The World Health Organization fetal growth charts: concept, findings, interpretation, and application

Mode of birth in nulliparous term singleton pregnancies in vertex presentation before and after implementation of an evidence-based intervention: quality-improvement study

PURPOSE

The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of a composite quality improvement intervention on mode of birth in nullipara term singleton vertex (NTSVs).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was an ambidirectional study following the implementation of the intervention to reduce cesarean section rate in NSTV by comparing two birth cohorts, pre-composite quality improvement intervention cohort (January 2013-December 2015) and post-composite quality improvement intervention cohort (January 2018-December 2020).

RESULTS

In the studied periods, there was a total of 7713 NTSV births. Compared to pre-composite quality improvement intervention, there was a post-composite quality improvement intervention reduction in NTSV cesarean section rate from 30.89% to 13.31% (p < 0.0001). Obstetric and non-obstetric indications for elective cesarean sections decreased from 5.52% to 1.04% (p < 0.0001) and from 4.82% to 0.52% (p < 0.0001), respectively. The frequency of emergency cesarean sections in this group decreased from 20.56% to 11.75% (p < 0.0001), especially those performed for failure to progress in labor (from 13.69% to 7.30%; p < 0.0001). There has been a rising trend with regards to maternal age. However, the proportion of mothers aged 35 years and more giving birth by cesarean section reduced from 46.94% to 20.28%. These reductions in cesarean section rates occurred without any negative impact on core fetal outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

This quality improvement study demonstrates that it is feasible to significantly reduce cesarean section rate in NTSV by adopting specific composite measures. However, this requires the understanding of the inherent problems and barriers within the unit and the involvement of all stake holders.

Adverse Neonatal Outcomes Among Children Born to Mothers Eating Disorders: A Register-Based Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

We examined the risk of adverse neonatal outcomes among children born to mothers with anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS).

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

Population-based using Danish national registers.

POPULATION

We included 1 517 839 singletons born between 1991 and 2015 in Denmark.

METHODS

For each ED subtype, we compared children born to mothers with a recent (≤ 2 years before conception and during pregnancy) or past (> 2 years before conception) diagnosis, with children born to mothers who had not been diagnosed with the ED of interest before the index delivery.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Using multinomial logistic regression, we estimated relative risk ratios (RRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for gestational age, birthweight, weight-for-gestational age, low Apgar score, Caesarean section, congenital malformations and postpartum haemorrhage.

RESULTS

Both recent and past AN were associated with increased risk of low birthweight (recent: RRR = 2.36 [95% CI = 1.76-3.18]; past: 1.22 [1.04-1.43]), small-for-gestational age (recent: 1.52 [1.01-2.26]; past: 1.37 [1.16-1.62]), and preterm birth (recent: 1.83 [1.37-2.45]; past: 1.17 [1.00-1.36]), with more pronounced risks in recent AN. Recent (but not past) BN was associated with increased risk of low Apgar score (1.44 [1.03-2.00]). Recent (but not past) EDNOS was associated with increased risk of SGA (1.53 [1.04-2.27]).

CONCLUSIONS

Children born to mothers with EDs have an increased risk of some adverse neonatal outcomes, with more pronounced risks in recent than past EDs. These results underscore the need for improved prevention of maternal EDs and enhanced monitoring throughout pregnancy to mitigate adverse outcomes.

Multiethnic growth standards for fetal body composition and organ volumes derived from 3D ultrasonography

BACKGROUND

A major goal of contemporary obstetrical practice is to optimize fetal growth and development throughout pregnancy. To date, fetal growth during prenatal care is assessed by performing ultrasonographic measurement of 2-dimensional fetal biometry to calculate an estimated fetal weight. Our group previously established 2-dimensional fetal growth standards using sonographic data from a large cohort with multiple sonograms. A separate objective of that investigation involved the collection of fetal volumes from the same cohort.

OBJECTIVE

The Fetal 3D Study was designed to establish standards for fetal soft tissue and organ volume measurements by 3-dimensional ultrasonography and compare growth trajectories with conventional 2-dimensional measures where applicable.

STUDY DESIGN

The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Fetal 3D Study included research-quality images of singletons collected in a prospective, racially and ethnically diverse, low-risk cohort of pregnant individuals at 12 U.S. sites, with up to 5 scans per fetus (N=1730 fetuses). Abdominal subcutaneous tissue thickness was measured from 2-dimensional images and fetal limb soft tissue parameters extracted from 3-dimensional multiplanar views. Cerebellar, lung, liver, and kidney volumes were measured using virtual organ computer aided analysis. Fractional arm and thigh total volumes, and fractional lean limb volumes were measured, with fractional limb fat volume calculated by subtracting lean from total. For each measure, weighted curves (fifth, 50th, 95th percentiles) were derived from 15 to 41 weeks' using linear mixed models for repeated measures with cubic splines.

RESULTS

Subcutaneous thickness of the abdomen, arm, and thigh increased linearly, with slight acceleration around 27 to 29 weeks. Fractional volumes of the arm, thigh, and lean limb volumes increased along a quadratic curvature, with acceleration around 29 to 30 weeks. In contrast, growth patterns for 2-dimensional humerus and femur lengths demonstrated a logarithmic shape, with fastest growth in the second trimester. The mid-arm area curve was similar in shape to fractional arm volume, with an acceleration around 30 weeks, whereas the curve for the lean arm area was more gradual. The abdominal area curve was similar to the mid-arm area curve with an acceleration around 29 weeks. The mid-thigh and lean area curves differed from the arm areas by exhibiting a deceleration at 39 weeks. The growth curves for the mid-arm and thigh circumferences were more linear. Cerebellar 2-dimensional diameter increased linearly, whereas cerebellar 3-dimensional volume growth gradually accelerated until 32 weeks followed by a more linear growth. Lung, kidney, and liver volumes all demonstrated gradual early growth followed by a linear acceleration beginning at 25 weeks for lungs, 26 to 27 weeks for kidneys, and 29 weeks for liver.

CONCLUSION

Growth patterns and timing of maximal growth for 3-dimensional lean and fat measures, limb and organ volumes differed from patterns revealed by traditional 2-dimensional growth measures, suggesting these parameters reflect unique facets of fetal growth. Growth in these three-dimensional measures may be altered by genetic, nutritional, metabolic, or environmental influences and pregnancy complications, in ways not identifiable using corresponding 2-dimensional measures. Further investigation into the relationships of these 3-dimensional standards to abnormal fetal growth, adverse perinatal outcomes, and health status in postnatal life is warranted.

Machine learning approaches for predicting fetal macrosomia at different stages of pregnancy: a retrospective study in China

BACKGROUND

Macrosomia presents significant risks to both maternal and neonatal health, however, accurate antenatal prediction remains a major challenge. This study aimed to develop machine learning approaches to enhance the prediction of fetal macrosomia at different stages of pregnancy.

METHODS

This retrospective study involved 500 pregnant women who delivered singleton infants at Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital between December 2019 and July 2024. The training set comprised 208 cases of macrosomia and 208 non-macrosomia cases, with 84 additional cases used for external validation. A total of 23 candidate variables, including maternal characteristics, physical measurements, and laboratory tests were collected for feature selection. Seven algorithms were applied in combination with three sets of selected features, resulting in 21 fitted models. Model performance was evaluated via the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), accuracy, precision, sensitivity, specificity, and F1-score.

RESULTS

Maternal height, pre-pregnancy weight, first-trimester weight, pre-labor weight, gestational age at birth, gestational weight gain, and the proportion of male neonates were significantly greater in the macrosomia group compared to non-macrosomia group in the training set (p < 0.05). The top five predictors for macrosomia were pre-labor weight, gestational weight gain, the Pre-labor Hb/First-trimester Hb ratio, first-trimester Hb, and maternal height. Logistic regression yielded the highest AUC values in the pre-pregnancy (0.790) and first-trimester (0.815) periods in the validation set, whereas the ensemble model achieved the highest AUC value of 0.930 before labor. SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis highlighted pre-labor weight, gestational age, gestational weight gain, first-trimester Hb, and neonatal sex as important factors for the prediction of macrosomia.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to utilize machine learning with data from the pre-pregnancy, first-trimester, and pre-labor periods to predict macrosomia. The logistic regression model and the final ensemble model demonstrated strong predictive performance, offering valuable insights to improve pre-pregnancy counseling, antenatal assessment, and intrapartum decision-making.

Texture-Based Classification of Fetal Growth Restriction From Intrauterine Neurosonographic Image

OBJECTIVE

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) is a condition where fetuses fail to reach their genetic potential for growth, posing a significant health challenge for newborns. The aim of this research was to explore the efficacy of texture-based analysis of neurosonographic images in identifying FGR in fetuses, which may provide a promising tool for early assessment of FGR.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis collected 100 intrauterine neurosonographic images from 50 FGR and 50 gestational age-appropriate fetuses. Using MaZda software, approximately 300 texture features were extracted from occipital white matter (OWM) and cerebellum of intrauterine neurosonographic images, respectively. Then 10 optimal features were separately selected by 3 algorithms, including the Fisher coefficient method, the method of minimizing classification error probability and average correlation coefficients, and the mutual information coefficient method. Further, the 10 statistically most significant features were selected from these sets to form the mixed feature set. After nonlinear discriminant analysis was performed to reduce feature dimensionality, the artificial neural network (ANN) classifier was conducted, respectively.

RESULTS

For OWM and cerebellum, a total of 11 and 14 statistically significant features were selected. When the mixed feature sets of OWM and cerebellum were applied to ANN classifier, classification accuracy were 90.00% (κ = 0.800; P < .001) and 93.00% (κ = 0.860; P < .001), and the receiver operating characteristic curve for identifying FGR showed an area under the curve of 0.82 and 0.87.

CONCLUSIONS

Texture analysis of fetal intrauterine neurosonographic images is a feasible and noninvasive strategy for evaluating FGR fetuses.

