1
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Uranova NA, Vikhreva OV, Rakhmanova VI. Microglia-neuron interactions in prefrontal gray matter in schizophrenia: a postmortem ultrastructural morphometric study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2023; 273:1633-1648. [PMID: 37178237 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-023-01621-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This study addressed the question of whether the interaction between neurons and satellite microglia (SatMg) is abnormal in schizophrenia. SatMg-neuron communication at direct contacts between neuronal soma is essential for neuroplasticity as SatMg can regulate neuronal activity. A postmortem ultrastructural morphometric study was performed to investigate SatMg and adjacent neurons in layer 5 of the prefrontal cortex in 21 cases of schizophrenia and 20 healthy controls. Density of SatMg was significantly higher in the young schizophrenia group and in the group with illness duration ≤ 26 years as compared to controls. We found lower volume fraction (Vv) and the number (N) of mitochondria and higher Vv and N of lipofuscin granules and vacuoles in endoplasmic reticulum in SatMg in the schizophrenia compared to the control brain. These changes progressed with age and illness duration. A significantly higher soma area and Vv of vacuoles of endoplasmic reticulum were revealed in neurons in schizophrenia as compared to controls. Negative significant correlations between N of vacuoles in neurons and N of mitochondria in SatMg were found in the control group but not in the schizophrenia group. Area of vacuole in neurons was significantly positively correlated with Vv and area of mitochondria in SatMg in the control group and negatively in the schizophrenia group. Correlation coefficients between these parameters differed significantly between the groups. These results indicate disturbed SatMg-neuron interactions in the schizophrenia brain and suggest a key role of mitochondrial abnormalities in SatMg in these disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Uranova
- Laboratory of Clinical Neuropathology, Mental Health Research Center, Kashirskoe Shosse 34, 115522, Moscow, Russia.
| | - O V Vikhreva
- Laboratory of Clinical Neuropathology, Mental Health Research Center, Kashirskoe Shosse 34, 115522, Moscow, Russia
| | - V I Rakhmanova
- Laboratory of Clinical Neuropathology, Mental Health Research Center, Kashirskoe Shosse 34, 115522, Moscow, Russia
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2
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Zhou J, Qiao ML, Jahejo AR, Han XY, Wang P, Wang Y, Ren JL, Niu S, Zhao YJ, Zhang D, Bi YH, Wang QH, Si LL, Fan RW, Shang GJ, Tian WX. Effect of Avian Influenza Virus subtype H9N2 on the expression of complement-associated genes in chicken erythrocytes. Br Poult Sci 2023:1-9. [PMID: 36939295 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2023.2191308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2023]
Abstract
The H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus can infect both chickens and humans. Previous studies have reported a role for erythrocytes in immunity. However, the role of H9N2 against chicken erythrocytes and the presence of complement-related genes in erythrocytes has not been studied. This research investigated the effect of H9N2 on complement-associated gene expression in chicken erythrocytes. The expression of complement-associated genes (C1s, C1q, C2, C3, C3ar1, C4, C4a, C5, C5ar1, C7, CD93 and CFD) was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to analyse the differential expression of complement-associated genes in chicken erythrocytes at 0 h, 2 h, 6 h and 10 h after the interaction between H9N2 virus and chicken erythrocytes in vitro and 3, 7 and 14 d after H9N2 virus nasal infection of chicks. Expression levels of C1q, C4, C1s, C2, C3, C5, C7 and CD93 were significantly up-regulated at 2 h and significantly down-regulated at 10 h. Gene expression levels of C1q, C3ar1, C4a, CFD and C5ar1 were seen to be different at each time point. The expression levels of C1q, C4, C1s, C2, C3, C5, C7, CFD, C3ar1, C4a and C5ar1 were significantly up-regulated at 7 d and the gene expression of levels of C3, CD93 and C5ar1 were seen to be different at each time point. The results confirmed that all the complement-associated genes were expressed in chicken erythrocytes and showed the H9N2 virus interaction with chicken erythrocytes and subsequent regulation of chicken erythrocyte complement-associated genes expression. This study reported, for the first time, the relationship between H9N2 and complement system of chicken erythrocytes, which will provide a foundation for further research into the prevention and control of H9N2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - M L Qiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - A R Jahejo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - X Y Han
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - P Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - Y Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - J L Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - S Niu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - Y J Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - D Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - Y H Bi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Disease, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Q H Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Microbial Physiological and Metabolic Engineering, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - L L Si
