-80), Miami, FL 33136 USA
| | - Diana Dow-Edwards
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450Clarkson Ave, Mail Stop 29, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA.
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167
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Lovelace JW, Corches A, Vieira PA, Hiroto AS, Mackie K, Korzus E. An animal model of female adolescent cannabinoid exposure elicits a long-lasting deficit in presynaptic long-term plasticity. Neuropharmacology 2015; 99:242-55. [PMID: 25979486 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis continues to be the most accessible and popular illicit recreational drug. Whereas current data link adolescence cannabinoid exposure to increased risk for dependence on other drugs, depression, anxiety disorders and psychosis, the mechanism(s) underlying these adverse effects remains controversial. Here we show in a mouse model of female adolescent cannabinoid exposure deficient endocannabinoid (eCB)-mediated signaling and presynaptic forms of long-term depression at adult central glutamatergic synapses in the prefrontal cortex. Increasing endocannabinoid levels by blockade of monoacylglycerol lipase, the primary enzyme responsible for degrading the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), with the specific inhibitor JZL 184 ameliorates eCB-LTD deficits. The observed deficit in cortical presynaptic signaling may represent a neural maladaptation underlying network instability and abnormal cognitive functioning. Our study suggests that adolescent cannabinoid exposure may permanently impair brain functions, including the brain's intrinsic ability to appropriately adapt to external influences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan W Lovelace
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of California Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Alex Corches
- Biomedical Sciences Program, University of California Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Philip A Vieira
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of California Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Alex S Hiroto
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of California Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Ken Mackie
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Gill Center for Biomedical Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Edward Korzus
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, University of California Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Biomedical Sciences Program, University of California Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
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168
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Higuera-Matas A, Ucha M, Ambrosio E. Long-term consequences of perinatal and adolescent cannabinoid exposure on neural and psychological processes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 55:119-46. [PMID: 25960036 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Marihuana is the most widely consumed illicit drug, even among adolescents and pregnant women. Given the critical developmental processes that occur in the adolescent and fetal nervous system, marihuana consumption during these stages may have permanent consequences on several brain functions in later adult life. Here, we review what is currently known about the long-term consequences of perinatal and adolescent cannabinoid exposure. The most consistent findings point to long-term impairments in cognitive function that are associated with structural alterations and disturbed synaptic plasticity. In addition, several neurochemical modifications are also evident after prenatal or adolescent cannabinoid exposure, especially in the endocannabinoid, glutamatergic, dopaminergic and opioidergic systems. Important sexual dimorphisms are also evident in terms of the long-lasting effects of cannabinoid consumption during pregnancy and adolescence, and cannabinoids possibly have a protective effect in adolescents who have suffered traumatic life challenges, such as maternal separation or intense stress. Finally, we suggest some future research directions that may encourage further advances in this exciting field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Higuera-Matas
- Department of Psychobiology, School of Psychology, National University of Distance Learning (UNED), C/ Juan del Rosal 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Marcos Ucha
- Department of Psychobiology, School of Psychology, National University of Distance Learning (UNED), C/ Juan del Rosal 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Ambrosio
- Department of Psychobiology, School of Psychology, National University of Distance Learning (UNED), C/ Juan del Rosal 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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169
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Gage SH, Hickman M, Heron J, Munafò MR, Lewis G, Macleod J, Zammit S. Associations of cannabis and cigarette use with depression and anxiety at age 18: findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0122896. [PMID: 25875443 PMCID: PMC4395304 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Substance use is associated with common mental health disorders, but the causal effect of specific substances is uncertain. We investigate whether adolescent cannabis and cigarette use is associated with incident depression and anxiety, while attempting to account for confounding and reverse causation. Methods We used data from ALSPAC, a UK birth cohort study, to investigate associations between cannabis or cigarettes (measured at age 16) and depression or anxiety (measured at age 18), before and after adjustment for pre-birth, childhood and adolescent confounders. Our imputed sample size was 4561 participants. Results Both cannabis (unadjusted OR 1.50, 95% CI 1.26, 1.80) and cigarette use (OR 1.37, 95% CI 1.16, 1.61) increased the odds of developing depression. Adjustment for pre-birth and childhood confounders partly attenuated these relationships though strong evidence of association persisted for cannabis use. There was weak evidence of association for cannabis (fully adjusted OR 1.30, 95% CI 0.98, 1.72) and insufficient evidence for association for cigarette use (fully adjusted OR = 0.97, 95% CI 0.75, 1.24) after mutually adjusting for each other, or for alcohol or other substance use. Neither cannabis nor cigarette use were associated with anxiety after adjustment for pre-birth and childhood confounders. Conclusions Whilst evidence of association between cannabis use and depression persisted after adjusting for pre-term and childhood confounders, our results highlight the difficulties in trying to estimate and interpret independent effects of cannabis and tobacco on psychopathology. Complementary methods are required to robustly examine effects of cannabis and tobacco on psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne H. Gage
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- United Kingdom Centre for Tobacco Control Studies, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Matthew Hickman
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Jon Heron
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Marcus R. Munafò
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- United Kingdom Centre for Tobacco Control Studies, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Glyn Lewis
- Mental Health Sciences Unit, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Macleod
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Stanley Zammit
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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170
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Abstract
Since its inception cannabis has been observed to be associated with various psycho-pathology. In this paper, the authors have reviewed the advancement made in this area over the last decade. The association between cannabis and schizophrenia has been researched more intensively. The controversy regarding the reliability, clinical utility, and the existence of a cannabis withdrawal syndrome has also been settled. Recent studies also buttressed the possibility of acute and chronic effect of cannabis on various cognitive functions. There has been a plethora of research regarding the treatment for cannabis use disorders. But the new and most interesting area of research is concentrated on the endocannabinoid system and its contribution in various psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Ghosh
- Department of Psychiatry, Drug De-addiction and Treatment Centre, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Debasish Basu
- Department of Psychiatry, Drug De-addiction and Treatment Centre, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
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171
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Keeley RJ, McDonald RJ. Part III: Principal component analysis: bridging the gap between strain, sex and drug effects. Behav Brain Res 2015; 288:153-61. [PMID: 25813745 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Revised: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Previous work has identified the adolescent period as particularly sensitive to the short- and long-term effects of marijuana and its main psychoactive component Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). However, other studies have identified certain backgrounds as more sensitive than others, including the sex of the individual or the strain of the rat used. Further, the effects of THC may be specific to certain behavioural tasks (e.g. measures of anxiety), and the consequences of THC are not seen equally across all behavioural measures. Here, data obtained from adolescent male and female Long-Evans and Wistar rats exposed to THC and tested as adults, which, using standard ANOVA testing, showed strain- and sex-specific effects of THC, was analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA). PCA allowed for the examination of the relative contribution of our variables of interest to the variance in the data obtained from multiple behavioural tasks, including the skilled reaching task, the Morris water task, the discriminative fear-conditioning to context task, the elevated plus maze task and the conditioned place preference task to a low dose of amphetamine, as well as volumetric estimates of brain volumes and cfos activation. We observed that early life experience accounted for a large proportion of variance across data sets, although its relative contribution varied across tasks. Additionally, THC accounted for a very small proportion of the variance across all behavioural tasks. We demonstrate here that by using PCA, we were able to describe the main variables of interest and demonstrate that THC exposure had a negligible effect on the variance in the data set.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Keeley
- University of Lethbridge, 4001 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada.