Maternal Uterine Artery Doppler and Serum Marker in the First Trimester as Predictive Markers for Small for Gestational Age Neonates and Preeclampsia: A Pilot Study

Background/Objectives: Although preeclampsia (PE) and small for gestational age (SGA) are known to come from impaired placentation during the first trimester, prior studies have focused mostly on Doppler findings in the second trimester. Methods: In this retrospective pilot study, we enrolled 628 singleton pregnant women who underwent ultrasound in both the first and second trimesters and blood test. For SGA correlation, we further excluded 12 subjects with PE because PE may be the cause of SGA. We first presented the reference range of parameters of uterine artery Doppler in the first trimester and then grouped the subjects according to the presence of SGA (presence = 104, absence = 512) or PE (presence = 12, absence = 616) and investigated the association of uterine artery Doppler findings and serum markers in the first trimester with the occurrence of SGA or PE. Results: The uterine artery pulsatility index and the resistance index and the proportion of uterine artery notch decreased progressively in the first trimester. A lower serum beta-hCG level in the first trimester predicted the occurrence of SGA (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.53, p = 0.019), while the presence of the uterine artery notch in the first trimester predicted the development of PE (notch at least on one side: AOR = 8.65, p = 0.045 and notch on both sides: AOR = 8.91, p = 0.047). Regardless of whether a notch was present in the second trimester, a uterine artery notch in the first trimester was associated with an excellent negative predictive value (99.6%) for PE. Conclusions: This study suggests the clinical importance of assessing serum beta-hCG and the uterine artery notch in the first trimester to predict SGA and PE.

Enhancing Small-for-Gestational-Age Prediction: Multi-Country Validation of Nuchal Thickness, Estimated Fetal Weight, and Machine Learning Models

OBJECTIVE

The first objective is to develop a nuchal thickness reference chart. The second objective is to compare rule-based algorithms and machine learning models in predicting small-for-gestational-age infants.

METHOD

This retrospective study involved singleton pregnancies at University Malaya Medical Centre, Malaysia, developed a nuchal thickness chart and evaluated its predictive value for small-for-gestational-age using Malaysian and Singapore cohorts. Predictive performance using conjunctive (AND)/disjunctive (OR) rule-based algorithms was assessed. Seven machine learning models were trained on Malaysia data and evaluated on both Malaysia and Singapore cohorts.

RESULTS

5519 samples were collected from the University Malaya Medical Centre. Small-for-gestational-age infants exhibit significantly lower nuchal thickness (small-for-gestational-age: 4.57 [1.04] mm, appropriate-for-gestational-age: 4.86 [1.06] mm, p < 0.001). Implementing disjunctive rule (nuchal thickness < 10th centile or estimated fetal weight < 10th centile) significantly improved small-for-gestational-age prediction across all growth charts, with balanced accuracy gains of 5.83% in Malaysia (p < 0.05) and 7.75% in Singapore. The best model for predicting small-for-gestational-age was: logistic regression with five variables (abdominal circumference, femur length, nuchal thickness, maternal age, and ultrasound-confirmed gestational age), which achieved an area under the curve of 0.75 for Malaysia cohorts; support vector machine with all variables, achieved area under the curve of 0.81 for Singapore cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Small-for-gestational-age infants demonstrate significantly reduced second-trimester nuchal thickness. Employing the disjunctive rule enhanced small-for-gestational-age prediction. Logistic regression and support vector machines show superior performance among all models, highlighting the advantages of machine learning. Larger prospective studies are needed to assess clinical utility.

Energetic cost of gestation and prenatal growth in humpback whales

Improving our understanding of energy allocation in reproduction is key for accurately parameterizing bioenergetic models to assess population responses to environmental perturbations and anthropogenic disturbance. We quantified the energetic cost of gestation in humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) using historical whaling records, non-invasive unoccupied aerial system (UAS) photogrammetry and post mortem tissue samples. First, we estimated relative birth size using body length measurements of 678 mother-fetus pairs from historical whaling records and 987 mother-calf pairs measured in situ using UAS-photogrammetry. The total energetic cost of gestation includes fetal growth (FG), heat increment of gestation and placental tissue development. FG was modelled from conception to birth, with fetal volume and mass estimated using the volume-to-length relationship of perinatal calves and published humpback whale tissue composition estimates. Tissue-specific energy content was quantified using post mortem bone, muscle, viscera and blubber samples from a neonatal humpback whale. Placental tissue development was estimated using humpback whale placental tissue and published equations. Relative birth length was found to be 33.75% (95% CI: 32.10-34.61) of maternal length. FG rates and absolute birth size increased with maternal length, with exponential growth in fetal length, volume and mass resulting in minimal energetic costs over the first two quadmesters (0.01-1.08%) before increasing significantly in the final quadmester (98.92%). Gestational heat constituted the greatest energetic cost (90.42-94.95%), followed by fetal (4.58-7.76%) and placental (0.37-1.83%) tissue growth. Our findings highlight the energetic costs endured by capital breeding females preceding parturition, with the most substantial energetic costs of gestation coinciding with migration and fasting. KEY POINTS: We quantified the energetic cost of gestation using body length measurements of mother-fetus pairs from historical whaling records, length estimates of mother-calf pairs measured in situ using aerial photogrammetry and post mortem tissue samples. Fetal growth rates and birth size increased with maternal length, with fetal length, volume and mass increasing exponentially over gestation. Energetic costs over the first two quadmesters were negligible (0.01-1.08%) before increasing significantly in the final quadmester (98.92%). Though larger females incur nearly twice the energetic cost of smaller females, they are likely buffered by greater absolute energy reserves, suggesting smaller females may be less resilient to perturbations in energy balance. We demonstrate the significant energetic costs incurred by pregnant humpback whales, with most of the energetic expenditure occurring over the final 100 days of gestation. Late-pregnant females are, therefore, particularly vulnerable to disruptions in energy balance, given periods of greatest energetic stress coincide with fasting and migration.

Neurological Sequelae in Children Born After Assisted Conception Techniques in a Tertiary University Hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Background Assisted conception (AC) methods, including in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), have transformed reproductive medicine by offering solutions to infertility. However, their long-term health implications, particularly on neurological outcomes in children, require further investigations, especially in the Middle East. Objective This study aimed to evaluate the neurological complications among children conceived through assisted reproductive techniques at King Khalid University Hospital, a tertiary hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Methods A descriptive retrospective review was conducted on the records of pediatric patients born via assisted conception between January 2017 and December 2022. Eligible children aged 18 months and older were included. Data on demographic characteristics, antenatal and postnatal complications, and neurological assessments were collected and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). Results Out of 303 patients, 283 children met the inclusion criteria, with a mean age of 4.1 ± 1.7 years. Most deliveries were via cesarean section (CS) (194, 68.6%). Premature births accounted for 129 (45.6%), with antenatal complications reported in 58 (45.0%). The primary neurological sequela identified was speech disorder, affecting 18 children (6.4%), with a smaller proportion experiencing behavioral issues (eight, 2.8%) and motor delays (five, 1.8%). Significant associations were found between neurological complications and factors such as very preterm status, low birth weight (LBW), neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission, and associated complications during NICU stays. Conclusion Although the majority of children conceived through assisted reproductive techniques exhibit no significant complications, those born prematurely appear to have a higher risk of neurological issues. These findings underscore the importance of ongoing monitoring for children born through assisted conception, particularly those with identified risk factors. Future prospective studies are necessary to further elucidate these associations and improve clinical outcomes for this population.

Periconceptional Folic Acid Supplementation and Risks of Small and Large for Gestational Age at Birth: The Mediation Effects of Maternal Homocysteine Level during Pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Periconceptional folic acid supplementation (FAS) is widely recommended. However, the role of periconceptional FAS on neonatal birth weight remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to explore the independent effects of periconceptional FAS on risks of small for gestational age (SGA) and large for gestational age (LGA) and to test the potential mediation role of maternal homocysteine (Hcy) during pregnancy on the above significant associations.

METHODS

A large-scale prospective birth cohort was conducted in the Tongzhou Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Beijing, China, from June 2018 to August 2019. Periconceptional FAS was evaluated by a self-administered questionnaire on the day of recruitment in early pregnancy (<14th wk of gestation). FAS was defined as participants who had taken folic acid (FA) supplements, FA-containing multivitamins, or other FA-containing nutritional supplements. Neonatal birth weight was measured at delivery. Maternal serum Hcy concentrations were measured in early and late pregnancy, respectively. Logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the associations between FAS during preconception and/or early pregnancy and the occurrence of SGA or LGA. Mediation models were constructed to determine the role of maternal Hcy concentrations on the above associations.

RESULTS

FAS before pregnancy [risk ratios (RR), 0.814; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.667, 0.993], during early pregnancy (RR, 0.625; 95% CI: 0.453, 0.862), and from prepregnancy to early pregnancy (RR, 0.565; 95% CI: 0.371, 0.859) were associated with a lower risk of LGA. However, no significant association was found between periconceptional FAS and SGA birth. Maternal Hcy concentration in late pregnancy mediated the independent effects of maternal FAS during preconception, early pregnancy, and both pre- and early pregnancy stages on risks of LGA birth (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Periconceptional FAS was associated with a lower risk of LGA, which may be mediated by the reduced serum Hcy concentration in late pregnancy. The current recommendation of periconceptional FAS should be complied with to reduce risks of LGA.

Epidemiology of Macrosomia in Saudi Arabia: An Analysis of 12,045 Pregnancies from the Riyadh Mother and Baby Multicenter Cohort Study (RAHMA) Database

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the prevalence, risk factors, and complications associated with delivering macrosomic babies.

METHODS

Singleton term pregnancies (12,045) were studied. Macrosomia was categorized using the following two definitions: birthweight > 4 kg and birthweight ≥ 90th percentile (3.7 kg). Regression models were developed to identify significant risk factors for macrosomia such as maternal age, parity, pre-pregnancy body mass index, gestational weight gain, and hyperglycemia. Other models were constructed to identify the independent effect of macrosomia on outcomes such as shoulder dystocia, emergency cesarean section, stillbirth, and low APGAR scores.

RESULTS

The 50th centile birth weight of Saudi term infants is 3.18 kg; the 90th and 95th centiles were 3.70 and 3.91 kg, respectively. The prevalence of macrosomia (>4 kg) was 3.4%. The likelihood of macrosomia was associated with maternal age >40 years for newborns >4 kg, OR = 1.88, 95% CI (1.02-3.48), and maternal age < 18 for newborns ≥90th centile, OR = 5.23, 95% CI, (1.05-26.06). Regardless of the classification of macrosomia, it was associated with gestational age ≥41 weeks, parity > 4, pre-pregnancy BMI > 30, and maternal hyperglycemia. Macrosomia, using either definition, was associated with increased risk of shoulder dystocia, OR = 11.45, 95% CI (4.12-31.82) and OR = 9.65, 95% CI (3.89-23.94), and emergency CS, OR = 2.03, 95% CI (1.36-3.08) and OR = 1.77, 95% CI (1.34-1.52), for birthweight > 4 kg and ≥90th centile, respectively. Furthermore, newborns whose weights >4 kg were at greater risk to be stillborn, OR = 4.24, 95% CI (1.18-15.20), and to have low APGAR scores at birth, OR = 3.69, 95% CI (1.25-10.98).