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - R W Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - G J Shang
- Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
| | - W X Tian
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong, China.,Shanxi Key Laboratory of protein structure determination, Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, China
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3
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Reyes EY, Shinohara ML. Host immune responses in the central nervous system during fungal infections. Immunol Rev 2022; 311:50-74. [PMID: 35672656 PMCID: PMC9489659 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Fungal infections in the central nervous system (CNS) cause high morbidity and mortality. The frequency of CNS mycosis has increased over the last two decades as more individuals go through immunocompromised conditions for various reasons. Nevertheless, options for clinical interventions for CNS mycoses are still limited. Thus, there is an urgent need to understand the host-pathogen interaction mechanisms in CNS mycoses for developing novel treatments. Although the CNS has been regarded as an immune-privileged site, recent studies demonstrate the critical involvement of immune responses elicited by CNS-resident and CNS-infiltrated cells during fungal infections. In this review, we discuss mechanisms of fungal invasion in the CNS, fungal pathogen detection by CNS-resident cells (microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, neurons), roles of CNS-infiltrated leukocytes, and host immune responses. We consider that understanding host immune responses in the CNS is crucial for endeavors to develop treatments for CNS mycosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estefany Y. Reyes
- Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27705, USA
| | - Mari L. Shinohara
- Department of Immunology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27705, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27705, USA
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4
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Pawlik K, Ciechanowska A, Ciapała K, Rojewska E, Makuch W, Mika J. Blockade of CC Chemokine Receptor Type 3 Diminishes Pain and Enhances Opioid Analgesic Potency in a Model of Neuropathic Pain. Front Immunol 2021; 12:781310. [PMID: 34795678 PMCID: PMC8593225 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.781310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a serious clinical issue, and its treatment remains a challenge in contemporary medicine. Thus, dynamic development in the area of animal and clinical studies has been observed. The mechanisms of neuropathic pain are still not fully understood; therefore, studies investigating these mechanisms are extremely important. However, much evidence indicates that changes in the activation and infiltration of immune cells cause the release of pronociceptive cytokines and contribute to neuropathic pain development and maintenance. Moreover, these changes are associated with low efficacy of opioids used to treat neuropathy. To date, the role of CC chemokine receptor type 3 (CCR3) in nociception has not been studied. Similarly, little is known about its endogenous ligands (C-C motif ligand; CCL), namely, CCL5, CCL7, CCL11, CCL24, CCL26, and CCL28. Our research showed that the development of hypersensitivity in rats following chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve is associated with upregulation of CCL7 and CCL11 in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Moreover, our results provide the first evidence that single and repeated intrathecal administration of the CCR3 antagonist SB328437 diminishes mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity. Additionally, repeated administration enhances the analgesic properties of morphine and buprenorphine following nerve injury. Simultaneously, the injection of SB328437 reduces the protein levels of some pronociceptive cytokines, such as IL-6, CCL7, and CCL11, in parallel with a reduction in the activation and influx of GFAP-, CD4- and MPO-positive cells in the spinal cord and/or DRG. Moreover, we have shown for the first time that an inhibitor of myeloperoxidase-4-aminobenzoic hydrazide may relieve pain and simultaneously enhance morphine and buprenorphine efficacy. The obtained results indicate the important role of CCR3 and its modulation in neuropathic pain treatment and suggest that it represents an interesting target for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Pawlik
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Ciechanowska
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Ciapała
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ewelina Rojewska
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wioletta Makuch
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
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5