| | - R J McDonald
- University of Lethbridge, 4001 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
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172
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Filho C, Jesse C, Donato F, Giacomeli R, Del Fabbro L, da Silva Antunes M, de Gomes M, Goes A, Boeira S, Prigol M, Souza L. Chronic unpredictable mild stress decreases BDNF and NGF levels and Na+,K+-ATPase activity in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of mice: Antidepressant effect of chrysin. Neuroscience 2015; 289:367-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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173
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Neuroplasticity underlying the comorbidity of pain and depression. Neural Plast 2015; 2015:504691. [PMID: 25810926 PMCID: PMC4355564 DOI: 10.1155/2015/504691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute pain induces depressed mood, and chronic pain is known to cause depression. Depression, meanwhile, can also adversely affect pain behaviors ranging from symptomology to treatment response. Pain and depression independently induce long-term plasticity in the central nervous system (CNS). Comorbid conditions, however, have distinct patterns of neural activation. We performed a review of the changes in neural circuitry and molecular signaling pathways that may underlie this complex relationship between pain and depression. We also discussed some of the current and future therapies that are based on this understanding of the CNS plasticity that occurs with pain and depression.
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174
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Exposure of Adolescent Mice to Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Induces Long-Lasting Modulation of Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines in Hypothalamus and Hippocampus Similar to that Observed for Peripheral Macrophages. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2015; 10:371-9. [PMID: 25875136 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-015-9592-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis use is frequent among adolescents. Its main component, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), affects the immune system. We recently demonstrated that chronic exposure of adolescent mice to THC suppressed immunity immediately after treatment but that after a washout period THC induced a long-lasting opposite modulation towards a proinflammatory and T-helper-1 phenotype in adulthood. The main objective of this study was to investigate whether the same effect was also present in brain regions such as the hypothalamus and hippocampus. Thirty-three-day-old adolescent and 80-day-old adult male mice were used. Acute THC administration induced a similar reduction of macrophage proinflammatory cytokines and an IL-10 increase in adult and adolescent mice. THC did not affect brain cytokines in adult mice, but a proinflammatory cytokine decrease was evident in the adolescent brain. A similar effect was present in the hypothalamus and hippocampus after 10 days' THC administration. In contrast, when brain cytokines were measured 47 days after the final THC administration, we observed an inverted effect in adult mice treated as adolescents, i.e., IL-1β and TNF-α increased and IL-10 decreased, indicating a shift toward neuroinflammation. These data suggest that THC exposure in adolescence has long-lasting effects on brain cytokines that parallel those present in the periphery. This modulation may affect vulnerability to immune and behavioural diseases in adulthood.
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175
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Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex mental health disorder with positive, negative and cognitive symptom domains. Approximately one third of patients are resistant to currently available medication. New therapeutic targets and a better understanding of the basic biological processes that drive pathogenesis are needed in order to develop therapies that will improve quality of life for these patients. Several drugs that act on neurotransmitter systems in the brain have been suggested to model aspects of schizophrenia in animals and in man. In this paper, we selectively review findings from dopaminergic, glutamatergic, serotonergic, cannabinoid, GABA, cholinergic and kappa opioid pharmacological drug models to evaluate their similarity to schizophrenia. Understanding the interactions between these different neurotransmitter systems and their relationship with symptoms will be an important step towards building a coherent hypothesis for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Steeds
- Imperial College London, Division of Brain Sciences, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | | | - James M Stone
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry Psychology and Neuroscience, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK, Imperial College London, Division of Brain Sciences, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
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176
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Keeley RJ, Trow J, Bye C, McDonald RJ. Part II: Strain- and sex-specific effects of adolescent exposure to THC on adult brain and behaviour: Variants of learning, anxiety and volumetric estimates. Behav Brain Res 2015; 288:132-52. [PMID: 25591471 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Revised: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Marijuana is one of the most highly used psychoactive substances in the world, and its use typically begins during adolescence, a period of substantial brain development. Females across species appear to be more susceptible to the long-term consequences of marijuana use. Despite the identification of inherent differences between rat strains including measures of anatomy, genetics and behaviour, no studies to our knowledge have examined the long-term consequences of adolescent exposure to marijuana or its main psychoactive component, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), in males and females of two widely used rat strains: Long-Evans hooded (LER) and Wistar (WR) rats. THC was administered for 14 consecutive days following puberty onset, and once they reached adulthood, changes in behaviour and in the volume of associated brain areas were quantified. Rats were assessed in behavioural tests of motor, spatial and contextual learning, and anxiety. Some tasks showed effects of injection, since handled and vehicle groups were included as controls. Performance on all tasks, except motor learning, and the volume of associated brain areas were altered with injection or THC administration, although these effects varied by strain and sex group. Finally, analysis revealed treatment-specific correlations between performance and brain volumes. This study is the first of its kind to directly compare males and females of two rat strains for the long-term consequences of adolescent THC exposure. It highlights the importance of considering strain and identifies certain rat strains as susceptible or resilient to the effects of THC.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Keeley
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 4N8, Canada.