CONCLUSION

The risk of macrosomia among Saudi women significantly increases with maternal age, parity, gestational age, hyperglycemia, and pre-pregnancy obesity. Regardless of the definition used, delivering a macrosomic baby was associated with risks of shoulder dystocia and emergency cesarean section. Newborns (>4 kg) were at greater risk of stillbirth and low APGAR scores.

Accurate birth weight prediction from fetal biometry using the Gompertz model

Objectives

Monitoring of fetal growth and estimation of birth weight is of clinical importance. During pregnancy, ultrasound fetal biometry values including femur length, head circumference, abdominal circumference, biparietal diameter are measured and used to place fetuses on "growth charts". There is no simple growth-model-based, predictive formula in use for fetal biometry. Estimation of fetal weight at birth currently depends on ultrasound data taken a short time before birth.

Study design

Our cohort ("Seethapathy cohort") consists of ultrasound biometry measurements and other data for 774 pregnant women in Chennai, India, 2015-2017. We use the Gompertz model, a standard model for constrained growth, with just three intuitive parameters, to model the growth of fetal biometry, and a machine learning (ML) model trained on these parameters to predict birth weight (BW).

Results

The Gompertz model convincingly fits the growth of fetal biometry values. Two Gompertz parameters-t 0 (inflection time) and c (rate of decrease of growth rate)-seem universal to all fetuses, while the third, A , is an overall scale specific to each fetus, capturing individual variation. On the Seethapathy cohort we can infer A for each fetus from ultrasound data available by the 24 or 35 weeks. Our ML model predicts birth weight with < 8 % error, outperforming published methods that have access to late-term ultrasound data. The same model gives an 8.4 % error in BW prediction on an independent validation cohort of 365 women.

Conclusions

The Gompertz model fits fetal biometry growth and enables birth weight estimation without need of late-term ultrasounds. Aside from its clinical predictive value, we suggest its use for future growth standards, with almost all variation described by a single scale parameter A .

Fetal weight growth trajectories and childhood development: A population-based cohort study

This study aimed to investigate whether fetal growth trajectories (FGTs) could predict early childhood development, indicate intrauterine metabolic changes, and explore potential optimal and suboptimal FGTs. FGTs were developed by using an unsupervised machine-learning approach. Children's neurodevelopment, anthropometry, and respiratory outcomes in the first 6 years of life were assessed at different ages. In a subgroup of participants, we conducted a metabolomics analysis of cord blood to reveal the metabolic features of FGTs. We identified 6 FGTs: early decelerating, early decelerating with late catch-up growth, early accelerating, early accelerating with late medium growth, late decelerating, and late accelerating. The early accelerating with late medium growth pattern might be the optimal FGT due to its associations with better psychomotor development, mental development, intelligence quotient, and lung function and a lower risk of behaviour and respiratory problems. Compared with the optimal FGT, early decelerating and late decelerating FGTs were associated with poor neurodevelopment and lung function, while early accelerating FGT was associated with more severe autistic symptoms, poor lung function, and increased risks of overweight/obesity. Metabolic alterations were enriched in amino acid metabolism for early decelerating and late decelerating FGTs, whereas altered metabolites were enriched in lipid metabolism for early accelerating FGT. These findings suggest that FGTs are predictors of early life development and may indicate intrauterine adaptive metabolism. The discovery of optimal and suboptimal FGTs provides potential clues for the early identification and intervention of fetal origin dysplasia or disease, but further research on related mechanisms is still needed.

Maternal Glycemia During Pregnancy and Child Lung Function: A Prospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is known to be associated with certain respiratory impairments in offspring. However, the specific association between maternal GDM and childhood lung function remains unclear. We examined the association of maternal glycemia, as measured by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) values, with childhood lung function outcomes in a birth cohort.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A follow-up study was conducted with 889 children aged 6 years whose mothers underwent a 75-g OGTT between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation. After adjusting for prenatal and postnatal factors, multivariable regression models were used to evaluate the relationship between maternal glycemia and offspring lung function.

RESULTS

In total, 10.7% of the offspring were exposed to maternal GDM. Maternal GDM significantly reduced the z score of forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory flow at 25-75% of FVC in children, with more pronounced effects in female offspring. Maternal 1- and 2-h post-OGTT glucose z scores and the sum of those z scores, but not those for fasting glucose, were inversely associated with several measures of children's lung function. Additionally, maternal GDM increased the risk of impaired lung function in children (odds ratio 2.64; 95% CI, 1.10-5.85), defined as an FVC <85% of the predicted value. There were no significant associations with FEV1/FVC.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal hyperglycemia was negatively associated with lung function in children, particularly among girls. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of this association and to explore potential interventions to mitigate its effects.

Multivariable prediction models for fetal macrosomia and large for gestational age: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The identification of large for gestational age (LGA) and macrosomic fetuses is essential for counselling and managing these pregnancies.

OBJECTIVES

To systematically review the literature for multivariable prediction models for LGA and macrosomia, assessing the performance, quality and applicability of the included model in clinical practice.

SEARCH STRATEGY

MEDLINE, EMBASE and Cochrane Library were searched until June 2022.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included observational and experimental studies reporting the development and/or validation of any multivariable prediction model for fetal macrosomia and/or LGA. We excluded studies that used a single variable or did not evaluate model performance.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data were extracted using the Checklist for critical appraisal and data extraction for systematic reviews of prediction modelling studies checklist. The model performance measures discrimination, calibration and validation were extracted. The quality and completion of reporting within each study was assessed by its adherence to the TRIPOD (Transparent Reporting of a multivariable prediction model for Individual Prognosis Or Diagnosis) checklist. The risk of bias and applicability were measured using PROBAST (Prediction model Risk Of Bias Assessment Tool).

MAIN RESULTS

A total of 8442 citations were identified, with 58 included in the analysis: 32/58 (55.2%) developed, 21/58 (36.2%) developed and internally validated and 2/58 (3.4%) developed and externally validated a model. Only three studies externally validated pre-existing models. Macrosomia and LGA were differentially defined by many studies. In total, 111 multivariable prediction models were developed using 112 different variables. Model discrimination was wide ranging area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUROC 0.56-0.96) and few studies reported calibration (11/58, 19.0%). Only 5/58 (8.6%) studies had a low risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

There are currently no multivariable prediction models for macrosomia/LGA that are ready for clinical implementation.

The Optimal Prediction Model for Successful External Cephalic Version

OBJECTIVE

 The majority of breech fetuses are delivered by cesarean birth as few physicians are trained in vaginal breech birth. An external cephalic version (ECV) can prevent cesarean delivery and the associated morbidity in these patients. Current guidelines recommend that all patients with breech presentation be offered an ECV attempt. Not all attempts are successful, and an attempt does carry some risks, so shared decision-making is necessary. To aid in patient counseling, over a dozen prediction models to predict ECV success have been proposed in the last few years. However, very few models have been externally validated, and thus, none have been adopted into clinical practice. This study aims to use data from a U.S. hospital to provide further data on ECV prediction models.

STUDY DESIGN

 This study retrospectively gathered data from Carle Foundation Hospital and used it to test six models previously proposed to predict ECV success. These models were Dahl 2021, Bilgory 2023, López Pérez 2020, Kok 2011, Burgos 2010, and Tasnim 2012 (GNK-PIMS score).

RESULTS

 A total of 125 patients undergoing 132 ECV attempts were included. A total of 69 attempts were successful (52.2%). Dahl 2021 had the greatest predictive value (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.779), whereas Tasnim 2012 performed the worst (AUC: 0.626). The remaining models had similar predictive values as each other (AUC: 0.68-0.71). Bootstrapping confirmed that all models except Tasnim 2012 had confidence intervals not including 0.5. The bootstrapped 95% AUC confidence interval for Dahl 2021 was 0.71 to 0.84. In terms of calibration, Dahl 2021 was well calibrated with predicted probabilities matching observed probabilities. Bilgory 2023 and López Pérez were poorly calibrated.

CONCLUSION

 Multiple prediction tools have now been externally validated for ECV success. Dahl 2021 is the most promising prediction tool.

KEY POINTS

· Prediction models can be powerful tools for patient counseling.. · The odds of ECV success can estimated based on patient factors and clinical findings.. · Of the six tested models, only Dahl 2021 appears to have good predictive value and calibration..

Exploring the Father's Role in Determining Neonatal Birth Weight: A Narrative Review

Birth weight, which exhibits variability across different populations, is influenced by a mix of genetic, environmental, and dietary factors originating from both the mother and father. Maternal characteristics, including age, socioeconomic status, prior pregnancies, weight, height, and weight increase throughout pregnancy, have a substantial influence on fetal growth and the health of the infant. On the other hand, the influence of paternal characteristics on the weight of newborns is still not fully comprehended in a consistent manner. Birth weight is an important factor that can help predict various maternal complications, such as the probability of having a C-section, experiencing postpartum hemorrhage or infections. It can also indicate future health challenges like asthma, cognitive impairment, and chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes. Nineteen publications were found through a thorough search of the Medline, PubMed, and Scopus databases, which provide insights into how paternal variables contribute to variations in birth weight. Significantly, the age of the father was found to be associated with higher chances of preterm birth and having a smaller size for gestational age in premature infants, while full-term children were more likely to have a larger size for gestational age. In addition, there is a constant correlation between the height of the father and the birth weight of the child. Taller dads are more likely to have babies with a higher birth weight and a lower likelihood of being small for gestational age (SGA). Although there were some discrepancies in the data about the weight and BMI of fathers, it was found that the height of fathers played a significant role in determining the size of the fetus and the weight of the newborn. While there may be differences in the conducted studies, these findings provide valuable insights into the complex connection between parental characteristics and fetal development. This data can be utilized to enhance clinical treatment strategies and enhance our comprehension of outcomes for neonates. Further homogeneous investigations are required to conclusively validate and build upon these findings.

Mycoplasma genitalium in pregnancy, including specific co-infections, is associated with lower birthweight: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasma genitalium infection in pregnancy is increasingly reported at similar frequencies to other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Knowledge on its contribution to adverse pregnancy outcomes is very limited, especially relative to other STIs or bacterial vaginosis (BV). Whether M. genitalium influences birthweight remains unanswered.