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Pergolizzi JV, Varrassi G, Magnusson P, Breve F, Raffa RB, Christo PJ, Chopra M, Paladini A, LeQuang JA, Mitchell K, Coluzzi F. Pharmacologic agents directed at the treatment of pain associated with maladaptive neuronal plasticity. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2021; 23:105-116. [PMID: 34461795 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2021.1970135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The definition of nociplastic pain in 2016 has changed the way maladaptive chronic pain is viewed in that it may emerge without neural lesions or neural disease. Many endogenous and pharmacologic substances are being investigated for their role in treating the pain associated with neuronal plasticity. AREAS COVERED The authors review promising pharmacologic agents for the treatment of pain associated with maladaptive neuronal plasticity. The authors then provide the reader with their expert opinion and provide their perspectives for the future. EXPERT OPINION An imbalance between the amplification of ascending pain signals and the poor activation of descending inhibitory signals may be at the root of many chronic pain syndromes. The inhibitory activity of noradrenaline reuptake may play a role in neuropathic and nociplastic analgesia. A better understanding of the brain's pain matrix, its signaling cascades, and the complex bidirectional communication between the immune system and the nervous system may help meet the urgent and unmet medical need for safe, effective chronic pain treatment, particularly for pain with a neuropathic and/or nociplastic component.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Peter Magnusson
- Centre for Research and Development, Region Gävleborg/Uppsala University, Gävle, Sweden.,Department of Medicine, Cardiology Research Unit, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Frank Breve
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Temple University School of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Robert B Raffa
- College of Pharmacy (Adjunct), University of Arizona, Tucson, USA.,Temple University School of Pharmacy (Professor Emeritus), Philadelphia, USA
| | - Paul J Christo
- Associate Professor, the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Flaminia Coluzzi
- Department Medical and Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Latina, Italy
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6
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Shinjyo N, Kagaya W, Pekna M. Interaction Between the Complement System and Infectious Agents - A Potential Mechanistic Link to Neurodegeneration and Dementia. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:710390. [PMID: 34408631 PMCID: PMC8365172 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.710390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of the innate immune system, complement plays a critical role in the elimination of pathogens and mobilization of cellular immune responses. In the central nervous system (CNS), many complement proteins are locally produced and regulate nervous system development and physiological processes such as neural plasticity. However, aberrant complement activation has been implicated in neurodegeneration, including Alzheimer's disease. There is a growing list of pathogens that have been shown to interact with the complement system in the brain but the short- and long-term consequences of infection-induced complement activation for neuronal functioning are largely elusive. Available evidence suggests that the infection-induced complement activation could be protective or harmful, depending on the context. Here we summarize how various infectious agents, including bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus spp.), viruses (e.g., HIV and measles virus), fungi (e.g., Candida spp.), parasites (e.g., Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp.), and prion proteins activate and manipulate the complement system in the CNS. We also discuss the potential mechanisms by which the interaction between the infectious agents and the complement system can play a role in neurodegeneration and dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriko Shinjyo
- Laboratory of Immune Homeostasis, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
- School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Wataru Kagaya
- Department of Parasitology and Research Center for Infectious Disease Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Marcela Pekna
- Laboratory of Regenerative Neuroimmunology, Center for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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7
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Pignataro G, Cataldi M, Taglialatela M. Neurological risks and benefits of cytokine-based treatments in coronavirus disease 2019: from preclinical to clinical evidence. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 179:2149-2174. [PMID: 33512003 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunodeficiency and hyperinflammation are responsible for the most frequent and life-threatening forms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, cytokine-based treatments targeting immuno-inflammatory mechanisms are currently undergoing clinical scrutiny in COVID-19-affected patients. In addition, COVID-19 patients also exhibit a wide range of neurological manifestations (neuro-COVID), which may also benefit from cytokine-based treatments. In fact, such drugs have shown some clinical efficacy also in neuroinflammatory diseases. On the other hand, anti-cytokine drugs are endowed with significant neurological risks, mainly attributable to their immunodepressant effects. Therefore, the aim of the present manuscript is to briefly describe the role of specific cytokines in neuroinflammation, to summarize the efficacy in preclinical models of neuroinflammatory diseases of drugs targeting these cytokines and to review the clinical data regarding the neurological effects of these drugs currently being investigated against COVID-19, in order to raise awareness about their potentially beneficial and/or detrimental neurological consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Pignataro
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Mauro Cataldi
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Maurizio Taglialatela
