Examining the health effects of fructose

Longitudinal Associations of Dietary Sugars and Glycaemic Index with Indices of Glucose Metabolism and Body Fatness during 3-Year Weight Loss Maintenance: A PREVIEW Sub-Study

BACKGROUND

Dietary sugars are often linked to the development of overweight and type 2 diabetes (T2D) but inconsistencies remain.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated associations of added, free, and total sugars, and glycaemic index (GI) with indices of glucose metabolism (IGM) and indices of body fatness (IBF) during a 3-year weight loss maintenance intervention.

DESIGN

The PREVIEW (PREVention of diabetes through lifestyle Intervention and population studies in Europe and around the World) study was a randomised controlled trial designed to test the effects of four diet and physical activity interventions, after an 8-week weight-loss period, on the incidence of T2D. This secondary observational analysis included pooled data assessed at baseline (8), 26, 52, 104 and 156 weeks from 514 participants with overweight/obesity (age 25-70 year; BMI ≥ 25 kg⋅m^-2) and with/without prediabetes in centres that provided data on added sugars (Sydney and Helsinki) or free sugars (Nottingham). Linear mixed models with repeated measures were applied for IBF (total body fat, BMI, waist circumference) and for IGM (fasting insulin, HbA1c, fasting glucose, C-peptide). Model A was adjusted for age and intervention centre and Model B additionally adjusted for energy, protein, fibre, and saturated fat.

RESULTS

Total sugars were inversely associated with fasting insulin and C-peptide in all centres, and free sugars were inversely associated with fasting glucose and HbA1c (Model B: all p < 0.05). Positive associations were observed between GI and IGM (Model B: fasting insulin, HbA1c, and C-peptide: (all p < 0.01), but not for added sugars. Added sugar was positively associated with body fat percentage and BMI, and GI was associated with waist circumference (Model B: all p < 0.01), while free sugars showed no associations (Model B: p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that added sugars and GI were independently associated with 3-y weight regain, but only GI was associated with 3-y changes in glucose metabolism in individuals at high risk of T2D.

Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Consumption in a Multi-Ethnic Population of Young Men and Association with Sociodemographic Characteristics and Obesity

Sugar-sweetened beverages are frequently consumed among adults and are linked with the incidence of obesity. We aimed to determine rates of weekly and daily sugar-sweetened beverage intake in a multi-ethnic population of young men and their association with sociodemographic characteristics and obesity. This cross-sectional study included 3600 young men who lived in Riyadh, KSA. Participants' sociodemographic characteristics and frequency of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption were gathered through personal interviews. The outcome variables in this study are based on the weekly and daily consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. Weight and height were measured following standard protocols. The rates of weekly and daily sugar-sweetened beverage intake by participants were 93.6% and 40.8%, respectively. Nationality was a predictor of weekly and daily consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. The highest rates of weekly (99.5%) and daily (63.9%) consumption were observed in subjects from the Philippines and Yemen, respectively, while Bangladeshi subjects had the lowest rates of weekly (76.9%) and daily (6.9%) consumption. Obesity was another predictor of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption. Obese participants had a significantly higher odds ratio of weekly sugar-sweetened beverage consumption than non-obese subjects (OR = 4.53, p = 0.037). In conclusion, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption was relatively high and our results support an association between the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and certain sociodemographic variables and obesity.

Sugar-sweetened beverages consumption in a multi-ethnic population of middle-aged men and association with sociodemographic variables and obesity

Background

Adults frequently consume sugar-sweetened beverages. These products are linked to negative health effects such as obesity. Our study was carried out to assess rates of weekly and daily sugar-sweetened beverages consumption in a multi-ethnic population of middle-aged men and association with sociodemographic variables and obesity.

Methods

A sum of 1,800 middle-aged men (36–59 years) living in Riyadh, KSA, participated in this cross-sectional study. Sociodemographic variables and the frequency of sugar-sweetened beverages consumption were gathered from participants using face to face interviews. Weekly and daily consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages were the two binary outcome variables applied in this research. Weight and height were measured following standard procedures.

Results

In this study, 93.8 and 32.6% of participants consumed sugar-sweetened beverages weekly and daily, respectively. The weekly and daily sugar-sweetened beverages consumption was predicted by nationality. Subjects from Pakistan (99.3%) and Yemen (60.0%) reported the greatest rates of weekly and daily consumption, respectively, while Bangladeshi and Sudanese subjects reported the lowest rates of weekly (87%) and daily (2.9%) consumption, respectively. Another factor that predicted weekly sugar-sweetened beverages consumption was obesity. Obese subjects had a significantly greater odds ratio of weekly sugar-sweetened beverages intake than non-obese individuals (OR = 3.80, P = 0.003).

Conclusion

Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is common among middle-aged men who live in KSA. Results show connecting sugar-sweetened beverages intake with specific sociodemographic variables and obesity.