| | - J Trow
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 4N8, Canada
| | - C Bye
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 4N8, Canada
| | - R J McDonald
- University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 4N8, Canada
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177
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Rubino T, Parolaro D. Sex-dependent vulnerability to cannabis abuse in adolescence. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:56. [PMID: 25941498 PMCID: PMC4403248 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of this review is to summarize current evidence for sex differences in the response to cannabinoid compounds, focusing mainly on a specific age of exposure, i.e., adolescence. Preclinical as well as clinical studies are examined. Among the different possible underlying mechanisms, the consistent dimorphism in the endocannabinoid system and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolism may play a part. All the collected data point to the need of including females in basic research as well as of analyzing results for sex differences in epidemiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria , Busto Arsizio , Italy
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria , Busto Arsizio , Italy
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178
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Smaga I, Bystrowska B, Gawliński D, Przegaliński E, Filip M. The endocannabinoid/endovanilloid system and depression. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 12:462-74. [PMID: 25426013 PMCID: PMC4243035 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x12666140923205412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is one of the most frequent causes of disability in the 21st century. Despite the many preclinical and clinical studies that have addressed this brain disorder, the pathophysiology of depression is not well understood and the available antidepressant drugs are therapeutically inadequate in many patients. In recent years, the potential role of lipid-derived molecules, particularly endocannabinoids (eCBs) and endovanilloids, has been highlighted in the pathogenesis of depression and in the action of antidepressants. There are many indications that the eCB/endovanilloid system is involved in the pathogenesis of depression, including the localization of receptors, modulation of monoaminergic transmission, inhibition of the stress axis and promotion of neuroplasticity in the brain. Preclinical pharmacological and genetic studies of eCBs in depression also suggest that facilitating the eCB system exerts antidepressant-like behavioral responses in rodents. In this article, we review the current knowledge of the role of the eCB/endovanilloid system in depression, as well as the effects of its ligands, models of depression and antidepressant drugs in preclinical and clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irena Smaga
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Beata Bystrowska
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Dawid Gawliński
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Edmund Przegaliński
- Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Filip
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, College of Medicum, Medyczna 9, PL 30-688 Kraków, Poland ; Laboratory of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12, PL 31-343 Kraków, Poland
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179
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Lubman DI, Cheetham A, Yücel M. Cannabis and adolescent brain development. Pharmacol Ther 2014; 148:1-16. [PMID: 25460036 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Heavy cannabis use has been frequently associated with increased rates of mental illness and cognitive impairment, particularly amongst adolescent users. However, the neurobiological processes that underlie these associations are still not well understood. In this review, we discuss the findings of studies examining the acute and chronic effects of cannabis use on the brain, with a particular focus on the impact of commencing use during adolescence. Accumulating evidence from both animal and human studies suggests that regular heavy use during this period is associated with more severe and persistent negative outcomes than use during adulthood, suggesting that the adolescent brain may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of cannabis exposure. As the endocannabinoid system plays an important role in brain development, it is plausible that prolonged use during adolescence results in a disruption in the normative neuromaturational processes that occur during this period. We identify synaptic pruning and white matter development as two processes that may be adversely impacted by cannabis exposure during adolescence. Potentially, alterations in these processes may underlie the cognitive and emotional deficits that have been associated with regular use commencing during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan I Lubman
- Turning Point, Eastern Health and Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Ali Cheetham
- Turning Point, Eastern Health and Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Victoria, Australia; Monash Clinical & Imaging Neuroscience, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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180
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Renard J, Krebs MO, Le Pen G, Jay TM. Long-term consequences of adolescent cannabinoid exposure in adult psychopathology. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:361. [PMID: 25426017 PMCID: PMC4226229 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug among adolescents and young adults. Unique cognitive, emotional, and social changes occur during this critical period of development from childhood into adulthood. The adolescent brain is in a state of transition and differs from the adult brain with respect to both anatomy (e.g., neuronal connections and morphology) and neurochemistry (e.g., dopamine, GABA, and glutamate). These changes are thought to support the emergence of adult cerebral processes and behaviors. The endocannabinoid system plays an important role in development by acting on synaptic plasticity, neuronal cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Delta-9-tetrahydrocanabinol (THC), the principal psychoactive component in marijuana, acts as a partial agonist of the cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R). Thus, over-activation of the endocannabinoid system by chronic exposure to CB1R agonists (e.g., THC, CP-55,940, and WIN55,212-2) during adolescence can dramatically alter brain maturation and cause long-lasting neurobiological changes that ultimately affect the function and behavior of the adult brain. Indeed, emerging evidence from both human and animal studies demonstrates that early-onset marijuana use has long-lasting consequences on cognition; moreover, in humans, this use is associated with a two-fold increase in the risk of developing a psychotic disorder. Here, we review the relationship between cannabinoid exposure during adolescence and the increased risk of neuropsychiatric disorders, focusing on both clinical and animal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Renard
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des maladies Psychiatriques, UMR_S894 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences Paris, France ; Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Service Hospitalo Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Université Paris Descartes Paris, France
| | - Marie-Odile Krebs
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des maladies Psychiatriques, UMR_S894 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences Paris, France ; Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Service Hospitalo Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Université Paris Descartes Paris, France
| | - Gwenaëlle Le Pen
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des maladies Psychiatriques, UMR_S894 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences Paris, France ; Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Service Hospitalo Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Université Paris Descartes Paris, France
| | - Thérèse M Jay
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des maladies Psychiatriques, UMR_S894 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences Paris, France ; Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Service Hospitalo Universitaire, Faculté de Médecine Paris Descartes, Université Paris Descartes Paris, France
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181
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Rubino T, Prini P, Piscitelli F, Zamberletti E, Trusel M, Melis M, Sagheddu C, Ligresti A, Tonini R, Di Marzo V, Parolaro D. Adolescent exposure to THC in female rats disrupts developmental changes in the prefrontal cortex. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 73:60-9. [PMID: 25281318 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Current concepts suggest that exposure to THC during adolescence may act as a risk factor for the development of psychiatric disorders later in life. However, the molecular underpinnings of this vulnerability are still poorly understood. To analyze this, we investigated whether and how THC exposure in female rats interferes with different maturational events occurring in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence through biochemical, pharmacological and electrophysiological means. We found that the endocannabinoid system undergoes maturational processes during adolescence and that THC exposure disrupts them, leading to impairment of both endocannabinoid signaling and endocannabinoid-mediated LTD in the adult prefrontal cortex. THC also altered the maturational fluctuations of NMDA subunits, leading to larger amounts of gluN2B at adulthood. Adult animals exposed to THC during adolescence also showed increased AMPA gluA1 with no changes in gluA2 subunits. Finally, adolescent THC exposure altered cognition at adulthood. All these effects seem to be triggered by the disruption of the physiological role played by the endocannabinoid system during adolescence. Indeed, blockade of CB1 receptors from early to late adolescence seems to prevent the occurrence of pruning at glutamatergic synapses. These results suggest that vulnerability of adolescent female rats to long-lasting THC adverse effects might partly reside in disruption of the pivotal role played by the endocannabinoid system in the prefrontal cortex maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Rubino
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Science, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, 21052 Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy.