METHODS

Associations between birthweight and M. genitalium and other STIs (Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Trichomonas vaginalis) and BV in pregnancy were examined in 416 maternal-newborn pairs from a prospective cohort study in Papua New Guinea.

FINDINGS

Compared to uninfected women, M. genitalium (-166.9 g, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -324.2 to -9.7 g, p = 0.038) and N. gonorrhoeae (-274.7 g, 95% CI: -561.9 to 12.5 g, p = 0.061) infections were associated with lower birthweight in an adjusted analysis. The association for C. trachomatis was less clear, and T. vaginalis and BV were not associated with lower birthweight. STI prevalence was high for M. genitalium (13.9%), N. gonorrhoeae (5.0%), and C. trachomatis (20.0%); co-infections were frequent. Larger effect sizes on birthweight occurred with co-infections of M. genitalium, N. gonorrhoeae, and/or C. trachomatis.

CONCLUSION

M. genitalium is a potential contributor to lower birthweight, and co-infections appear to have a greater negative impact on birthweight. Trials examining the impact of early diagnosis and treatment of M. genitalium and other STIs in pregnancy and preconception are urgently needed.

FUNDING

Funding was received from philanthropic grants, the National Health and Medical Research Council, and the Burnet Institute. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Evaluation of fetal cerebral microvascular status and its relationship with fetal growth and development using microvascular imaging technique

The study conducted retrospective analysis design, aiming to explore the use of Microvascular Imaging Technique (MVFI) to assess fetal cerebral microcirculation and analyze the relationship between Microvascular Index (MVI) and fetal growth and development. 100 pregnant women who met the criteria for fetal growth restriction (FGR) provided in the Expert Consensus on Fetal Growth Restriction (2019 Edition) and underwent routine prenatal examinations at the Obstetrics and Gynecology Department of Peking University Third Hospital from January 2021 to June 2023 were selected as the study subjects. A normal fetus with a fetal weight less than 10 % can be classified as FGR, Pregnant women with fetal umbilical artery (UA) systolic and diastolic (S/D) values ≥3 were included in the observation group, while 200 pregnant women with normal fetuses were selected as the control group during the same period. The fetuses' change in both groups were measured using color Doppler ultrasound, including bi-parietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), and femur length (FL). The cerebral microcirculation of the fetuses in both groups was evaluated using MVFI, and the MVI values were compared. The clinical characteristics of FGR fetuses with umbilical artery S/D ratio ≥ 3 were summarized, and the correlation between fetal cerebral microvascular status and fetal growth and development was analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis. The outcomes told that the BPD, HC, AC, and FL values of the fetuses in the control group were lower the other's value (P < 0.05), and the MVI and peak systolic velocity of the middle cerebral artery (MCA-PSV) values were also lower in the control group (P < 0.05). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between fetal growth and development and MVI and MCA-PSV values in FGR fetuses. In conclusion, MVFI can monitor and quantitatively analyze fetal intracranial microcirculation, visualize slow blood flow in microvascular structures, and this study provides preliminary evidence of the close relationship between fetal cerebral microcirculation and intrauterine growth and development.

Gender differences in gliomas: From epidemiological trends to changes at the hormonal and molecular levels

Gender plays a crucial role in the occurrence and development of cancer, as well as in the metabolism of nutrients and energy. Men and women display significant differences in the incidence, prognosis, and treatment response across various types of cancer, including certain sex-specific tumors. It has been observed that male glioma patients have a higher incidence and worse prognosis than female patients, but there is currently a limited systematic evaluation of sex differences in gliomas. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the association between fluctuations in sex hormone levels and changes in their receptor expression with the incidence, progression, treatment, and prognosis of gliomas. Estrogen may have a protective effect on glioma patients, while exposure to androgens increases the risk of glioma. We also discussed the specific genetic and molecular differences between genders in terms of the malignant nature and prognosis of gliomas. Factors such as TP53, MGMT methylation status may play a crucial role. Therefore, it is essential to consider the gender of patients while treating glioma, particularly the differences at the hormonal and molecular levels. This approach can help in the adoption of an individualized treatment strategy.

Prenatal Exposure of PFAS in Cohorts of Pregnant Women: Identifying the Critical Windows of Vulnerability and Health Implications

Cohorts of pregnant women in 2018 and 2020 were selected to explore prenatal exposure to perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Maternal serum during the whole pregnancy (first to third trimesters) and matched cord serum were collected for the analysis of 50 PFAS. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), and 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonic acid (6:2 FTS) were the dominant PFAS in both the maternal and cord serum. The median ∑PFAS concentration was 14.18 ng/mL, and the ∑PFAS concentration was observed to decline from the first trimester to the third trimester. The transplacental transfer efficiencies (TTE) of 29 PFAS were comprehensively assessed, and a "U"-shaped trend in TTE values with increasing molecular chain length of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (PFCA) was observed in this study. Moreover, the maternal concentrations of 9-chlorohexadecafluoro-3-oxanonane-1-sulfonic acid (6:2 Cl-PFESA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUdA), perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA), PFOS, and hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) in the 2020 cohort were significantly lower than those in the 2018 cohort, declining by about 23.85-43.2% from 2018 to 2020 (p < 0.05). Higher proportions of emerging PFAS were observed in fetuses born in 2020. This birth cohort was collected during the COVID-19 epidemic period. The change in the PFAS exposure scene might be in response to the different exposure profiles of the 2018 and 2020 cohorts, which are attributed to the impact of COVID-19 on the social activities and environment of pregnant women. Finally, by application of a multiple informant model, the third trimester was identified as the critical window of vulnerability to PFAS exposure that affects birth weight and birth length.

Fetal Growth Velocity-A Breakthrough in Intrauterine Growth Assessment?

The pursuit of assessing fetal well-being in obstetrical practice remains a central tenet, propelling ongoing endeavors to explore innovative markers and diagnostic methodologies aimed at prognosing potential perinatal adversities. Deviations from standard patterns of intrauterine growth, whether exhibiting excessive or insufficient trajectories, stand as pivotal indices hinting at underlying pathophysiological processes or heightened concurrent medical conditions. Initiatives like the Delphi consensus and the INTERGROWTH-21st project strive to refine diagnostic criteria and establish international standards for fetal growth assessment. This article aims to present the current knowledge regarding the assessment of abnormal growth, including novel methods such as growth velocity. Integrating fetal growth velocity assessment into perinatal care protocols holds promise in enhancing diagnostic precision. Growth velocity, involving changes in fetal size over a given period, offers insights into distinguishing between constitutional and pathological growth abnormalities. Various methodologies and models have been proposed to evaluate growth velocity, with notable advancements in understanding fetal growth patterns across different trimesters. It is believed that accelerated and reduced growth velocity may be a sensible parameter in the detection of fetal growth restriction (FGR), small-for-gestational-age (SGA) fetuses, large-for-gestational-age (LGA) fetuses and macrosomic fetuses as well as appropriate-for-gestational age (AGA) fetuses that encounter problems with growth continuation. Recent studies found that changes in growth velocity reflect the risk of adverse perinatal outcomes (APOs). Future directions in fetal health research aim to elucidate the long-term consequences of abnormal fetal growth velocity on neurodevelopmental outcomes, highlighting the critical role of early assessment and intervention.

High-throughput mRNA sequencing of human placenta shows sex differences across gestation

INTRODUCTION

Fetal sex affects fetal and maternal health outcomes in pregnancy, but this connection remains poorly understood. As the placenta is the route of fetomaternal communication and derives from the fetal genome, placental gene expression sex differences may explain these outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

We utilized next generation sequencing to study the normal human placenta in both sexes in first and third trimester to generate a normative transcriptome based on sex and gestation.

STUDY DESIGN

We analyzed 124 first trimester (T1, 59 female and 65 male) and 43 third trimester (T3, 18 female and 25 male) samples for sex differences within each trimester and sex-specific gestational differences.

RESULTS

Placenta shows more significant sexual dimorphism in T1, with 94 T1 and 26 T3 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The sex chromosomes contributed 60.6% of DEGs in T1 and 80.8% of DEGs in T3, excluding X/Y pseudoautosomal regions. There were 6 DEGs from the pseudoautosomal regions, only significant in T1 and all upregulated in males. The distribution of DEGs on the X chromosome suggests genes on Xp (the short arm) may be particularly important in placental sex differences. Dosage compensation analysis of X/Y homolog genes shows expression is primarily contributed by the X chromosome. In sex-specific analyses of first versus third trimester, there were 2815 DEGs common to both sexes upregulated in T1, and 3263 common DEGs upregulated in T3. There were 7 female-exclusive DEGs upregulated in T1, 15 female-exclusive DEGs upregulated in T3, 10 male-exclusive DEGs upregulated in T1, and 20 male-exclusive DEGs upregulated in T3.

DISCUSSION

This is the largest cohort of placentas across gestation from healthy pregnancies defining the normative sex dimorphic gene expression and sex common, sex specific and sex exclusive gene expression across gestation. The first trimester has the most sexually dimorphic transcripts, and the majority were upregulated in females compared to males in both trimesters. The short arm of the X chromosome and the pseudoautosomal region is particularly critical in defining sex differences in the first trimester placenta. As pregnancy is a dynamic state, sex specific DEGs across gestation may contribute to sex dimorphic changes in overall outcomes.

The relationship between maternal exposure to ambient air pollutants and premature rupture of membranes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Air pollution is an environmental stimulus that may predispose pregnant women to preterm rapture of membrane (PROM). However, the relationship of maternal exposure to air pollutants and PROM is still unclear. To investigate the relationship between the long-term and short-term maternal exposure to air pollution and PROM. We searched all studies published in PubMed, Embase and Web of Science up to February 2024. The studies provided quantitative effect estimates with 95% confidence intervals, for the impact of short-term (<30 days) or long-term (≥30 days) maternal exposure to air pollutants on PROM, preterm PROM (PPROM) or term PROM (TPROM). The odds ratio (OR), risk ratio (RR), or hazard ratio (HR), with 95% confidence intervals was extracted, and RR or HR were deemed as OR because of the low prevalence of PROM. Fixed- or random-effects meta-analyses performed. In total, 17 relevant studies were included. Maternal exposure to PM2.5 in the second trimester increases the risk of PROM (pooled OR = 1.15, 95%CI: 1.05-1.26). Maternal exposure to PM10, NO2, NO, CO and SO2 during pregnancy and short-term maternal exposure to PM2.5, NO2, SO2 and O3 also associate with PROM occurrence. The results of the study show that both long-term maternal exposure in the second or third trimester and short-term maternal exposure to ambient air pollution can increase the risk of PROM.