Sweet Beverages and Cancer: A Scoping Review of Quantitative Studies

We conducted a scoping review of sweet beverages (SB) and cancer outcomes to ascertain SB's relationship with cancer by SB type and cancer type. We used the PRISMA Scoping Review Guidelines to review quantitative studies of SB and cancer. Eligible studies included articles reporting a quantitative association between SB intake and a cancer-related health outcome in humans, including adiposity-related vs. non-adiposity-related cancers. Studies included analyses not confounded by artificial sweeteners. SB was defined as beverages with added sugars, 100% fruit juices, or fruit drinks that were not 100% fruit juice. We used a data-charting form to extract study characteristics and results. A total of 38 were included. The sample consisted predominately of adults from European countries outside of the U.S. or predominately White samples in the U.S. Across all conceptualizations of SB, a greater proportion of studies examining carbonated drinks reported SB's relationship with poorer cancer outcomes, which was exacerbated in adiposity-related cancers. The composition of different types of SB (e.g. high fructose corn syrup, natural fructose) as they relate to cancer is important. Studies including more diverse populations that bear a disproportionate burden of both SB intake and cancer are needed.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in obese children and adolescents: a role for nutrition?

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become the most common cause of chronic liver disease in children, paralleling the increasing prevalence of obesity worldwide. The pathogenesis of paediatric NAFLD is not fully understood, but it is known that obesity, nutrition, lifestyle variables, genetic and epigenetic factors may be causally involved in the development of this common metabolic liver disease. In particular, obesity and nutrition are among the strongest risk factors for paediatric NAFLD, which may exert their adverse hepatic effects already before birth. Excess energy intake induces hypertrophy and hyperplasia of adipose tissue with subsequent development of systemic insulin resistance, which is another important risk factor for NAFLD. Diet composition and in particular simple carbohydrate intake (especially high fructose intake) may promote the development of NAFLD, whereas non-digestible carbohydrates (dietary fiber), by affecting gut microbiota, may favour the integrity of gut wall and reduce inflammation, opposing this process. Saturated fat intake may also promote NAFLD development, whereas unsaturated fat intake has some beneficial effects. Protein intake does not seem to affect the development of NAFLD, but further investigation is needed. In conclusion, lifestyle modifications to induce weight loss, through diet and physical activity, remain the mainstay of treatment for paediatric NAFLD. The use of dietary supplements, such as omega-3 fatty acids and probiotics, needs further study before recommendation.

Causal invariance as a tacit aspiration: Analytic knowledge of invariance functions

For causal knowledge to be worth learning, it must remain valid when that knowledge is applied. Because unknown background causes are potentially present, and may vary across the learning and application contexts, extricating the strength of a candidate cause requires an assumption regarding the decomposition of the observed outcome into the unobservable influences from the candidate and from background causes. Acquiring stable, useable causal knowledge is challenging when the search space of candidate causes is large, such that the reasoner's current set of candidates may fail to include a cause that generalizes well to an application context. We have hypothesized that an indispensable navigation device that shapes our causal representations toward useable knowledge involves the concept of causal invariance - the sameness of how a cause operates to produce an effect across contexts. Here, we tested our causal invariance hypothesis by making use of the distinct mathematical functions expressing causal invariance for two outcome-variable types: continuous and binary. Our hypothesis predicts that, given identical prior domain knowledge, intuitive causal judgments should vary in accord with the causal-invariance function for a reasoner's perceived outcome-variable type. The judgments are made as if the reasoner aspires to formulate causally invariant knowledge. Our experiments involved two cue-competition paradigms: blocking and overexpectation. Results show that adult humans tacitly use the appropriate causal-invariance functions for decomposition. Our analysis offers an explanation for the apparent elusiveness of the blocking effect and the adaptiveness of intuitive causal inference to the representation-dependent reality in the mind.

Type 2 Diabetes and Dietary Carbohydrate Intake of Adolescents and Young Adults: What Is the Impact of Different Choices?

Type 2 diabetes mellitus has a high prevalence worldwide, with a rapidly increasing incidence even in youth. Nutrition, dietary macronutrient composition, and in particular dietary carbohydrates play a major role in the development of type 2 diabetes. The aim of this narrative review is to discuss the current evidence on the role of dietary carbohydrates in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes. The digestibility or availability of carbohydrates and their glycemic index (and glycemic load) markedly influence the glycemic response. High consumption of dietary fiber is beneficial for management of type 2 diabetes, whereas high consumption of both glycemic starch and sugars may have a harmful effect on glucose metabolism, thereby increasing the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the presence of genetic predisposition or making its glycemic control more difficult to achieve in people with established T2D. Therefore, the same dietary macronutrient may have harmful or beneficial effects on type 2 diabetes mainly depending on the subtypes consumed. Some other factors are involved in glucose metabolism, such as meal composition, gut microbiota and genetics. For this reason, the glycemic response after carbohydrate consumption is not easy to predict in the single individual. Nutrition suggested to subjects with known type 2 diabetes should be always person-centered, considering the individual features of each subject.

Sugar-sweetened beverage, artificially sweetened beverage and sugar intake and colorectal cancer survival

BACKGROUND

The influence of a high sugar diet on colorectal cancer (CRC) survival is unclear.

METHODS

Among 1463 stage I-III CRC patients from the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study, we estimated hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for CRC-specific and all-cause mortality in relation to intake of post-diagnosis sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB), artificially sweetened beverages (ASB), fruit juice, fructose and other sugars.