| | - Pamela Prini
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Science, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, 21052 Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
| | - Fabiana Piscitelli
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, CNR, 80078 Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
| | - Erica Zamberletti
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Science, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, 21052 Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy
| | - Massimo Trusel
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Miriam Melis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Claudia Sagheddu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato, CA, Italy
| | - Alessia Ligresti
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, CNR, 80078 Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
| | - Raffaella Tonini
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Marzo
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, CNR, 80078 Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Department of Theoretical and Applied Science, Biomedical Research Division, and Neuroscience Center, University of Insubria, 21052 Busto Arsizio, VA, Italy; Zardi Gori Foundation, 21100 Milan, Italy
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182
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Cabral GA, Jamerson M, Rogers TJ. Editorial: Does immune dysfunction persist into adulthood after adolescent use of marijuana? J Leukoc Biol 2014; 96:507-9. [PMID: 25271293 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3ce0414-186rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- G A Cabral
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA; and
| | - M Jamerson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA; and
| | - T J Rogers
- Center for Inflammation, Translational and Clinical Lung Research, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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183
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Stopponi S, Soverchia L, Ubaldi M, Cippitelli A, Serpelloni G, Ciccocioppo R. Chronic THC during adolescence increases the vulnerability to stress-induced relapse to heroin seeking in adult rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 24:1037-45. [PMID: 24412506 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis derivatives are among the most widely used illicit substances among young people. The addictive potential of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major active ingredient of cannabis is well documented in scientific literature. However, the consequence of THC exposure during adolescence on occurrence of addiction for other drugs of abuse later in life is still controversial. To explore this aspect of THC pharmacology, in the present study, we treated adolescent rats from postnatal day (PND) 35 to PND-46 with increasing daily doses of THC (2.5-10mg/kg). One week after intoxication, the rats were tested for anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze (EPM) test. One month later (starting from PND 75), rats were trained to operantly self-administer heroin intravenously. Finally, following extinction phase, reinstatement of lever pressing elicited by the pharmacological stressor, yohimbine (1.25mg/kg) was evaluated. Data revealed that in comparison to controls, animals treated with chronic THC during adolescence showed a higher level of anxiety-like behavior. When tested for heroin (20μg per infusion) self-administration, no significant differences were observed in both the acquisition of operant responding and heroin intake at baseline. Noteworthy, following the extinction phase, administration of yohimbine elicited a significantly higher level of heroin seeking in rats previously exposed to THC. Altogether these findings demonstrate that chronic exposure to THC during adolescence is responsible for heightened anxiety and increased vulnerability to drug relapse in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Stopponi
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Laura Soverchia
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Massimo Ubaldi
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Andrea Cippitelli
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Giovanni Serpelloni
- Dipartimento Politiche Antidroga, Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Italy
| | - Roberto Ciccocioppo
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
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184
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Wiley JL, Burston JJ. Sex differences in Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol metabolism and in vivo pharmacology following acute and repeated dosing in adolescent rats. Neurosci Lett 2014; 576:51-5. [PMID: 24909619 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms that may underlie age and sex differences in the pharmacological effects of cannabinoids are relatively unexplored. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether sex differences in metabolism of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), similar to those observed previously in adult rats, also occurred in adolescent rats and might contribute to age and sex differences in its in vivo pharmacology. Male and female adolescent rats were exposed to THC acutely or repeatedly for 10 days. Subsequently, some of the rats were sacrificed and blood and brain levels of THC and one of its metabolites, 11-hydroxy-Δ(9)-THC (11-OH-THC), were measured. Other rats were evaluated in a battery of in vivo tests that are sensitive to cannabinoids. Concentrations of 11-OH-THC in the brains of female adult and adolescent rats exceeded those observed in male conspecifics, particularly after repeated THC administration. In contrast, brain levels of THC did not differ between the sexes. In vivo, acute THC produced dose-related hypothermia, catalepsy and suppression of locomotion in adolescent rats of both sexes, with tolerance developing after repeated administration. With a minor exception, sex differences in THC's effects in the in vivo assays were not apparent. Together with previous findings, the present results suggest that sex differences in pharmacokinetics cannot fully explain the patterns of sex differences (and lack of sex differences) in cannabinoid effects across behaviors. Hormonal and/or pharmacodynamic factors are also likely to play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA.
| | - James J Burston
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA
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185
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Lisdahl KM, Wright NE, Kirchner-Medina C, Maple KE, Shollenbarger S. Considering Cannabis: The Effects of Regular Cannabis Use on Neurocognition in Adolescents and Young Adults. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2014; 1:144-156. [PMID: 25013751 PMCID: PMC4084860 DOI: 10.1007/s40429-014-0019-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Thirty-six percent of high school seniors have used cannabis in the past year, and an alarming 6.5% smoked cannabis daily, up from 2.4% in 1993 (Johnston et al., 2013). Adolescents and emerging adults are undergoing significant neurodevelopment and animal studies suggest they may be particularly vulnerable to negative drug effects. In this review, we will provide a detailed overview of studies outlining the effects of regular (at least weekly) cannabis use on neurocognition, including studies outlining cognitive, structural and functional findings. We will also explore the public health impact of this research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista M. Lisdahl
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Natasha E. Wright
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI
| | | | - Kristin E. Maple
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI
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186
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Moretti S, Castelli M, Franchi S, Raggi MA, Mercolini L, Protti M, Somaini L, Panerai AE, Sacerdote P. Δ⁹-Tetrahydrocannabinol-induced anti-inflammatory responses in adolescent mice switch to proinflammatory in adulthood. J Leukoc Biol 2014; 96:523-34. [PMID: 24744434 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.3hi0713-406rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Marijuana abuse is prominent among adolescents. Although Δ(9)-THC, one of its main components, has been demonstrated to modulate immunity in adults, little is known about its impact during adolescence on the immune system and the long-lasting effects in adulthood. We demonstrate that 10 days of Δ(9)-THC treatment induced a similar alteration of macrophage and splenocyte cytokines in adolescent and adult mice. Immediately at the end of chronic Δ(9)-THC, a decrease of proinflammatory cytokines IL- 1β and TNF-α and an increase of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 production by macrophages were present as protein and mRNA in adolescent and adult mice. In splenocytes, Δ(9)-THC modulated Th1/Th2 cytokines skewing toward Th2: IFN-γ was reduced, and IL-4 and IL-10 increased. These effects were lost in adult animals, 47 days after the last administration. In contrast, in adult animals treated as adolescents, a perturbation of immune responses, although in an opposite direction, was present. In adults treated as adolescents, a proinflammatory macrophage phenotype was observed (IL-1β and TNF-α were elevated; IL-10 decreased), and the production of Th cytokines was blunted. IgM titers were also reduced. Corticosterone concentrations indicate a long-lasting dysregulation of HPA in adolescent mice. We measured blood concentrations of Δ(9)-THC and its metabolites, showing that Δ(9)-THC plasma levels in our mice are in the order of those achieved in human heavy smokers. Our data demonstrate that Δ(9)-THC in adolescent mice triggers immune dysfunctions that last long after the end of abuse, switching the murine immune system to proinflammatory status in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Moretti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Mara Castelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Franchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Maria Augusta Raggi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy; and
| | - Laura Mercolini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy; and
| | - Michele Protti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy; and
| | - Lorenzo Somaini
- Addiction Treatment Centre, Local Health Service, Cossato, Biella, Italy
| | - Alberto E Panerai
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Paola Sacerdote
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy;