Children born after assisted reproduction more commonly carry a mitochondrial genotype associating with low birthweight

Children conceived through assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have an elevated risk of lower birthweight, yet the underlying cause remains unclear. Our study explores mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variants as contributors to birthweight differences by impacting mitochondrial function during prenatal development. We deep-sequenced the mtDNA of 451 ART and spontaneously conceived (SC) individuals, 157 mother-child pairs and 113 individual oocytes from either natural menstrual cycles or after ovarian stimulation (OS) and find that ART individuals carried a different mtDNA genotype than SC individuals, with more de novo non-synonymous variants. These variants, along with rRNA variants, correlate with lower birthweight percentiles, independent of conception mode. Their higher occurrence in ART individuals stems from de novo mutagenesis associated with maternal aging and OS-induced oocyte cohort size. Future research will establish the long-term health consequences of these changes and how these findings will impact the clinical practice and patient counselling in the future.

The Population-Attributable Fractions of Small-for-Gestational-Age Births: Results from the Japan Birth Cohort Consortium

A fetal growth restriction is related to adverse child outcomes. We investigated risk ratios and population-attributable fractions (PAF) of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants in the Japanese population. Among 28,838 infants from five ongoing prospective birth cohort studies under the Japan Birth Cohort Consortium, two-stage individual-participant data meta-analyses were conducted to calculate risk ratios and PAFs for SGA in advanced maternal age, pre-pregnancy underweight, and smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Risk ratio was calculated using modified Poisson analyses with robust variance and PAF was calculated in each cohort, following common analyses protocols. Then, results from each cohort study were combined by meta-analyses using random-effects models to obtain the overall estimate for the Japanese population. In this meta-analysis, an increased risk (risk ratio, [95% confidence interval of SGA]) was significantly associated with pre-pregnancy underweight (1.72 [1.42-2.09]), gestational weight gain (1.95 [1.61-2.38]), and continued smoking during pregnancy (1.59 [1.01-2.50]). PAF of underweight, inadequate gestational weight gain, and continued smoking during pregnancy was 10.0% [4.6-15.1%], 31.4% [22.1-39.6%], and 3.2% [-4.8-10.5%], respectively. In conclusion, maternal weight status was a major contributor to SGA births in Japan. Improving maternal weight status should be prioritized to prevent fetal growth restriction.

Obstetric and neonatal outcomes following taxane use during pregnancy: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The use of taxanes following the first trimester of pregnancy is endorsed by current clinical guidelines. However, evidence regarding their safety in terms of obstetric and neonatal outcomes is limited.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed using the MEDLINE, CENTRAL and Web of Sciences databases from their inception up to 12/16/2022. Eligibility criteria included gestational taxane use, presentation of original findings, and individual case data presented. A descriptive statistical analysis was undertaken.

RESULTS

A total of 159 patients treated with taxane-containing regimens during pregnancy were identified, resulting in 162 fetuses exposed in utero. The majority of patients had breast cancer (n = 88; 55.3%) or cervical cancer (n = 45; 28.3%). The most commonly employed taxane was paclitaxel (n = 131; 82.4%). A total of 111 (69.8%) patients were also treated with other cytotoxic drugs during pregnancy, including platinum salts (n = 70; 63.0%) and doxorubicin/cyclophosphamide (n = 20; 18.0%). While most patients received taxanes during the second trimester of pregnancy (n = 79; 70.0%), two were exposed to taxanes in the first trimester. Obstetric outcomes were reported in 105 (66.0%) cases, with the most frequent adverse events being preterm contractions or premature rupture of membranes (n = 12; 11.4%), pre-eclampsia/HELLP syndrome (n = 6; 5.7%), and oligohydramnios/anhydramnios (n = 6; 5.7%). All cases with pregnancy outcome available resulted in live births (n = 132). Overall, 72 (54.5%) neonates were delivered preterm, 40 (30.3%) were classified as small for gestational age (SGA), and 2 (1.5%) had an Apgar score of < 7 at 5 min. Perinatal complications included acute respiratory distress syndrome (n = 14; 10.6%), hyperbilirubinemia (n = 5; 3.8%), and hypoglycemia (n = 2; 1.5%). In addition, 7 (5.3%) cases of congenital malformations were reported. At a median follow-up of 16 months, offspring health status was available for 86 (65.2%), of which 13 (15.1%) had a documented complication, including delayed speech development, recurrent otitis media, and acute myeloid leukemia.

CONCLUSIONS

Taxanes appear to be safe following the first trimester of pregnancy, with obstetric and fetal outcomes being similar to those observed in the general obstetric population. Future studies should aim to determine the most effective taxane regimen and dosage for use during gestation, with a specific focus on treatment safety.

Predictive ability of fetal growth charts in identifying kindergarten-age developmental challenges: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

The Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine recommends defining fetal growth restriction as an estimated fetal weight or abdominal circumference <10th percentile of a population-based reference. However, because multiple references are available, an understanding of their ability to identify infants at increased risk due to fetal growth restriction is critical. Previous studies have focused on the ability of different population references to identify short-term outcomes, but fetal growth restriction also has longer-term consequences for child development.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to estimate the association between estimated fetal weight percentiles on the INTERGROWTH-21st and World Health Organization fetal growth charts and kindergarten-age childhood development, and establish the charts' discriminatory ability in predicting kindergarten-age developmental challenges.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a retrospective cohort study linking obstetrical ultrasound scans conducted at BC Women's Hospital, Vancouver, Canada, with population-based standardized kindergarten test results. The cohort was limited to nonanomalous, singleton fetuses scanned at ≥28 weeks' gestation from 2000 to 2011, with follow-up until 2017. We classified estimated fetal weight into percentiles using the INTERGROWTH-21st and World Health Organization charts. We used generalized additive modeling to link estimated fetal weight percentile with routine province-wide kindergarten readiness test results. We calculated the area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve and other measures of diagnostic accuracy with 95% confidence intervals at select percentile cut-points of the charts. We repeated analyses using the Hadlock chart to help contextualize findings. The main outcome measure was the total Early Development Instrument score (/50). Secondary outcomes were Early Development Instrument subdomain scores for language and cognitive development, and for communication skills and general knowledge, as well as designation of "developmentally vulnerable" or "special needs".

RESULTS

Among 3418 eligible fetuses, those with lower estimated fetal weight percentiles had systematically lower Early Development Instrument scores and increased risks of developmental vulnerability. However, the clinical significance of differences was modest in magnitude (eg, total Early Development Instrument score -2.8 [95% confidence interval, -5.1 to -0.5] in children with an estimated fetal weight in 3rd-9th percentile of INTERGROWTH-21st chart [vs reference of 31st-90th]). The charts' predictive abilities for adverse child development were limited (eg, area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve <0.53 for all 3 charts).

CONCLUSION

Lower estimated fetal weight percentiles on the INTERGROWTH-21st and World Health Organization charts indicate increased risks of adverse kindergarten-age child development at the population level, but are not accurate individual-level predictors of adverse child development.

A conditional standard for the customized fetal growth trajectory in twin pregnancy

BACKGROUND

The difference in the birth weights between twins and singletons grows with advancing gestation. Although many fetal weight standards based on ultrasonographic measurements have been created for tracking fetal growth in twin pregnancies, their applicability to other groups is limited by the fact that they are population specific.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to generate conditional centiles for growth assessment of twin fetuses and to compare them with other population-based growth standards for singleton and twin fetuses.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective, longitudinal study of ultrasound-based estimated fetal weight data of normal twin fetuses delivered after 34 weeks of gestation. Linear mixed effects models that adjusted for maternal characteristics, fetal gender, and chorionicity were used to evaluate the relationship between estimated fetal weight and gestational age. The estimated fetal weight reference values were calculated using conditional centile based on the estimated fetal weight at an earlier gestational age. To compare our results with previous studies, fetal growth curves were generated using a formula we created that included maternal characteristics and the estimated fetal weight at 24 weeks of gestation in these studies. In a subgroup analysis of our low-risk twin babies born at full term, we calculated the number of fetuses who were reclassified as being in the bottom 10th percentile using each of the previous population-based standard.

RESULTS

A total of 2644 ultrasounds with a median of 4 scans per fetus from 572 twin pregnancies were included in this analysis. In the cohort, 36% of the fetuses were monochorionic. Maternal age, body mass index, and the interaction between fetal gender and chorionicity were significantly associated with estimated fetal weight. The predicted growth curves matched the growth standard for twins. In our low-risk group, when the singleton standard was used, the incidence of estimated fetal weight <10th percentile was above 20% from gestational week 24 to 38, and this incidence varied when reclassified using other population-based twin standards.

CONCLUSION

This conditional growth chart was specifically designed to assess fetal growth in twin pregnancies, but it is generalizable to other populations.

Effects of in-utero personal exposure to PM2.5 sources and components on birthweight

In-utero exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and specific sources and components of PM2.5 have been linked with lower birthweight. However, previous results have been mixed, likely due to heterogeneity in sources impacting PM2.5 and due to measurement error from using ambient data. Therefore, we investigated the effect of PM2.5 sources and their high-loading components on birthweight using data from 198 women in the 3rd trimester from the MADRES cohort 48-h personal PM2.5 exposure monitoring sub-study. The mass contributions of six major sources of personal PM2.5 exposure were estimated for 198 pregnant women in the 3rd trimester using the EPA Positive Matrix Factorization v5.0 model, along with their 17 high-loading chemical components using optical carbon and X-ray fluorescence approaches. Single- and multi-pollutant linear regressions evaluated the association between personal PM2.5 sources/components and birthweight, adjusting for gestational age, maternal age, race, infant sex, parity, diabetes status, temperature, maternal education, and smoking history. Participants were predominately Hispanic (81%), with a mean (SD) gestational age of 39.1 (1.5) weeks and age of 28.2 (6.0) years. Mean birthweight was 3295.8 g (484.1) and mean PM2.5 exposure was 21.3 (14.4) µg/m3. A 1 SD increase in the mass contribution of the fresh sea salt source was associated with a 99.2 g decrease in birthweight (95% CI - 197.7, - 0.6), and aged sea salt was associated with a 70.1 g decrease in birthweight (95% CI - 141.7, 1.4). Magnesium, sodium, and chlorine were associated with lower birthweight, which remained after adjusting for PM2.5 mass. This study found evidence that major sources of personal PM2.5 including fresh and aged sea salt were negatively associated with birthweight, with the strongest effect on birthweight from Na and Mg. The effect of crustal and fuel oil sources differed by infant sex with negative associations seen in boys compared to positive associations in girls.