RESULTS

Over a median 8.0 years, 781 cases died (173 CRC-specific deaths). Multivariable-adjusted HRs for post-diagnosis intake and CRC-specific mortality were 1.21 (95% CI: 0.87-1.68) per 1 serving SSBs per day (serving/day) and 1.24 (95% CI: 0.95-1.63) per 20 grams fructose per day. Significant positive associations for CRC-specific mortality were primarily observed ≤5 years from diagnosis (HR per 1 serving/day of SSBs = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.06-2.38). Significant inverse associations were observed between ASBs and CRC-specific and all-cause mortality (HR for ≥5 versus <1 serving/week = 0.44, 95% CI: 0.26-0.75 and 0.70, 95% CI: 0.55-0.89, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher post-diagnosis intake of SSBs and sugars may be associated with higher CRC-specific mortality, but only up to 5 years from diagnosis, when more deaths were due to CRC. The inverse association between ASBs and CRC-specific mortality warrants further examination.

No Effect of Added Sugars in Soft Drink Compared With Sugars in Fruit on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: Results From a 4-Week, Randomized Controlled Trial

High intakes of added sugar from soft drinks are associated with negative health outcomes such as the increased risk of gout and type 2 diabetes, weight gain and cardiovascular disease. Fruits are naturally high in sugars but their effect on cardiometabolic risk remains unknown. We examined the effect on cardiometabolic risk factors of consuming natural sugars from fruit or added sugars from sugar-sweetened soft drinks in overweight adults. Forty-eight healthy, overweight (BMI ≥ 28 kg/m²) men (n = 21) and women (n = 20) were randomized to either a fruit (n = 19) or sugar-sweetened soft drink (n = 22) intervention for 4 weeks. The fruit group received 6 items of fresh and dried fruit per day and the sugar-sweetened soft drink group received 955 ml of sugar-sweetened soft drink per day. The interventions were matched for both energy (fruit: 1,800 kJ/d; soft drink: 1,767 kJ/d) and fructose content (fruit: 51.8 g/d; soft drink: 51.7 g/d). The soft drink intervention provided 101 g total sugars, which was all added sugar and the fruit intervention provided 97 g total sugars, which were all natural sugars. Dietary intakes were otherwise ad libitum. Despite being asked to consume additional sugar (up to 1,800 additional kJ/d), there were no changes in weight, blood pressure or other cardiometabolic risk factors, except by uric acid, in any of the intervention groups. In conclusion, our findings do not provide any evidence that short-term regular intake of added sugars is linked to higher cardiometabolic risks, with exception of uric acid in overweight men. Public health interventions to prevent obesity and related diseases should focus on the quality of the whole diet rather than only focusing on reducing sugary drinks or sugar intakes.

Perspective: Defining Carbohydrate Quality for Human Health and Environmental Sustainability

Plant foods are universally promoted for their links to improved human health, yet carbohydrate-containing foods are often maligned based on isolated, reductionist methods that fail to assess carbohydrate foods as a matrix of nutrients and food components. Currently accepted positive carbohydrate quality indices include plant food, whole-grain content, and dietary fiber, while negative health outcomes are linked to high intakes of added sugar and high glycemic index. More recently, negative health aspects have been linked to ultra-processed foods, which are often high in carbohydrates. Yet, carbohydrate staples such as grains and dairy products are both enriched and fortified, resulting in these carbohydrate foods containing important nutrients of concern such as dietary fiber, potassium, vitamin D, and calcium. This Perspective analyzes carbohydrate metrics used in dietary guidance and labeling and finds limitations in accepted indices included in standardized quality carbohydrate definitions and also proposes additional indices to benefit both human and environmental health. As nutrition recommendations shift away from a single-nutrient focus to a more holistic dietary pattern approach that is flexible and adaptable for each individual, it is necessary to determine the quality components that make up these patterns. This review concludes that current approaches that demonize staple carbohydrate foods do little to promote the recommended patterns of foods known to improve health status and reduce disease risk.

Triose Kinase Controls the Lipogenic Potential of Fructose and Dietary Tolerance

The surge in fructose consumption is a major factor behind the rapid rise of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in modern society. Through flux and genetic analyses, we demonstrate that fructose is catabolized at a much higher rate than glucose, and triose kinase (TK) couples fructolysis with lipogenesis metabolically and transcriptionally. In the absence of TK, fructose oxidation is accelerated through the activation of aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and serine biosynthesis, accompanied by increased oxidative stress and fructose aversion. TK is also required by the endogenous fructolysis pathway to drive lipogenesis and hepatic triglyceride accumulation under high-fat diet and leptin-deficient conditions. Intriguingly, a nonsynonymous TK allele (rs2260655_A) segregated during human migration out of Africa behaves as TK null for its inability to rescue fructose toxicity and increase hepatic triglyceride accumulation. Therefore, we posit TK as a metabolic switch controlling the lipogenic potential of fructose and its dietary tolerance.

Fructose Consumption Contributes to Hyperinsulinemia in Adolescents With Obesity Through a GLP-1-Mediated Mechanism

CONTEXT

The consumption of high-fructose beverages is associated with a higher risk for obesity and diabetes. Fructose can stimulate glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) secretion in lean adults, in the absence of any anorexic effect.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that the ingestion of glucose and fructose may differentially stimulate GLP-1 and insulin response in lean adolescents and adolescents with obesity.