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
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8
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Haligur M, Aydogan A, Ozmen O, Ipek V. Immunohistochemical evaluation of natural cases of encephalitic listeriosis in sheep. Biotech Histochem 2019; 94:341-347. [DOI: 10.1080/10520295.2019.1571225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M. Haligur
- Faculty of Ceyhan Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Cukurova, Adana, Turkey
| | - A. Aydogan
- Faculty of Ceyhan Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Cukurova, Adana, Turkey
| | - O. Ozmen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Burdur, Turkey
| | - V. Ipek
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, University of Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Burdur, Turkey
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9
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Ubaida-Mohien C, Lamberty B, Dickens AM, Mielke MM, Marcotte T, Sacktor N, Grant I, Letendre S, Franklin D, Cibrowski P, Tharakan R, McArthur JC, Fox H, Haughey NJ. Modifications in acute phase and complement systems predict shifts in cognitive status of HIV-infected patients. AIDS 2017; 31:1365-1378. [PMID: 28574961 PMCID: PMC5501712 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000001503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) has not changed considerably in the last two decades. Potent antiretroviral therapy has shifted the severity of HAND to milder phenotypes, but excess morbidity and mortality continue to be associated with HAND. Changes in numerous markers of immune function, inflammation, and cellular stress have been repeatedly associated with HAND, but the underlying systems that drive these changes have not been identified. METHOD In this study, we used systems informatics to interrogate the cerebrospinal fluid proteomic content of longitudinal samples obtained from HIV-infected adults with stably unimpaired, stably impaired, worsening, or improving neurocognitive performance. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION The patterns of change in cerebrospinal fluid protein content implicated the induction of acute phase and complement systems as important regulators of neurocognitive status. Worsening neurocognitive performance was preceded by induction of acute phase and complement systems, whereas improving neurocognitive performance was preceded by a downregulation of these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceereena Ubaida-Mohien
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore,
Maryland
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Neurology, Baltimore, MD
| | - Benjamin Lamberty
- The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Department of
Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Omaha, NE
| | - Alex M. Dickens
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Neurology, Baltimore, MD
| | - Michelle M Mielke
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Health Sciences Research and
Department of Neurology College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Thomas Marcotte
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program and Department of Psychiatry,
School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - Ned Sacktor
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Neurology, Baltimore, MD
| | - Igor Grant
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program and Department of Psychiatry,
School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - Scott Letendre
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program and Department of Psychiatry,
School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - D Franklin
- HIV Neurobehavioral Research Program and Department of Psychiatry,
School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - Pawel Cibrowski
- The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Department of
Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Omaha, NE
| | - Ravi Tharakan
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Psychiatry, Baltimore, MD
| | - Justin C. McArthur
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Neurology, Baltimore, MD
| | - Howard Fox
- The University of Nebraska Medical Center, Department of
Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, Omaha, NE
| | - Norman J. Haughey
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Neurology, Baltimore, MD
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of
Psychiatry, Baltimore, MD
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10
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Eriksson CE, Studahl M, Bergström T. Acute and prolonged complement activation in the central nervous system during herpes simplex encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2016; 295-296:130-8. [PMID: 27235358 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2016.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is characterized by a pronounced inflammatory activity in the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we investigated the acute and prolonged complement system activity in HSE patients, by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for numerous complement components (C). We found increased cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of C3a, C3b, C5 and C5a in HSE patients compared with healthy controls. C3a and C5a concentrations remained increased also compared with patient controls. Our results conclude that the complement system is activated in CNS during HSE in the acute phase, and interestingly also in later stages supporting previous reports of prolonged inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotta E Eriksson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Marie Studahl