Maternal early mid-pregnancy adiponectin in relation to infant birth weight and the likelihood of being born large-for-gestational-age

This study aimed to evaluate the association of maternal adiponectin with infant birth size in 1349 pregnant women at Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden. The mean age of the women was 31.0 years, and 40.9% were nulliparous. Maternal early mid-pregnancy adiponectin was measured in microgram/mL. Linear regression models were performed to evaluate the association between adiponectin and infant birth weight. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate adiponectin in relation to the odds of giving birth to an infant large-for-gestational-age (LGA, infant birth weight standard deviation score > 90th percentile). Adjustments were made for early pregnancy BMI and diabetes mellitus. Prior adjustments, adiponectin was inversely associated with infant birth weight (β - 17.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) - 26.8 to - 7.4 g, P < 0.001), and one microgram/mL increase in adiponectin was associated with a 9% decrease in the odds of giving birth to an LGA infant (odds ratio 0.91, CI 0.85-0.97, P = 0.006). The associations did not withstand in the adjusted models. We found a significant interaction between adiponectin and infant sex on birth size. This interaction was driven by an inverse association between maternal adiponectin and birth size in female infants, whereas no such association was found in males.

Risk factors for surgical compliance and impact on the survival of patients with glioma: a population-based propensity score-matched study

PURPOSE

To comprehensively analyze the impact of surgical compliance on the survival of patients with glioma and to explore the factors that influence surgical compliance.

METHODS

Clinical data of patients with glioma between 2004 and 2018 were collected from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database. Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox regression were used to analyze the effect of surgical compliance on overall survival (OS) and disease-specific survival (DSS). Multivariate Cox regression was used to select the prediction variables and construct the nomograms. The predictive power of these models was assessed using Harell's consistency index (C-index), decision curve analysis (DCA), receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and calibration curves. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to analyze the related variables of surgical compliance, and 1:1 propensity score matching (PSM) was applied to evaluate the validity of the results of patients with favorable and poor surgical compliance.

RESULTS

Among the 47,573 eligible glioma patients recommended for surgery, 46,380 (97.5%) were in the surgical compliance group, while 1193 (2.5%) were in the noncompliance group. Surgical compliance was an independent prognostic factor for glioma patients, as indicated by multivariate Cox regression analysis that patients with surgical compliance had worse OS (hazard ratio [HR] 1.924; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.800-2.056, p < 0.001) and DSS (HR 1.718; 95% CI 1.592-1.853, p < 0.001) in comparison to those without surgical compliance. A nomogram was developed and internally validated to be able to predict glioma prognosis. The nomogram can well predict patients' OS (C-index: 0.745) and DSS (C-index: 0.744). ROC curve, DCA curve, and calibration curve were applied to further assess the accuracy of the nomogram. Poor surgical compliance was found to be related to older age, female gender, tumor diameter, grade II or higher, poor grading, tumor location in the cerebellum and brainstem, and low household income.

CONCLUSION

Surgical compliance is an independent prognostic factor for predicting the OS and DSS of patients with glioma, and good surgical compliance was significantly related to good survival.

Subfertility versus ART: unraveling the origins of fetal cardiac programming

STUDY QUESTION

Do spontaneously conceived (SC) fetuses from subfertile couples show the same signs of cardiac remodeling as those observed after IVF treatments?

SUMMARY ANSWER

As opposed to fetuses from IVF, SC fetuses from subfertile couples do not show cardiac remodeling and present a similar cardiac structure and function to those of SC fetuses from fertile couples.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Subjects conceived by IVF present signs of cardiac remodeling and suboptimal function in utero and during childhood, including larger atria, more globular and thicker ventricles, reduced longitudinal motion, and impaired relaxation as compared to SC individuals from fertile couples. There are no previous publications investigating the independent cardiac programming effects of infertility in SC fetuses from subfertile couples (with time-to-pregnancy (TTP) over 12 months).

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

A prospective cohort study of 289 singleton pregnancies exposed and not exposed to subfertility recruited from 2019 to 2021, including 96 SC pregnancies from fertile couples (TTP under 12 months), 97 SC from subfertile couples (TTP over 12 months), and 96 from IVF after fresh embryo transfer. Fetal echocardiography was performed in all pregnancies. Epidemiological data and perinatal outcomes were collected in all pregnancies. The overall attrition rate was 15.7%.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

SC from subfertile couples and IVF pregnancies were identified as eligible at pregnancy diagnosis, and eligible SC pregnancies from fertile couples who attended our maternal-fetal unit were invited to participate at third trimester, being matched to the other groups by maternal age. Fetal echocardiography was performed at 29-34 weeks of pregnancy to assess cardiac structure and function, and results were adjusted by parental age, maternal smoking status, child's birth order, birthweight centile, gestational age, and estimated fetal weight at scan.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Parental age, ethnicity, BMI, and smoking exposure, median gestational age and estimated fetal weight were similar in all study groups. There were no significant differences in infertility duration or etiology between the subfertile and the IVF populations (TTP: subfertile median 35 months (interquartile range 20-48) versus IVF: 47 (25-61); P-value = 0.051). While both fertile and subfertile SC groups presented similar fetal cardiac results, IVF fetuses showed larger atria (right atria-to-heart ratio: IVF mean 18.9% (SD 3.4) versus subfertile 17.8% (3.5) versus fertile 17.6% (3.3); adjusted P-value < 0.001), more globular ventricles (right ventricular sphericity index: IVF 1.56 (0.25) versus subfertile 1.72 (0.26) versus fertile 1.72 (0.26); <0.001), and thicker myocardial walls (relative wall thickness: IVF 0.86 (0.22) versus subfertile 0.64 (0.13) versus fertile 0.64 (0.18); <0.001). Whereas SC fetuses from fertile and subfertile couples had preserved cardiac function, IVF fetuses showed signs of suboptimal systolic and diastolic function, with reduced tricuspid ring displacement (IVF 7.26 mm (1.07) versus subfertile 8.04 mm (1.18) versus fertile 7.89 mm (1.51); <0.001) and increased left myocardial performance index (IVF 0.49 (0.08) versus subfertile 0.45 (0.09) versus fertile 0.45 (0.10); <0.001). A sub-analysis including only unexplained infertility cases in subfertile SC and IVF groups showed similar results.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

The fetal cardiac changes reported here are subclinical, and most of the cardiovascular parameters were within normal ranges. Although echocardiographic changes are recognized as potential cardiovascular risk factors, their association with long-term cardiovascular disease remains to be demonstrated.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

Subfertility per se does not seem to be associated to fetal cardiac remodeling, which has been previously described in IVF fetuses. Future studies are warranted to further investigate other factors related to the observed fetal cardiac changes associated with ART.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This project has been partially funded with support from the Erasmus + Programme of the European Union (Framework Agreement number: 2013-0040). This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use, which may be made of the information contained therein. Additionally, the research leading to these results has received funding from 'la Caixa' Foundation under grant agreement LCF/PR/GN18/10310003, the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI15/00130, PI16/00861, PI17/00675, PI18/00073, INT21/00027)-co-funded by the European Union, Cerebra Foundation for the Brain Injured Child (Carmarthen, Wales, UK) and AGAUR 2017 SGR grant no 1531. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

N/A.

Effect of magnet strength on fetal brain biometry - a single-center retrospective MRI-based cohort study

PURPOSE

Abnormal fetal brain measurements might affect clinical management and parental counseling. The effect of between-field-strength differences was not evaluated in quantitative fetal brain imaging until now. Our study aimed to compare fetal brain biometry measurements in 3.0 T with 1.5 T scanners.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort of 1150 low-risk fetuses scanned between 2012 and 2021, with apparently normal brain anatomy, were retrospectively evaluated for biometric measurements. The cohort included 1.5 T (442 fetuses) and 3.0 T scans (708 fetuses) of populations with comparable characteristics in the same tertiary medical center. Manually measured biometry included bi-parietal, fronto-occipital and trans-cerebellar diameters, length of the corpus-callosum, vermis height, and width. Measurements were then converted to centiles based on previously reported biometric reference charts. The 1.5 T centiles were compared with the 3.0 T centiles.

RESULTS

No significant differences between centiles of bi-parietal diameter, trans-cerebellar diameter, or length of the corpus callosum between 1.5 T and 3.0 T scanners were found. Small absolute differences were found in the vermis height, with higher centiles in the 3.0 T, compared to the 1.5 T scanner (54.6th-centile, vs. 39.0th-centile, p < 0.001); less significant differences were found in vermis width centiles (46.9th-centile vs. 37.5th-centile, p = 0.03). Fronto-occipital diameter was higher in 1.5 T than in the 3.0 T scanner (66.0th-centile vs. 61.8th-centile, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

The increasing use of 3.0 T MRI for fetal imaging poses a potential bias when using 1.5 T-based charts. We elucidate those biometric measurements are comparable, with relatively small between-field-strength differences, when using manual biometric measurements. Small inter-magnet differences can be related to higher spatial resolution with 3 T scanners and may be substantial when evaluating small brain structures, such as the vermis.

Early Development of Locomotion in the Term Piglet Model: Does Size Matter?

Intrauterine undernutrition in humans typically results in low birth weight ([small for gestational age] SGA) and delayed postnatal neuromotor maturation. Since SGA and intrauterine growth retardation are also common in domestic pigs, piglets are premised as models to study delayed motor development. Applied to the locomotor paradigm, however, questions emerge: (i) how to map the developmental time scale of the precocial model onto the altricial target species and (ii) how to distinguish size from maturation effects? Gait data were collected at self-selected voluntary walking speed during early development (0-96 hours postpartum; pp) for SGA- and normal ([appropriate for gestational age] AGA) piglets. Dimensionless spatiotemporal gait characteristics (according to dynamic similarity) become invariant already after 4 hours pp, suggesting rapid postnatal neuromotor maturation. Moreover, dimensionless gait data are largely identical for SGA- and AGA-siblings, indicating that primarily size effects explain absolute locomotor differences. This is further supported by (i) normalized force-generating capacity of limb muscles, (ii) joint kinematics (<10 hours pp), and (iii) normalized ground reaction forces (<5 days pp) being indifferent between SGA- and AGA- piglets. Furthermore, predictive modeling based on limb joint kinematics is unable to discern the majority of SGA- from AGA-piglets (<10 hours pp). All this leads to the conclusion that, although smaller than the AGA piglets in absolute terms, SGA-piglets mature (neuromechanically speaking) just like, and equally fast as their AGA littermates. Yet, it remains a fact that early SGA piglets are reported to be less mobile, less vital, and less competitive than their AGA siblings (even often die before day 3 pp). This conspicuous difference likely results from the energy level (blood glucose and glycogen) and its mobilization being considerably different between the piglet categories during early development.