DESIGN

We studied 14 lean adolescents [four females; 15.9 ± 1.6 years of age; body mass index (BMI), 21.8 ± 2.2 kg/m2] and 23 adolescents with obesity (five females; 15.1 ± 1.6 years of age; BMI, 34.5 ± 4.6 kg/m2). Participants underwent a baseline oral glucose tolerance test to determine their glucose tolerance and estimate insulin sensitivity and β-cell function [oral disposition index (oDIcpep)]. Eligible subjects received, in a double-blind, crossover design, 75 g of glucose or fructose. Plasma was obtained every 10 minutes for 60 minutes for the measures of glucose, insulin, and GLP-1 (radioimmunoassay) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP; ELISA). Incremental glucose and hormone levels were compared between lean individuals and those with obesity by a linear mixed model. The relationship between GLP-1 increment and oDIcpep was evaluated by regression analysis.

RESULTS

Following the fructose challenge, plasma glucose excursions were similar in both groups, yet the adolescents with obesity exhibited a greater insulin (P < 0.001) and GLP-1 (P < 0.001) increase than did their lean peers. Changes in GIP were similar in both groups. After glucose ingestion, the GLP-1 response (P < 0.001) was higher in the lean group. The GLP-1 increment during 60 minutes from fructose drink was correlated with a lower oDIcpep (r2 = 0.22, P = 0.009).

CONCLUSION

Fructose, but not glucose, ingestion elicits a higher GLP-1 and insulin response in adolescents with obesity than in lean adolescents. Fructose consumption may contribute to the hyperinsulinemic phenotype of adolescent obesity through a GLP-1-mediated mechanism.

Salivary endocannabinoids as mediators in the relationship between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid ratio intake from highly-processed foods and anthropometric markers of health in women

Data suggest that a high ω6 to ω3 ratio (ω6:ω3) contributes to obesity. Highly processed foods are a common source of high ω6:ω3 and have also been associated with increased cardiovascular risk. We hypothesised that salivary endocannabinoids (eCBs) act as a mediator between ω6:ω3 from highly processed foods and anthropometric markers of cardiovascular risk. Finally, we explored sex differences on these parameters. Participants filled a self-report intake frequency inventory. Body measurements were registered, and fasted saliva was collected and analysed using LC/MRM. Overweight subjects consuming more highly processed foods, but not those consuming more whole foods, presented an increased ω6:ω3 and salivary eCB levels. Also, the ω6:ω3 ratio in participants consuming highly processed but not whole foods predicted eCB levels in overweight women. Finally, we show that salivary eCBs correlate with body composition in women only. Our study shows that the food source has a differential impact on physiological and behavioural aspects of food intake.

Sex Differences in Hepatic De Novo Lipogenesis with Acute Fructose Feeding

Dietary free sugars have received much attention over the past few years. Much of the focus has been on the effect of fructose on hepatic de novo lipogenesis (DNL). Therefore the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of meals high and low in fructose on postprandial hepatic DNL and fatty acid partitioning and dietary fatty acid oxidation. Sixteen healthy adults (eight men, eight women) participated in this randomised cross-over study; study days were separated by a 4-week wash-out period. Hepatic DNL and dietary fatty acid oxidation were assessed using stable-isotope tracer methodology. Consumption of the high fructose meal significantly increased postprandial hepatic DNL to a greater extent than consumption of the low fructose meal and this effect was evident in women but not men. Despite an increase in hepatic DNL, there was no change in dietary fatty acid oxidation. Taken together, our data show that women are more responsive to ingestion of higher amounts of fructose than men and if continued over time this may lead to changes in hepatic fatty acid partitioning and eventually liver fat content.

Postprandial Glycaemic, Hormonal and Satiety Responses to Rice and Kiwifruit Preloads in Chinese Adults: A Randomised Controlled Crossover Trial

Controlling postprandial glycaemia helps to prevent and manage non-communicable diseases. One strategy in controlling glycaemia may be to consume meals in two parts; a preload, followed by the remainder of the meal. Our aim was to test preloading a rice meal given for breakfast and lunch on different days, either by splitting the meal (rice preload followed by rice meal) or by using kiwifruit as a preload compared with consuming the rice meal in one sitting. Primary outcomes were glycaemic and insulinaemic responses with secondary outcomes of other hormonal responses, subjective satiety, and subsequent energy intake. Following breakfast, postprandial glycaemic peak concentration was 0.9 (95% CI: 0.2, 1.6) mmol/L lower for the kiwifruit preload compared with the rice meal eaten in one sitting. Following lunch, glycaemic peak concentrations were 1.0 (0.7, 1.4) and 1.1 (0.5, 1.7) mmol/L lower for the rice-split and kiwifruit preload compared with the rice meal alone, respectively. Postprandial insulinaemia area-under-the-curve was 1385 (87, 2684) mU/L·min less for the kiwifruit preload compared with the rice-split. There were no differences among treatments for subsequent energy intake. Meal splitting is useful for lowering postprandial glycaemia, and replacing part of a meal with kiwifruit may help with insulin efficiency without detriment to subsequent energy intake.