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187
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Chronic nandrolone decanoate exposure during adolescence affects emotional behavior and monoaminergic neurotransmission in adulthood. Neuropharmacology 2014; 83:79-88. [PMID: 24721625 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Nandrolone decanoate, an anabolic androgen steroid (AAS) illicitly used by adult and adolescent athletes to enhance physical performance and body image, induces psychiatric side effects, such as aggression, depression as well as a spectrum of adverse physiological impairments. Since adolescence represents a neurodevelopmental window that is extremely sensitive to the detrimental effects of drug abuse, we investigated the long-term behavioral and neurophysiological consequences of nandrolone abuse during adolescence. Adolescent rats received daily injections of nandrolone decanoate (15 mg/kg, i.m.) for 14 days (PND 40-53). At early adulthood (PND 68), forced swim, sucrose preference, open field and elevated plus maze tests were performed to assess behavioral changes. In vivo electrophysiological recordings were carried out to monitor changes in electrical activity of serotonergic neurons of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC). Our results show that after early exposure to nandrolone, rats display depression-related behavior, characterized by increased immobility in the forced swim test and reduced sucrose intake in the sucrose preference test. In addition, adult rats presented anxiety-like behavior characterized by decreased time and number of entries in the central zone of the open field and decreased time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze. Nandrolone decreased the firing rate of spontaneously active serotonergic neurons in the DRN while increasing the firing rate of noradrenergic neurons in the LC. These results provide evidence that nandrolone decanoate exposure during adolescence alters the emotional profile of animals in adulthood and significantly modifies both serotonergic and noradrenergic neurotransmission.
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188
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Lopez-Rodriguez AB, Llorente-Berzal A, Garcia-Segura LM, Viveros MP. Sex-dependent long-term effects of adolescent exposure to THC and/or MDMA on neuroinflammation and serotoninergic and cannabinoid systems in rats. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:1435-47. [PMID: 24236988 PMCID: PMC3954483 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Many young people consume ecstasy as a recreational drug and often in combination with cannabis. In this study, we aimed to mimic human consumption patterns and investigated, in male and female animals, the long-term effects of Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on diverse neuroinflammation and neurotoxic markers. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Male and female Wistar rats were chronically treated with increasing doses of THC and/or MDMA during adolescence. The effects of THC and/or MDMA on glial reactivity and on serotoninergic and cannabinoid systems were assessed by immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus and parietal cortex. KEY RESULTS THC increased the area staining for glial fibrilar acidic protein in both sexes. In males, both drugs, either separately or in combination, increased the proportion of reactive microglia cells [ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1)]. In contrast, in females, each drug, administered alone, decreased of this proportion, whereas the combination of both drugs resulted in a 'normalization' to control values. In males, MDMA reduced the number of SERT positive fibres, THC induced the opposite effect and the group receiving both drugs did not significantly differ from the controls. In females, MDMA reduced the number of SERT positive fibres and the combination of both drugs counteracted this effect. THC also reduced immunostaining for CB1 receptors in females and this effect was aggravated by the combination with MDMA. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Adolescent exposure of rats to THC and/or MDMA induced long-term, sex-dependent neurochemical and glial alterations, and revealed interactions between the two drugs. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Cannabinoids 2013. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Belen Lopez-Rodriguez
- Department of Animal Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid – Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC)Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC)Madrid, Spain
| | - Alvaro Llorente-Berzal
- Department of Animal Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid – Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC)Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis M Garcia-Segura
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC)Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria-Paz Viveros
- Department of Animal Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid – Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC)Madrid, Spain
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189
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Melis M, De Felice M, Lecca S, Fattore L, Pistis M. Sex-specific tonic 2-arachidonoylglycerol signaling at inhibitory inputs onto dopamine neurons of Lister Hooded rats. Front Integr Neurosci 2013; 7:93. [PMID: 24416004 PMCID: PMC3867690 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2013.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Addiction as a psychiatric disorder involves interaction of inherited predispositions and environmental factors. Similarly to humans, laboratory animals self-administer addictive drugs, whose appetitive properties result from activation and suppression of brain reward and aversive pathways, respectively. The ventral tegmental area (VTA) where dopamine (DA) cells are located is a key component of brain reward circuitry, whereas the rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) critically regulates aversive behaviors. Reduced responses to either aversive intrinsic components of addictive drugs or to negative consequences of compulsive drug taking might contribute to vulnerability to addiction. In this regard, female Lister Hooded (LH) rats are more vulnerable than male counterparts to cannabinoid self-administration. We, therefore, took advantage of sex differences displayed by LH rats, and studied VTA DA neuronal properties to unveil functional differences. Electrophysiological properties of DA cells were examined performing either single cell extracellular recordings in anesthetized rats or whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in slices. In vivo, DA cell spontaneous activity was similar, though sex differences were observed in RMTg-induced inhibition of DA neurons. In vitro, DA cells showed similar intrinsic and synaptic properties. However, females displayed larger depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) than male LH rats. DSI, an endocannabinoid-mediated form of short term plasticity, was mediated by 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) activating type 1-cannabinoid (CB1) receptors. We found that sex-dependent differences in DSI magnitude were not ascribed to CB1 number and/or function, but rather to a tonic 2-AG signaling. We suggest that sex specific tonic 2-AG signaling might contribute to regulate responses to aversive intrinsic properties to cannabinoids, thus resulting in faster acquisition/initiation of cannabinoid taking and, eventually, in progression to addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Melis
- Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato Monserrato, Italy
| | - Marta De Felice
- Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato Monserrato, Italy
| | | | - Liana Fattore
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Cagliari Italy
| | - Marco Pistis
- Division of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato Monserrato, Italy ; Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Cagliari Italy
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190
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Winsauer PJ, Sutton JL. Chronic administration during early adulthood does not alter the hormonally-dependent disruptive effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) on complex behavior in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 117:118-27. [PMID: 24361784 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study examined whether chronic Δ(9)-THC during early adulthood would produce the same hormonally-dependent deficits in learning that are produced by chronic Δ(9)-THC during adolescence. To do this, either sham-operated (intact) or ovariectomized (OVX) female rats received daily saline or 5.6 mg/kg of Δ(9)-THC i.p. for 40 days during early adulthood. Following chronic administration, and a drug-free period to train both a learning and performance task, acute dose-effect curves for Δ(9)-THC (0.56-10 mg/kg) were established in each of the four groups (intact/saline, intact/THC, OVX/saline and OVX/THC). The dependent measures of responding under the learning and performance tasks were the overall response rate and the percentage of errors. Although the history of OVX and chronic Δ(9)-THC in early adulthood did not significantly affect non-drug or baseline behavior under the tasks, acute administration of Δ(9)-THC produced both rate-decreasing and error-increasing effects on learning and performance behavior, and these effects were dependent on their hormone condition. More specifically, both intact groups were more sensitive to the rate-decreasing and error-increasing effects of Δ(9)-THC than the OVX groups irrespective of chronic Δ(9)-THC administration, as there was no significant main effect of chronic treatment and no significant interaction between chronic treatment (saline or Δ(9)-THC) and the dose of Δ(9)-THC administered as an adult. Post mortem examination of 10 brain regions also indicated there were significant differences in agonist-stimulated GTPγS binding across brain regions, but no significant effects of chronic treatment and no significant interaction between the chronic treatment and cannabinoid signaling. Thus, acute Δ(9)-THC produced hormonally-dependent effects on learning and performance behavior, but a period of chronic administration during early adulthood did not alter these effects significantly, which is contrary to what we and others have shown for chronic administration during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Winsauer
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States; Alcohol and Drug Abuse Center of Excellence, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States.