Reference Values for Birth Weight in Relation to Gestational Age in Poland and Comparison with the Global Percentile Standards

INTRODUCTION

Percentiles of birth weight by gestational age (GA) are an essential tool for clinical assessment and initiating interventions to reduce health risks. Unfortunately, Poland lacks a reference chart for assessing newborn growth based on the national population. This study aimed to establish a national reference range for birth weight percentiles among newborns from singleton deliveries in Poland. Additionally, we sought to compare these percentile charts with the currently used international standards, INTERGROWTH-21 and WHO.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All singleton live births (n = 3,745,239) reported in Poland between 2010 and 2019 were analyzed. Using the Lambda Mu Sigma (LMS) method, the Generalized Additive Models for Location Scale, and Shape (GAMLSS) package, smoothed percentile charts (3-97) covering GA from 23 to 42 weeks were constructed.

RESULTS

The mean birth weight of boys was 3453 ± 540 g, and this was higher compared with that of girls (3317 ± 509 g). At each gestational age, boys exhibited higher birth weights than girls. The weight range between the 10th and 90th percentiles was 1061 g for boys and 1016 g for girls. Notably, the birth weight of Polish newborns was higher compared to previously published international growth standards.

CONCLUSION

The reference values for birth weight percentiles established in this study for Polish newborns differ from the global standards and are therefore useful for evaluating the growth of newborns within the national population. These findings hold clinical importance in identifying neonates requiring postbirth monitoring.

The Danish newborn standard and the International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century newborn standard: a nationwide register-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

It is a matter of debate whether 1 universal standard, such as the International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century standard, can be applied to all populations.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective was to establish a Danish newborn standard based on the criteria of the International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century standard to compare the percentiles of these 2 standards. A secondary objective was to compare the prevalence and risk of fetal and neonatal deaths related to small for gestational age defined by the 2 standards when used in the Danish reference population.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a register-based nationwide cohort study. The Danish reference population included 375,318 singletons born at 33 to 42 weeks of gestation in Denmark between January 1, 2008, and December 31, 2015. The Danish standard cohort included 37,811 newborns who fulfilled the criteria of the International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century standard. Birthweight percentiles were estimated using smoothed quantiles for each gestational week. The outcomes included birthweight percentiles, small for gestational age (defined as a birthweight of 3rd percentile), and adverse outcomes (defined as either fetal or neonatal death).

RESULTS

At all gestational ages, the Danish standard median birthweights at term were higher than the International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century standard median birthweights: 295g for females and 320 g for males. Therefore, the estimates of the prevalence rate of small for gestational age within the entire population were different: 3.9% (n=14,698) using the Danish standard vs 0.7% (n=2640) using the International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century standard. Accordingly, the relative risk of fetal and neonatal deaths among small-for-gestational-age fetuses differed by SGA status defined by the different standards (4.4 [Danish standard] vs 9.6 [International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century standard]).

CONCLUSION

Our finding did not support the hypothesis that 1 universal standard birthweight curve can be applied to all populations.

Identification of biomarkers and sex differences in the placenta of fetal growth restriction

AIM

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) can lead to short-term and long-term impairments in the fetus. The placenta functions as an exchanger for substance transport, playing a critical role in fetal growth. However, the mechanism from the placental standpoint is still not fully understood. In this study, we aimed to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms in the placenta that mediated the development of FGR and sex differences.

METHODS

We analyzed the gene expression profiles of GSE100415 containing specific normotensive FGR placental samples and GSE114691 with canonical samples using three different methods, differentially expressed gene analysis, weighted gene co-expression network analysis, and gene set enrichment analysis. Gene enrichment was performed, including the gene ontology and pathway from the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. The important process was then validated in pregnant Wistar rats subcutaneously administered dexamethasone (0.2 mg/kg/d) or saline from gestation Day 9 to 21.

RESULTS

Our results revealed little difference between the comparison of normal and normotensive FGR placental samples but confirmed the sex difference. Further analyses of the canonical samples identified the occurrence of vascular dysfunction, which was validated by the calculation of the vascular lumen area, showing that the vascular lumen in the FGR group was more than in the control. We also discovered 17 significantly expressed genes from the involved eigengenes.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides an important theoretical and experimental basis to reevaluate the development of FGR from the placental standpoint and suggests a series of biomarkers for future clinical use.

Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome in Newborn of Mother with HELLP Syndrome/Preeclampsia: An Analysis of Literature and Case Report with Fetal Growth Restriction and Absence of CDKN1C Typical Pathogenic Genetic Variation

Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS) is an imprinting disorder, which manifests by overgrowth and predisposition to embryonal tumors. The evidence on the relationship between maternal complications such as HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count) and preeclampsia and the development of BWS in offspring is scarce. A comprehensive clinical evaluation, with genetic testing focused on screening for mutations in the CDKN1C gene, which is commonly associated with BWS, was conducted in a newborn diagnosed with BWS born to a mother with a history of preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome. The case study revealed typical clinical manifestations of BWS in the newborn, including hemihyperplasia, macroglossia, midfacial hypoplasia, omphalocele, and hypoglycemia. Surprisingly, the infant also exhibited fetal growth restriction, a finding less commonly observed in BWS cases. Genetic analysis, however, showed no mutations in the CDKN1C gene, which contrasts with the majority of BWS cases. This case report highlights the complex nature of BWS and its potential association with maternal complications such as preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome. The atypical presence of fetal growth restriction in the newborn and the absence of CDKN1C gene mutations have not been reported to date in BWS.

Fetal weight estimation based on deep neural network: a retrospective observational study

BACKGROUND

Improving the accuracy of estimated fetal weight (EFW) calculation can contribute to decision-making for obstetricians and decrease perinatal complications. This study aimed to develop a deep neural network (DNN) model for EFW based on obstetric electronic health records.

METHODS

This study retrospectively analyzed the electronic health records of pregnant women with live births delivery at the obstetrics department of International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital between January 2016 and December 2018. The DNN model was evaluated using Hadlock's formula and multiple linear regression.

RESULTS

A total of 34824 live births (23922 primiparas) from 49896 pregnant women were analyzed. The root-mean-square error of DNN model was 189.64 g (95% CI 187.95 g-191.16 g), and the mean absolute percentage error was 5.79% (95%CI: 5.70%-5.81%), significantly lower compared to Hadlock's formula (240.36 g and 6.46%, respectively). By combining with previously unreported factors, such as birth weight of prior pregnancies, a concise and effective DNN model was built based on only 10 parameters. Accuracy rate of a new model increased from 76.08% to 83.87%, with root-mean-square error of only 243.80 g.

CONCLUSIONS

Proposed DNN model for EFW calculation is more accurate than previous approaches in this area and be adopted for better decision making related to fetal monitoring.

Integrated growth assessment in the first 1000 d of life: an interdisciplinary conceptual framework

OBJECTIVES

Prenatal growth affects short- and long-term morbidity, mortality and growth, yet communication between prenatal and postnatal healthcare teams is often minimal. This paper aims to develop an integrated, interdisciplinary framework for foetal/infant growth assessment, contributing to the continuity of care across the first 1000 d of life.

DESIGN

A multidisciplinary think-tank met regularly over many months to share and debate their practice and research experience related to foetal/infant growth assessment. Participants’ personal practice and knowledge were verified against and supplemented by published research.

SETTING

Online and in-person brainstorming sessions of growth assessment practices that are feasible and valuable in resource-limited, low- and middle-income country (LMIC) settings.

PARTICIPANTS

A group of obstetricians, paediatricians, dietitians/nutritionists and a statistician.

RESULTS

Numerous measurements, indices and indicators were identified for growth assessment in the first 1000 d. Relationships between foetal, neonatal and infant measurements were elucidated and integrated into an interdisciplinary framework. Practices relevant to LMIC were then highlighted: antenatal Doppler screening, comprehensive and accurate birth anthropometry (including proportionality of weight, length and head circumference), placenta weighing and incorporation of length-for-age, weight-for-length and mid-upper arm circumference in routine growth monitoring. The need for appropriate, standardised clinical records and corresponding policies to guide clinical practice and facilitate interdisciplinary communication over time became apparent.

CONCLUSIONS

Clearer communication between prenatal, perinatal and postnatal health care providers, within the framework of a common understanding of growth assessment and a supportive policy environment, is a prerequisite to continuity of care and optimal health and development outcomes.

Sexual dimorphism in placental development and function: Comparative physiology with an emphasis on the pig

Across mammalian species, it has been demonstrated that sex influences birth weight, with males being heavier than females; a characteristic that can be observed from early gestation. Male piglets are more likely to be stillborn and have greater preweaning mortality than their female littermates, despite the additional maternal investment into male fetal growth. Given the conserved nature of the genome between the sexes, it is hypothesized that these developmental differences between males and females are most likely orchestrated by differential placental adaptation. This review summarizes the current understanding of fetal sex-specific differences in placental and endometrial structure and function, with an emphasis on pathways found to be differentially regulated in the pig including angiogenesis, apoptosis, and proliferation. Given the importance of piglet sex in agricultural enterprises, and the potential for skewed litter sex ratios, it is imperative to improve understanding of the relationship between fetal sex and molecular signaling in both the placenta and endometria across gestation.

Effects of In-Utero Personal Exposure to PM2.5 Sources and Components on Birthweight

Background

In-utero exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and specific sources and components of PM2.5 have been linked with lower birthweight. However, previous results have been mixed, likely due to heterogeneity in sources impacting PM2.5 and due to measurement error from using ambient data. Therefore, we investigated the effect of PM2.5 sources and their high-loading components on birthweight using data from 198 women in the 3rd trimester from the MADRES cohort 48-hour personal PM2.5 exposure monitoring sub-study.