Consumption of Sugars, Sugary Foods, and Sugary Beverages in Relation to Adiposity-Related Cancer Risk in the Framingham Offspring Cohort (1991-2013)

Background: Higher sugar consumption may increase cancer risk by promoting insulin-glucose dysregulation, oxidative stress, hormonal imbalances, and excess adiposity. This prospective study investigates the association between dietary sugars (fructose and sucrose) and sugary foods and beverages in relation to combined and site-specific (breast, prostate, colorectal) adiposity-associated cancers.Methods: The analytic sample consisted of 3,184 adults, aged 26-84 years, from the Framingham Offspring cohort. Diet data were first collected between 1991 and 1995 using a food frequency questionnaire. Intakes of fructose, sucrose, sugary foods, and sugary beverages (fruit juice and sugar-sweetened beverages) were derived. Participants were followed up until 2013 to ascertain cancer incidence; 565 doctor-diagnosed adiposity-related cancers, including 124 breast, 157 prostate, and 68 colorectal cancers occurred. Multivariable-adjusted Cox proportional hazards models were used to evaluate associations. Tests for interaction with BMI and waist circumference were conducted.Results: No associations were observed between fructose, sucrose, sugary food consumption, and combined incidence of adiposity-related cancers or the examined site-specific cancers. While total consumption of sugary beverages was not associated with site-specific cancer risk, higher intakes of fruit juice were associated with 58% increased prostate cancer risk (HR: 1.58; 95% CI, 1.04-2.41) in multivariable-adjusted models. In exploratory stratified analyses, higher sugary beverage intakes increased overall adiposity-related cancer risk by 59% in participants with excessive central adiposity (HR: 1.59; 95% CI, 1.01-2.50; Ptrend = 0.057).Conclusions: In this cohort of American adults, higher sugary beverage consumption was associated with increased cancer risk among participants with central adiposity.Impact: These analyses suggest that avoiding sugary beverages represents a simple dietary modification that may be used as an effective cancer control strategy. Cancer Prev Res; 11(6); 347-58. ©2018 AACR.

Fructose-rich diet and insulin action in female rat heart: Estradiol friend or foe?

Increased intake of fructose in humans and laboratory animals is demonstrated to be a risk factor for development of metabolic disorders (insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes) and cardiovascular diseases. On the other hand, estradiol is emphasized as a cardioprotective agent. The main goal of this review is to summarize recent findings on damaging cardiac effects of fructose-rich diet in females, mostly experimental animals, and to evaluate protective capacity of estradiol. Published results of our and other research groups indicate mostly detrimental effects of fructose-rich diet on cardiac insulin signaling molecules, glucose and fatty acid metabolism, nitric oxide production and ion transport, as well as renin-angiotensin system and inflammation. Some of these processes are involved in cardiac insulin signal transmission, others are regulated by insulin or have an influence on insulin action. Administration of estradiol to ovariectomized female rats, exposed to increased intake of fructose, was mostly beneficial to the heart, but sometimes it was ineffective or even detrimental, depending on the particular processes. We believe that these data, carefully translated to human population, could be useful for clinicians dealing with postmenopausal women susceptible to metabolic diseases and hormone replacement therapy.

Unraveling the cytotoxicity and metabolic pathways of binary natural deep eutectic solvent systems

In this study, the anticancer potential and cytotoxicity of natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) were assessed using HelaS3, PC3, A375, AGS, MCF-7, and WRL-68 hepatic cell lines. NADESs were prepared from choline chloride, fructose, or glucose and compared with an N,N-diethyl ethanolammonium chloride:triethylene glycol DES. The NADESs (98 ≤ EC50 ≥ 516 mM) were less toxic than the DES (34 ≤ EC50 ≥ 120 mM). The EC50 values of the NADESs were significantly higher than those of the aqueous solutions of their individual components but were similar to those of the aqueous solutions of combinations of their chief elements. Due to the uniqueness of these results, the possibility that NADESs could be synthesized intracellularly to counterbalance the cytotoxicity of their excess principal constituents must be entertained. However, further research is needed to explore this avenue. NADESs exerted cytotoxicity by increasing membrane porosity and redox stress. In vivo, they were more destructive than the DES and induced liver failure. The potential of these mixtures was evidenced by their anticancer activity and intracellular processing. This infers that they can serve as tools for increasing our understanding of cell physiology and metabolism. It is likely that we only have begun to comprehend the nature of NADESs.

Added sugar intake and metabolic syndrome in US adolescents: cross-sectional analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2012

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between added sugar intake and metabolic syndrome among adolescents.

DESIGN

Dietary, serum biomarker, anthropometric and physical activity data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey cycles between 2005 and 2012 were analysed using multivariate logistic regression models. Added sugar intake in grams per day was estimated from two 24 h standardized dietary recalls and then separated into quintiles from lowest to highest consumption. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were adjusted for physical activity, age, BMI Z-score and energy intake, and their interactions with race were included.

SETTING

Nationally representative sample, USA.

SUBJECTS

US adolescents aged 12-19 years (n 1623).