| | - Jessie L Sutton
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
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191
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Zhang Y, Liu L, Peng YL, Liu YZ, Wu TY, Shen XL, Zhou JR, Sun DY, Huang AJ, Wang X, Wang YX, Jiang CL. Involvement of inflammasome activation in lipopolysaccharide-induced mice depressive-like behaviors. CNS Neurosci Ther 2013; 20:119-24. [PMID: 24279434 DOI: 10.1111/cns.12170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The NLRP3 inflammasome is a cytoplasmic multiprotein complex of the innate immune system that regulates the cleavage of interleukin-1β and interleukin-18 precursors. It can detect a wide range of danger signals and trigger a series of immune-inflammatory reactions. There were plenty of studies indicating that activation of the immune system played pivotal roles in depression. However, the underlying mechanisms of immune-depression interactions remained elusive and there was no report about the involvement of inflammasome activation in depression. METHODS We established an acute depression mouse model with lipopolysaccharide to explore the involvement of inflammasome activation in depression. RESULTS The lipopolysaccharide-treated mice displayed depressive-like behaviors and pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β protein and mRNA levels significantly increased. The NLRP3 inflammasome mRNA expression level also significantly elevated in depressed mice brain. Pretreatment with the NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor Ac-YVAD-CMK significantly abrogated the depressive-like behaviors induced by lipopolysaccharide. CONCLUSION These data suggest for the first time that the NLRP3 inflammasome is involved in lipopolysaccharide-induced mice depressive-like behaviors. The NLRP3 inflammasome may be a central mediator between immune activation and depression, which raises the possibility that it may be a more specific target for the depression treatments in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Laboratory of Stress Medicine, Faculty of Psychology and Mental Health, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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Lee TTY, Wainwright SR, Hill MN, Galea LAM, Gorzalka BB. Sex, drugs, and adult neurogenesis: sex-dependent effects of escalating adolescent cannabinoid exposure on adult hippocampal neurogenesis, stress reactivity, and amphetamine sensitization. Hippocampus 2013; 24:280-92. [PMID: 24132958 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoid exposure during adolescence has adverse effects on neuroplasticity, emotional behavior, cognition, and reward sensitivity in adult rats. We investigated whether escalating doses of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1 R) agonist, HU-210, in adolescence would affect adult hippocampal neurogenesis and behavioral processes putatively modulated by hippocampal neurogenesis, in adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Escalating doses of HU-210 (25, 50, and 100 µg/kg), or vehicle were administered from postnatal day (PND) 35 to 46. Animals were left undisturbed until PND 70, when they were treated with 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU; 200 mg/kg) and perfused 21 days later to examine density of BrdU-ir and BrdU/NeuN cells in the dentate gyrus. In another cohort, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity to an acute restraint stress (30 min; PND 75) and behavioral sensitization to d-amphetamine sulfate (1-2 mg/kg; PND 105-134) were assessed in adulthood. Adolescent HU-210 administration suppressed the density of BrdU-ir cells in the dentate gyrus in adult male, but not adult female rats. Adolescent HU-210 administration also induced significantly higher peak corticosterone levels and reminiscent of the changes in neurogenesis, this effect was more pronounced in adult males than females. However, adolescent cannabinoid treatment resulted in significantly higher stereotypy scores in adult female, but not male, rats. Thus, adolescent CB1 R activation suppressed hippocampal neurogenesis and increased stress responsivity in adult males, but not females, and enhanced amphetamine sensitization in adult female, but not male, rats. Taken together, increased CB1 R activation during adolescence results in sex-dependent, long-term, changes to hippocampal structure and function, an effect that may shed light on differing vulnerabilities to developing disorders following adolescent cannabinoid exposure, based on sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany T-Y Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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193
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Zamberletti E, Beggiato S, Steardo L, Prini P, Antonelli T, Ferraro L, Rubino T, Parolaro D. Alterations of prefrontal cortex GABAergic transmission in the complex psychotic-like phenotype induced by adolescent delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure in rats. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 63:35-47. [PMID: 24200867 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although several findings indicate an association between adolescent cannabis abuse and the risk to develop schizophrenia later in life, the evidence for a causal relationship is still inconclusive. In the present study, we investigated the emergence of psychotic-like behavior in adult female rats chronically exposed to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) during adolescence. To this aim, female Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with THC during adolescence (PND 35-45) and, in adulthood (PND 75), a series of behavioral tests and biochemical assays were performed in order to investigate the long-term effects of adolescent THC exposure. Adolescent THC pretreatment leads to long-term behavioral alterations, characterized by recognition memory deficits, social withdrawal, altered emotional reactivity and sensitization to the locomotor activating effects of acute PCP. Moreover, since cortical disinhibition seems to be a key feature of many different animal models of schizophrenia and GABAergic hypofunction in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been observed in postmortem brains from schizophrenic patients, we then investigated the long-lasting consequences of adolescent THC exposure on GABAergic transmission in the adult rat PFC. Biochemical analyses revealed that adolescent THC exposure results in reduced GAD67 and basal GABA levels within the adult PFC. GAD67 expression is reduced both in parvalbumin (PV)- and cholecystokinin (CCK)-containing interneurons; this alteration may be related to the altered emotional reactivity triggered by adolescent THC, as silencing PFC GAD67 expression through a siRNA-mediated approach is sufficient to impact rats' behavior in the forced swim test. Finally, the cellular underpinnings of the observed sensitized response to acute PCP in adult THC-treated rats could be ascribed to the increased cFos immunoreactivity and glutamate levels in the PFC and dorsal striatum. The present findings support the hypothesis that adolescent THC exposure may represent a risk factor for the development of a complex psychotic-like behavior in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Zamberletti
- Dept. of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Division and Center of Neuroscience, Univ. of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy
| | - Sarah Beggiato
- Dept. of Medical Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Luca Steardo
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Univ. of Naples SUN, Naples, Italy
| | - Pamela Prini
- Dept. of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Division and Center of Neuroscience, Univ. of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy
| | - Tiziana Antonelli
- Dept. of Medical Sciences, Section of Pharmacology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Luca Ferraro
- Dept. of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Tiziana Rubino
- Dept. of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Division and Center of Neuroscience, Univ. of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy
| | - Daniela Parolaro
- Dept. of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Division and Center of Neuroscience, Univ. of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (VA), Italy; Zardi-Gori Foundation, Milan, Italy.