Methods

The mass contributions of six major sources of personal PM2.5 exposure were estimated for 198 pregnant women in the 3rd trimester using the EPA Positive Matrix Factorization v5.0 model, along with their 17 high-loading chemical components using optical carbon and X-ray fluorescence approaches. Single- and multi-pollutant linear regressions were used to evaluate the association between personal PM2.5 sources and birthweight. Additionally, high-loading components were evaluated with birthweight individually and in models further adjusted for PM2.5 mass.

Results

Participants were predominately Hispanic (81%), with a mean (SD) gestational age of 39.1 (1.5) weeks and age of 28.2 (6.0) years. Mean birthweight was 3,295.8g (484.1) and mean PM2.5 exposure was 21.3 (14.4) μg/m3. A 1 SD increase in the mass contribution of the fresh sea salt source was associated with a 99.2g decrease in birthweight (95% CI: -197.7, -0.6), while aged sea salt was associated with lower birthweight (β =-70.1; 95% CI: -141.7, 1.4). Magnesium sodium, and chlorine were associated with lower birthweight, which remained after adjusting for PM2.5 mass.

Conclusions

This study found evidence that major sources of personal PM2.5 including fresh and aged sea salt were negatively associated with birthweight, with the strongest effect on birthweight from Na and Mg. The effect of crustal and fuel oil sources differed by infant sex with negative associations seen in boys compared to positive associations in girls.

The Influence of Early Onset Preeclampsia on Perinatal Red Blood Cell Characteristics of Neonates

Preeclampsia is the leading cause of complicated neonatal adaptation. The present investigation aimed to study the hemorheological factors during the early perinatal period (cord blood, 24 and 72 h after delivery) in newborns of early-onset preeclamptic mothers (n = 13) and healthy neonates (n = 17). Hematocrit, plasma, and whole blood viscosity (WBV), red blood cell (RBC) aggregation, and deformability were investigated. There were no significant differences in hematocrit. WBV was significantly lower in preterm neonates at birth than in the term 24 and 72 h samples. Plasma viscosity was significantly lower in preterm neonates' cord blood than in healthy controls. RBC aggregation parameters were significantly lower in preterm newborns' cord blood than in term neonates' cord blood 24 and 72 h samples. RBC elongation indices were significantly lower in the term group than in preterm neonates 72 h' sample at the high and middle shear stress range. Changes in the hemorheological parameters, especially RBC aggregation properties, refer to better microcirculation of preterm neonates at birth, which could be an adaptation mechanism to the impaired uteroplacental microcirculation in preeclampsia.

The accuracy of international and national fetal growth charts in detecting small-for-gestational-age infants using the Lambda-Mu-Sigma method

Objective

To construct a national fetal growth chart using retrospective data and compared its diagnostic accuracy in predicting SGA at birth with existing international growth charts.

Method

This is a retrospective study where datasets from May 2011 to Apr 2020 were extracted to construct the fetal growth chart using the Lambda-Mu-Sigma method. SGA is defined as birth weight <10th centile. The local growth chart's diagnostic accuracy in detecting SGA at birth was evaluated using datasets from May 2020 to Apr 2021 and was compared with the WHO, Hadlock, and INTERGROWTH-21st charts. Balanced accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity were reported.

Results

A total of 68,897 scans were collected and five biometric growth charts were constructed. Our national growth chart achieved an accuracy of 69% and a sensitivity of 42% in identifying SGA at birth. The WHO chart showed similar diagnostic performance as our national growth chart, followed by the Hadlock (67% accuracy and 38% sensitivity) and INTERGROWTH-21st (57% accuracy and 19% sensitivity). The specificities for all charts were 95-96%. All growth charts showed higher accuracy in the third trimester, with an improvement of 8-16%, as compared to that in the second trimester.

Conclusion

Using the Hadlock and INTERGROWTH-21st chart in the Malaysian population may results in misdiagnose of SGA. Our population local chart has slightly higher accuracy in predicting preterm SGA in the second trimester which can enable earlier intervention for babies who are detected as SGA. All growth charts' diagnostic accuracies were poor in the second trimester, suggesting the need of improvising alternative techniques for early detection of SGA to improve fetus outcomes.

Prenatal exposure to tap water containing nitrate and the risk of small-for-gestational-age: A nationwide register-based study of Danish births, 1991-2015

BACKGROUND

Prenatal nitrate exposure from household tap water has been associated with increased risk of fetal growth restriction, preterm birth, birth defects, and childhood cancer. We aim to examine the association between maternal consumption of drinking-water nitrate during pregnancy and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) in a nationwide study of Danish-born children, as only one prior study has examined this association.

METHODS

We linked individual-level household estimates of nitrate in tap water and birth registry data to all live singleton Danish births during 1991-2015 from Danish-born parents where the mother resided in Denmark throughout the pregnancy. Exposure was both binned into four categories and modeled as an ln-transformed continuous variable. SGA was defined as the bottom 10% of births by birth weight per sex and gestational week. Multiple logistic regression models with generalized estimating equations were used to account for siblings born to the same mother while controlling for relevant confounders.

RESULTS

In the cohort of 1,078,892 births, the median pregnancy nitrate exposure was 1.9 mg/L nitrate. Compared to the reference group (≤2 mg/L), we found an increased risk of SGA in the second category (>2-5 mg/L) (OR = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03-1.06) and third category (>5-25 mg/L) (OR = 1.02, 95% CI: 1.00-1.04) but not in the highest (>25 mg/L). There was strong (p = 0.002) evidence of an increase in SGA with nitrate in the model with continuous exposure (OR = 1.02, 95% CI: 1.01-1.04 per 10-fold increase in nitrate). Results were robust when restricting to households with nitrate levels at or below the current Danish and European Union regulatory drinking water standard (50 mg/L nitrate).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that exposure from nitrate in household tap water, even below current regulatory standards, may increase risk of SGA, raising concerns of whether current allowable nitrate levels in drinking water protect children from SGA.

Growth trajectories for executive and social cognitive abilities in an Indian population sample: Impact of demographic and psychosocial determinants

Cognitive abilities are markers of brain development and psychopathology. Abilities, across executive, and social domains need better characterization over development, including factors that influence developmental change. This study is based on the cVEDA [Consortium on Vulnerability to Externalizing Disorders and Addictions] study, an Indian population based developmental cohort. Verbal working memory, visuo-spatial working memory, response inhibition, set-shifting, and social cognition (faux pas recognition and emotion recognition) were cross-sectionally assessed in > 8000 individuals over the ages 6-23 years. There was adequate representation across sex, urban-rural background, psychosocial risk (psychopathology, childhood adversity and wealth index, i.e. socio-economic status). Quantile regression was used to model developmental change. Age-based trajectories were generated, along with examination of the impact of determinants (sex, childhood adversity, and wealth index). Development in both executive and social cognitive abilities continued into adulthood. Maturation and stabilization occurred in increasing order of complexity, from working memory to inhibitory control to cognitive flexibility. Age related change was more pronounced for low quantiles in response inhibition (β∼4 versus  -1 versus -0.25 for lower quantiles). Wealth index had the largest influence on developmental change across cognitive abilities. Sex differences were prominent in response inhibition, set-shifting and emotion recognition. Childhood adversity had a negative influence on cognitive development. These findings add to the limited literature on patterns and determinants of cognitive development. They have implications for understanding developmental vulnerabilities in young persons, and the need for providing conducive socio-economic environments.

Development and validation of risk prediction models for large for gestational age infants using logistic regression and two machine learning algorithms

BACKGROUND

Large for gestational age (LGA) is one of the adverse outcomes during pregnancy that endangers the life and health of mothers and offspring. We aimed to establish prediction models for LGA at late pregnancy.

METHODS

Data were obtained from an established Chinese pregnant women cohort of 1285 pregnant women. LGA was diagnosed as >90th percentile of birth weight distribution of Chinese corresponding to gestational age of the same-sex newborns. Women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) were classified into three subtypes according to the indexes of insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. Models were established by logistic regression and decision tree/random forest algorithms, and validated by the data.

RESULTS

A total of 139 newborns were diagnosed as LGA after birth. The area under the curve (AUC) for the training set is 0.760 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.706-0.815), and 0.748 (95% CI 0.659-0.837) for the internal validation set of the logistic regression model, which consisted of eight commonly used clinical indicators (including lipid profile) and GDM subtypes. For the prediction models established by the two machine learning algorithms, which included all the variables, the training set and the internal validation set had AUCs of 0.813 (95% CI 0.786-0.839) and 0.779 (95% CI 0.735-0.824) for the decision tree model, and 0.854 (95% CI 0.831-0.877) and 0.808 (95% CI 0.766-0.850) for the random forest model.

CONCLUSION

We established and validated three LGA risk prediction models to screen out the pregnant women with high risk of LGA at the early stage of the third trimester, which showed good prediction power and could guide early prevention strategies.

Early Mid-pregnancy Blood-Based Proteins as Possible Biomarkers of Increased Infant Birth Size in Sex-Stratified Analyses

The objective of this study was to evaluate the associations of 92 maternal blood-based proteins with increased infant birth size. The study was performed at the Uppsala University Hospital, Sweden, and included 857 mother and child dyads. The mean age of the women was 30.3 years, and 53.2% were nulliparous. Blood samples were collected at mean 18 + 2 weeks' gestation, and the Olink cardiovascular II panel was used to measure 92 proteins, either known to be or suspected to be markers of cardiovascular and inflammatory disease in humans. Multiple linear regression models adjusted for maternal age, parity, pre-conception BMI, height, and smoking were performed to evaluate the association of each individual protein with infant birth size. We also performed sex-stratified analyses. Eight proteins (Matrix metalloproteinase-12 (MMP-12), Prostasin (PRSS8), Adrenomedullin (ADM), Pappalysin-1 (PAPP-A), Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), Sortilin (SORT1), Lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor 1 (LOX-1), and Thrombomodulin (TM)) were associated with infant birth size after false discovery rate adjustment. In the analyses including only female infants, ten proteins (MMP-12, Growth/differentiation factor 2 (GDF-2), PRSS8, SORT1, ADM, Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist protein (IL-1ra), Leptin (LEP), ACE2, TM, and Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11A (TNFRSF11A)) were associated with infant birth size. Two proteins (PAPP-A and PRSS8) were associated with infant birth size among male infants. Our study suggests several proteins as potential biomarkers for increased birth weight, and our findings could act as a base for future research to identify new potential markers that could be added to improve screening for large infants.