RESULTS

Added sugar was significantly associated with metabolic syndrome. The adjusted prevalence odds ratios for having metabolic syndrome comparing adolescents in the third, fourth and fifth quintiles v. those in the lowest quintile of added sugar were 5·3 (95 % CI 1·4, 20·6), 9·9 (95 % CI 1·9, 50·9) and 8·7 (95 % CI 1·4, 54·9), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that higher added sugar intake, independent of total energy intake, physical activity or BMI Z-score, is associated with increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome in US adolescents. Further studies are needed to determine if reducing intake of added sugar may help US adolescents prevent or reverse metabolic syndrome.

Sweetening of the global diet, particularly beverages: patterns, trends, and policy responses

Evidence suggests that excessive intake of added sugars has adverse effects on cardiometabolic health, which is consistent with many reviews and consensus reports from WHO and other unbiased sources. 74% of products in the US food supply contain caloric or low-calorie sweeteners, or both. Of all packaged foods and beverages purchased by a nationally representative sample of US households in 2013, 68% (by proportion of calories) contain caloric sweeteners and 2% contain low-calorie sweeteners. We believe that in the absence of intervention, the rest of the world will move towards this pervasiveness of added sugars in the food supply. Our analysis of trends in sales of sugar-sweetened beverages around the world, in terms of calories sold per person per day and volume sold per person per day, shows that the four regions with the highest consumption are North America, Latin America, Australasia, and western Europe. The fastest absolute growth in sales of sugar-sweetened beverages by country in 2009-14 was seen in Chile. We believe that action is needed to tackle the high levels and continuing growth in sales of such beverages worldwide. Many governments have initiated actions to reduce consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in the past few years, including taxation (eg, in Mexico); reduction of their availability in schools; restrictions on marketing of sugary foods to children; public awareness campaigns; and positive and negative front-of-pack labelling. In our opinion, evidence of the effectiveness of these actions shows that they are moving in the right direction, but governments should view them as a learning process and improve their design over time. A key challenge for policy makers and researchers is the absence of a consensus on the relation of beverages containing low-calorie sweeteners and fruit juices with cardiometabolic outcomes, since decisions about whether these are healthy substitutes for sugar-sweetened beverages are an integral part of policy design.

Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review

Suboptimal nutrition is a leading cause of poor health. Nutrition and policy science have advanced rapidly, creating confusion yet also providing powerful opportunities to reduce the adverse health and economic impacts of poor diets. This review considers the history, new evidence, controversies, and corresponding lessons for modern dietary and policy priorities for cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. Major identified themes include the importance of evaluating the full diversity of diet-related risk pathways, not only blood lipids or obesity; focusing on foods and overall diet patterns, rather than single isolated nutrients; recognizing the complex influences of different foods on long-term weight regulation, rather than simply counting calories; and characterizing and implementing evidence-based strategies, including policy approaches, for lifestyle change. Evidence-informed dietary priorities include increased fruits, nonstarchy vegetables, nuts, legumes, fish, vegetable oils, yogurt, and minimally processed whole grains; and fewer red meats, processed (eg, sodium-preserved) meats, and foods rich in refined grains, starch, added sugars, salt, and trans fat. More investigation is needed on the cardiometabolic effects of phenolics, dairy fat, probiotics, fermentation, coffee, tea, cocoa, eggs, specific vegetable and tropical oils, vitamin D, individual fatty acids, and diet-microbiome interactions. Little evidence to date supports the cardiometabolic relevance of other popular priorities: eg, local, organic, grass-fed, farmed/wild, or non-genetically modified. Evidence-based personalized nutrition appears to depend more on nongenetic characteristics (eg, physical activity, abdominal adiposity, gender, socioeconomic status, culture) than genetic factors. Food choices must be strongly supported by clinical behavior change efforts, health systems reforms, novel technologies, and robust policy strategies targeting economic incentives, schools and workplaces, neighborhood environments, and the food system. Scientific advances provide crucial new insights on optimal targets and best practices to reduce the burdens of diet-related cardiometabolic diseases.

Evaluation of a novel biomarker of added sugar intake (δ 13C) compared with self-reported added sugar intake and the Healthy Eating Index-2010 in a community-based, rural U.S. sample

OBJECTIVE

The δ 13C value of human blood is an emerging novel biomarker of added sugar (AS) intake for adults. However, no free-living, community-based assessments of comparative validity of this biomarker have been conducted. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine if Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) score, SoFAAS score (HEI-2010 sub-component for solid fat, alcohol and AS), AS and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intakes were associated with δ 13C value of fingerstick blood in a community-based sample of adults, while controlling for relevant demographics.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional analysis of data obtained from assessments of BMI, dietary intake using 24 h recalls and a fingerstick blood sample was completed. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, multiple linear regression and one-way ANOVA.

SETTING

Rural Southwest Virginia, U.S.A.

SUBJECTS

Adults (n 216) aged >18 years who consumed at least 837 kJ/d (200 kcal/d) from SSB.

RESULTS

This sample of adult participants with low socio-economic status demonstrated a mean HEI-2010 score of 43.4 (sd 12.2), mean SoFAAS score of 10.2 (sd 5.7), mean AS intake of 93 (sd 65) g/d and mean blood δ 13C value of -18.88 (sd 0.7) ‰. In four separate regression models, HEI-2010 (R 2=0.16), SoFAAS (R 2=0.19), AS (R 2=0.15) and SSB (R 2=0.14) predicted δ 13C value (all P≤0.001). Age was also predictive of δ 13C value, but not sex or race.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that fingerstick δ 13C value has the potential to be a minimally invasive method for assessing AS and SSB intake and overall dietary quality in community-based settings. Strengths, limitations and future areas of research for using an objective δ 13C biomarker in diet-related public health studies are discussed.