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Llorente-Berzal A, Puighermanal E, Burokas A, Ozaita A, Maldonado R, Marco EM, Viveros MP. Sex-dependent psychoneuroendocrine effects of THC and MDMA in an animal model of adolescent drug consumption. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78386. [PMID: 24223797 PMCID: PMC3817254 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ecstasy is a drug that is usually consumed by young people at the weekends and frequently, in combination with cannabis. In the present study we have investigated the long-term effects of administering increasing doses of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC; 2.5, 5, 10 mg/kg; i.p.] from postnatal day (pnd) 28 to 45, alone and/or in conjunction with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA; two daily doses of 10 mg/kg every 5 days; s.c.] from pnd 30 to 45, in both male and female Wistar rats. When tested one day after the end of the pharmacological treatment (pnd 46), MDMA administration induced a reduction in directed exploration in the holeboard test and an increase in open-arm exploration in an elevated plus maze. In the long-term, cognitive functions in the novel object test were seen to be disrupted by THC administration to female but not male rats. In the prepulse inhibition test, MDMA-treated animals showed a decrease in prepulse inhibition at the most intense prepulse studied (80 dB), whereas in combination with THC it induced a similar decrease at 75 dB. THC decreased hippocampal Arc expression in both sexes, while in the frontal cortex this reduction was only evident in females. MDMA induced a reduction in ERK1/2 immunoreactivity in the frontal cortex of male but not female animals, and THC decreased prepro-orexin mRNA levels in the hypothalamus of males, although this effect was prevented when the animals also received MDMA. The results presented indicate that adolescent exposure to THC and/or MDMA induces long-term, sex-dependent psychophysiological alterations and they reveal functional interactions between the two drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Llorente-Berzal
- Departamento de Fisiología (Fisiología Animal II), Facultad de Biología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Emma Puighermanal
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Aurelijus Burokas
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrés Ozaita
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael Maldonado
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail: (RM); (MPV)
| | - Eva M. Marco
- Departamento de Fisiología (Fisiología Animal II), Facultad de Biología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria-Paz Viveros
- Departamento de Fisiología (Fisiología Animal II), Facultad de Biología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail: (RM); (MPV)
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195
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Minney SM, López HH. Adolescent cannabinoid treatment negatively affects reproductive behavior in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 112:82-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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196
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Chadwick B, Miller ML, Hurd YL. Cannabis Use during Adolescent Development: Susceptibility to Psychiatric Illness. Front Psychiatry 2013; 4:129. [PMID: 24133461 PMCID: PMC3796318 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis use is increasingly pervasive among adolescents today, even more common than cigarette smoking. The evolving policy surrounding the legalization of cannabis reaffirms the need to understand the relationship between cannabis exposure early in life and psychiatric illnesses. cannabis contains psychoactive components, notably Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), that interfere with the brain's endogenous endocannabinoid system, which is critically involved in both pre- and post-natal neurodevelopment. Consequently, THC and related compounds could potentially usurp normal adolescent neurodevelopment, shifting the brain's developmental trajectory toward a disease-vulnerable state, predisposing early cannabis users to motivational, affective, and psychotic disorders. Numerous human studies, including prospective longitudinal studies, demonstrate that early cannabis use is associated with major depressive disorder and drug addiction. A strong association between schizophrenia and cannabis use is also apparent, especially when considering genetic factors that interact with this environmental exposure. These human studies set a foundation for carefully controlled animal studies which demonstrate similar patterns following early cannabinoid exposure. Given the vulnerable nature of adolescent neurodevelopment and the persistent changes that follow early cannabis exposure, the experimental findings outlined should be carefully considered by policymakers. In order to fully address the growing issues of psychiatric illnesses and to ensure a healthy future, measures should be taken to reduce cannabis use among teens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Chadwick
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, NY , USA
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197
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Neumeister A, Normandin MD, Pietrzak RH, Piomelli D, Zheng MQ, Gujarro-Anton A, Potenza MN, Bailey CR, Lin SF, Najafzadeh S, Ropchan J, Henry S, Corsi-Travali S, Carson RE, Huang Y. Elevated brain cannabinoid CB1 receptor availability in post-traumatic stress disorder: a positron emission tomography study. Mol Psychiatry 2013; 18:1034-40. [PMID: 23670490 PMCID: PMC3752332 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2013.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Endocannabinoids and their attending cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor have been implicated in animal models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, their specific role has not been studied in people with PTSD. Herein, we present an in vivo imaging study using positron emission tomography (PET) and the CB1-selective radioligand [(11)C]OMAR in individuals with PTSD, and healthy controls with lifetime histories of trauma (trauma-exposed controls (TC)) and those without such histories (healthy controls (HC)). Untreated individuals with PTSD (N=25) with non-combat trauma histories, and TC (N=12) and HC (N=23) participated in a magnetic resonance imaging scan and a resting PET scan with the CB1 receptor antagonist radiotracer [(11)C]OMAR, which measures the volume of distribution (VT) linearly related to CB1 receptor availability. Peripheral levels of anandamide, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, oleoylethanolamide, palmitoylethanolamide and cortisol were also assessed. In the PTSD group, relative to the HC and TC groups, we found elevated brain-wide [(11)C]OMAR VT values (F(2,53)=7.96, P=0.001; 19.5% and 14.5% higher, respectively), which were most pronounced in women (F(1,53)=5.52, P=0.023). Anandamide concentrations were reduced in the PTSD relative to the TC (53.1% lower) and HC (58.2% lower) groups. Cortisol levels were lower in the PTSD and TC groups relative to the HC group. Three biomarkers examined collectively--OMAR VT, anandamide and cortisol--correctly classified nearly 85% of PTSD cases. These results suggest that abnormal CB1 receptor-mediated anandamide signaling is implicated in the etiology of PTSD, and provide a promising neurobiological model to develop novel, evidence-based pharmacotherapies for this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Neumeister
- Molecular Imaging Program, Department of Psychiatry and Radiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, and Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for the Study of Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Marc D. Normandin
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT,Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Robert H. Pietrzak
- Department of Veterans Affairs National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Clinical Neurosciences Division, West Haven, CT,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Daniele Piomelli