Exposure to non-nutritive sweeteners during pregnancy and lactation: Impact in programming of metabolic diseases in the progeny later in life

The nutritional environment during embryonic, fetal and neonatal development plays a crucial role in the offspring's risk of developing diseases later in life. Although non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) provide sweet taste without contributing to energy intake, animal studies showed that long-term consumption of NSS, particularly aspartame, starting during the perigestational period may predispose the offspring to develop obesity and metabolic syndrome later in life. In this paper, we review the impact of NNS exposure during the perigestational period on the long-term disease risk of the offspring, with a particular focus on metabolic diseases. Some mechanisms underlying NNS adverse metabolic effects have been proposed, such as an increase in intestinal glucose absorption, alterations in intestinal microbiota, induction of oxidative stress and a dysregulation of appetite and reward responses. The data reviewed herein suggest that NNS consumption by pregnant and lactating women should be looked with particular caution and requires further research.

Dietary intake modification in response to a participation in a resistance training program for sedentary older adults with prediabetes: findings from the Resist Diabetes study

Engagement in one type of health behavior change may exert a "spillover" effect resulting in other behavior changes. Few studies have examined dietary intake following prolonged training, and none have evaluated spontaneous dietary changes beyond alterations in energy or macronutrient intake following initiation of strength/resistance training (RT). The purpose of this observational investigation was to determine if spontaneous dietary intake modifications occur in response to initiation of an RT program, among older adults. Previously sedentary adults with prediabetes (n=134, age=59±1 years) were enrolled in a supervised 12-week RT program. Participants were not given dietary advice or encouraged to change eating behaviors. Three non-consecutive 24-hour dietary recalls were collected at baseline and after 12 weeks of RT. Reductions in intake of energy (1914±40 kcal vs. 1834±427 kcal, p=0.010), carbohydrate (211.6±4.9 g vs. 201.7±5.2 g, p=0.015), total sugar (87.4±2.7 g vs. 81.5±3.1 g, p=0.030), glycemic load (113.4±3.0 vs. 108.1±3.2, p=0.031), fruits and vegetables (4.6±0.2 servings vs. 4.1±0.2 servings, p=0.018), and sweets and desserts (1.1±0.07 servings vs. 0.89±0.07 servings, p=0.023) were detected over time. No changes in other dietary intake variables were observed. Mode of exercise and disease state may be important factors in determining whether dietary modifications occur with exercise initiation, among previously sedentary adults. Successful initiation of RT may represent an opportunity for health care professionals to promote beneficial changes in dietary habits, among older adults with prediabetes.

Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is positively related to insulin resistance and higher plasma leptin concentrations in men and nonoverweight women

The mechanisms for the association of the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) with obesity and type 2 diabetes are only partly understood. The objective of the study was to examine the association of habitual SSB consumption with biomarkers of energy metabolism, including serum glucose, glycated hemoglobin, insulin, insulin resistance [homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)], and leptin. Data were taken from the Study on Nutrition and Cardiovascular Risk in Spain (ENRICA), a cross-sectional study conducted during 2008-2010 in 7842 individuals representative of the population of Spain aged 18-59 y. Diet was assessed with a validated computerized diet history. Biomarkers were determined in 12-h fasting blood samples. Analyses were performed with linear regression with adjustment for the main confounders, including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and morbidity. In men, a 1-serving (200 mL)/d increase in the consumption of SSBs was associated with higher plasma concentrations of insulin (2.14%, P = 0.01), higher HOMA-IR (1.90%, P = 0.04), and higher concentrations of leptin (2.73%, P = 0.01). Among women, these associations were found only in those with a BMI <25 kg/m² (insulin: 2.88%, P = 0.004; HOMA-IR: 3.03%, P = 0.01; and leptin: 4.57%, P = 0.01) or with a waist circumference <80 cm (insulin: 2.79%, P = 0.01; HOMA-IR: 3.00%, P = 0.01; and leptin: 3.63%, P = 0.05). In conclusion, the consumption of SSBs was associated with higher concentrations of insulin and leptin and a higher HOMA-IR in men and in nonoverweight women. Insulin resistance and higher leptin may be early markers of metabolic dysfunction associated with SSBs.

Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes?: health be damned! Pour on the sugar

Sugar-sweetened drinks have been associated with several health problems. In the point narrative as presented below, we provide our opinion and review of the data to date that we need to reconsider consumption of dietary sugar based on the growing concern of obesity and type 2 diabetes. In the counterpoint narrative following our contribution, Drs. Kahn and Sievenpiper provide a defense and suggest that dietary sugar is not the culprit. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and U.S. Department of Agriculture dietary surveys along with commercial Homescan data on household purchases were used to understand changes in sugar and fructose consumption. Meta-analyses and randomized clinical trials were used to evaluate outcomes of beverage and fructose intake. About 75% of all foods and beverages contain added sugar in a large array of forms. Consumption of soft drinks has increased fivefold since 1950. Meta-analyses suggest that consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) is related to the risk of diabetes, the metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. Drinking two 16-ounce SSBs per day for 6 months induced features of the metabolic syndrome and fatty liver. Randomized controlled trials in children and adults lasting 6 months to 2 years have shown that lowering the intake of soft drinks reduced weight gain. Recent studies suggest a gene-SSB potential relationship. Consumption of calorie-sweetened beverages has continued to increase and plays a role in the epidemic of obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and fatty liver disease. Reducing intake of soft drinks is associated with less weight gain.

Sugar-sweetened beverages and body weight

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Given the high prevalence of obesity in the USA, much recent attention has focused on dietary strategies for weight control. Several medical and scientific societies currently recommend reducing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs). However, the evidence base for a public health recommendation has been a topic of debate. The purpose of this review is not to underscore the debate but rather to consider how recently published data pertaining to SSBs contribute to the evidence base for preventing and treating obesity, with application to caring for patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

Consumption of SSBs remains prevalent in the USA. Emerging data from epidemiological studies and clinical trials indicate that consumption contributes to positive energy balance and reducing consumption has beneficial effects on body weight. Some individuals may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of consuming SSBs owing to their ethnicity or genetic predisposition. Plausible physiological mechanisms link consumption of SSBs with weight control.

SUMMARY

Available data provide an evidence base for counselling patients to reduce consumption of SSBs. Nevertheless, additional research is needed to strengthen the evidence base, particularly studies aimed at understanding susceptibility to the adverse effects of consuming SSBs on body weight and mechanisms for these effects.

Fructose vs. glucose and metabolism: do the metabolic differences matter?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Fructose is seen as uniquely contributing to the pandemics of obesity and its cardiometabolic complications. Much of the evidence for this view derives from the unique biochemical, metabolic, and endocrine responses that differentiate fructose from glucose. To understand whether these proposed mechanisms result in clinically meaningful modification of cardiovascular risk in humans, we update a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of controlled feeding trials to assess the cardiometabolic effects of fructose in isocaloric replacement for glucose.

RECENT FINDINGS

A total of 20 controlled feeding trials (n = 344) have investigated the effect of fructose in/on cardiometabolic endpoints. Pooled analyses show that although fructose may increase total cholesterol, uric acid, and postprandial triglycerides in isocaloric replacement for glucose, it does not appear to be any worse than glucose in its effects on other aspects of the lipid profile, insulin, or markers of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. It may also have important advantages over glucose for body weight, glycemic control, and blood pressure.

SUMMARY

Depending on the cardiometabolic endpoint in question, fructose has variable effects when replacing glucose. In the absence of clear evidence of net harm, there is no justification to replace fructose with glucose in the diet.

Mitoneet mediates TNFα-induced necroptosis promoted by exposure to fructose and ethanol

Fructose and ethanol are metabolized principally in the liver and are both known to contribute to the development of hepatic steatosis that can progress to hepatic steatohepatitis. The present study indentifies a synergistic interaction between fructose and ethanol in promoting hepatocyte sensitivity to TNFα-induced necroptosis. Concurrent exposure to fructose and ethanol induces the overexpression of the CDGSH iron-sulfur domain-containing protein 1 (CISD1 or mitoneet), which is localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane. The increased expression of mitoneet primes the hepatocyte for TNFα-induced cytotoxicity. Treatment with TNFα induces the translocation of a Stat3-Grim-19 complex to the mitochondria, which binds to mitoneet and promotes the rapid release of its 2Fe-2S cluster, causing an accumulation of mitochondrial iron. The dramatic increase of mitochondrial iron provokes a surge in formation of reactive oxygen species, resulting in mitochondrial injury and cell death. Additionally, mitoneet is constitutively expressed at high levels in L929 fibrosarcoma cells and is required for L929 cells to undergo TNFα-induced necroptosis in the presence of caspase inhibition, indicating the importance of mitoneet to the necroptotic form of cell death.

Is overweight an issue in phenylketonuria?

Dietary treatment may be associated with an increased risk of obesity in phenylketonuria (PKU). The earliest studies describe a tendency for overweight in PKU, but not all recent publications confirm this, although there are an increasing number of studies describing increased obesity in female patients with PKU. There is little data describing the metabolic consequences of obesity in PKU. It is difficult to interpret and compare published results due to variable patient age, differing dietary treatment approaches, poor treatment adherence, inconsistencies in metabolic control achieved, variable criteria used to classify overweight. There is also a lack of comparison with normal population data which is widely variable between countries. Generally in PKU it is unknown if obesity etiology is a result of the underlying condition, a treatment consequence, or an outcome of inadequate metabolic control. Differences in treatment strategies, target ranges for blood phenylalanine concentrations and severity of PKU can alter nutritional intakes and dietary experiences which ultimately modulate the course of overweight development. It is clear further investigation is required. Treating overweight and obesity in the general population is difficult and no studies have described the impact of obesity treatment strategies in PKU. However, the PKU management team has an important role in monitoring nutritional status and preventing overweight and obesity. It is important that PKU treatment attends to the general aspects of nutrition, feeding behavior and exercise in order to prevent the development of overweight in these individuals.