- Department of Anatomy and Biology, and Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Ming-Qiang Zheng
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Ana Gujarro-Anton
- Department of Anatomy and Biology, and Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA
| | - Marc N. Potenza
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT,Department of Neurobiology and Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | | | - Shu-fei Lin
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Soheila Najafzadeh
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Jim Ropchan
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Shannan Henry
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Stefani Corsi-Travali
- Molecular Imaging Program, Department of Psychiatry and Radiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, and Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for the Study of Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY
| | - Richard E. Carson
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Yiyun Huang
- Positron Emission Tomography Center, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
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198
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Fagundo AB, de la Torre R, Jiménez-Murcia S, Agüera Z, Pastor A, Casanueva FF, Granero R, Baños R, Botella C, del Pino-Gutierrez A, Fernández-Real JM, Fernández-García JC, Frühbeck G, Gómez-Ambrosi J, Menchón JM, Moragrega I, Rodríguez R, Tárrega S, Tinahones FJ, Fernández-Aranda F. Modulation of the Endocannabinoids N-Arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) on Executive Functions in Humans. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66387. [PMID: 23840456 PMCID: PMC3686875 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal studies point to an implication of the endocannabinoid system on executive functions. In humans, several studies have suggested an association between acute or chronic use of exogenous cannabinoids (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) and executive impairments. However, to date, no published reports establish the relationship between endocannabinoids, as biomarkers of the cannabinoid neurotransmission system, and executive functioning in humans. The aim of the present study was to explore the association between circulating levels of plasma endocannabinoids N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and executive functions (decision making, response inhibition and cognitive flexibility) in healthy subjects. One hundred and fifty seven subjects were included and assessed with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; Stroop Color and Word Test; and Iowa Gambling Task. All participants were female, aged between 18 and 60 years and spoke Spanish as their first language. Results showed a negative correlation between 2-AG and cognitive flexibility performance (r = −.37; p<.05). A positive correlation was found between AEA concentrations and both cognitive flexibility (r = .59; p<.05) and decision making performance (r = .23; P<.05). There was no significant correlation between either 2-AG (r = −.17) or AEA (r = −.08) concentrations and inhibition response. These results show, in humans, a relevant modulation of the endocannabinoid system on prefrontal-dependent cognitive functioning. The present study might have significant implications for the underlying executive alterations described in some psychiatric disorders currently associated with endocannabinoids deregulation (namely drug abuse/dependence, depression, obesity and eating disorders). Understanding the neurobiology of their dysexecutive profile might certainly contribute to the development of new treatments and pharmacological approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana B. Fagundo
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Neuroscience Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Susana Jiménez-Murcia
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Zaida Agüera
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antoni Pastor
- Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Research Group, Neuroscience Research Program, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Felipe F. Casanueva
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Endocrine Division, Complejo Hospitalario U. de Santiago, Santiago de Compostela University, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Roser Granero
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Psicobiologia i Metodologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa Baños
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Personality, Evaluation and Psychological Treatment of the University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Cristina Botella
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Basic Psychology, Clinic and Psychobiology of the University Jaume I, Castelló, Spain
| | - Amparo del Pino-Gutierrez
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- Nursing Department of Public Health, Maternal and Child Health the Nursing School of the University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jose M. Fernández-Real
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona (IdlBGi) Hospital Dr Josep Trueta, Girona, Spain
| | - Jose C. Fernández-García
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de Victoria, Málaga, Spain
| | - Gema Frühbeck
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Javier Gómez-Ambrosi
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - José M. Menchón
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Salud Mental (CIBERsam), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Inés Moragrega
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Basic Psychology, Clinic and Psychobiology of the University Jaume I, Castelló, Spain
| | - Roser Rodríguez
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona (IdlBGi) Hospital Dr Josep Trueta, Girona, Spain
| | - Salomé Tárrega
- Departament de Psicobiologia i Metodologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francisco J. Tinahones
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de Victoria, Málaga, Spain
| | - Fernando Fernández-Aranda
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge-IDIBELL, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Clinical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Crane NA, Schuster RM, Fusar-Poli P, Gonzalez R. Effects of cannabis on neurocognitive functioning: recent advances, neurodevelopmental influences, and sex differences. Neuropsychol Rev 2013; 23:117-37. [PMID: 23129391 PMCID: PMC3593817 DOI: 10.1007/s11065-012-9222-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Decades of research have examined the effects of cannabis on neurocognition. Recent advances in this field provide us with a better understanding of how cannabis use influences neurocognition both acutely (during intoxication) and non-acutely (after acute effects subside). Evidence of problems with episodic memory is one of the most consistent findings reported; however, several other neurocognitive domains appear to be adversely affected by cannabis use under various conditions. There is significant variability in findings across studies, thus a discussion of potential moderators is increasingly relevant. The purpose of this review was to 1) provide an update on research of cannabis' acute and non-acute effects on neurocognition, with a focus on findings since 2007 and 2) suggest and discuss how neurodevelopmental issues and sex differences may influence cannabis effects on neurocognition. Finally we discuss how future investigations may lead to better understanding of the complex interplay among cannabis, stages of neurodevelopment, and sex on neurocognitive functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Paolo Fusar-Poli
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London
| | - Raul Gonzalez
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University
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200
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Micale V, Di Marzo V, Sulcova A, Wotjak CT, Drago F. Endocannabinoid system and mood disorders: Priming a target for new therapies. Pharmacol Ther 2013; 138:18-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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