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Department of Infectious Diseases, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Östra, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Tomas Bergström
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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11
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Rojewska E, Piotrowska A, Makuch W, Przewlocka B, Mika J. Pharmacological kynurenine 3-monooxygenase enzyme inhibition significantly reduces neuropathic pain in a rat model. Neuropharmacology 2015; 102:80-91. [PMID: 26524415 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 10/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have highlighted the involvement of the kynurenine pathway in the pathology of neurodegenerative diseases, but the role of this system in neuropathic pain requires further extensive research. Therefore, the aim of our study was to examine the role of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (Kmo), an enzyme that is important in this pathway, in a rat model of neuropathy after chronic constriction injury (CCI) to the sciatic nerve. For the first time, we demonstrated that the injury-induced increase in the Kmo mRNA levels in the spinal cord and the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) was reduced by chronic administration of the microglial inhibitor minocycline and that this effect paralleled a decrease in the intensity of neuropathy. Further, minocycline administration alleviated the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced upregulation of Kmo mRNA expression in microglial cell cultures. Moreover, we demonstrated that not only indirect inhibition of Kmo using minocycline but also direct inhibition using Kmo inhibitors (Ro61-6048 and JM6) decreased neuropathic pain intensity on the third and the seventh days after CCI. Chronic Ro61-6048 administration diminished the protein levels of IBA-1, IL-6, IL-1beta and NOS2 in the spinal cord and/or the DRG. Both Kmo inhibitors potentiated the analgesic properties of morphine. In summary, our data suggest that in neuropathic pain model, inhibiting Kmo function significantly reduces pain symptoms and enhances the effectiveness of morphine. The results of our studies show that the kynurenine pathway is an important mediator of neuropathic pain pathology and indicate that Kmo represents a novel pharmacological target for the treatment of neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Rojewska
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Piotrowska
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Wioletta Makuch
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Barbara Przewlocka
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland.
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12
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Maurer AJ, Bonney PA, Toho LC, Glenn CA, Agarwal S, Battiste JD, Fung KM, Sughrue ME. Tumor necrosis-initiated complement activation stimulates proliferation of medulloblastoma cells. Inflamm Res 2015; 64:185-92. [PMID: 25603857 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-015-0796-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN We sought to determine the effect of necrosis-induced activation of the complement protein C3 in medulloblastoma. MATERIALS/METHODS Twelve medulloblastoma surgical specimens were evaluated for complement activation using immunohistochemistry, with H&E stains performed on adjacent tissue sections to determine the relationship of complement activation to necrotic tissue. Flow cytometry and Western blot were performed on three established medulloblastoma lines and one surgically-procured cell culture to determine expression of C3a receptor (C3aR) in medulloblastoma. In vitro proliferation of siRNA C3aR knockdown cells was compared to that of control siRNA cells with cell line Daoy. RESULTS Three surgical specimens were found to have necrosis on H&E sections. In each case, iC3b staining was identified on adjacent sections, limited to the necrotic region. In no case did necrosis occur without iC3b staining on adjacent sections. C3aR protein was demonstrated on both the three established cell lines and on the surgical culture. Proliferation assays of Daoy cells with siRNA knockdown vs. control siRNA revealed significantly reduced proliferation at 72 h (p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Necrosis is associated with complement activation in medulloblastoma. Medulloblastoma cells express C3aR, and siRNA-mediated knockdown of C3aR inhibits proliferation of these cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian J Maurer
- Department of Neurosurgery, Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 1000 N. Lincoln Blvd., Suite 4000, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA,
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Rojewska E, Korostynski M, Przewlocki R, Przewlocka B, Mika J. Expression profiling of genes modulated by minocycline in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Mol Pain 2014; 10:47. [PMID: 25038616 PMCID: PMC4131481 DOI: 10.1186/1744-8069-10-47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The molecular mechanisms underlying neuropathic pain are constantly being studied to create new opportunities to prevent or alleviate neuropathic pain. The aim of our study was to determine the gene expression changes induced by sciatic nerve chronic constriction injury (CCI) that are modulated by minocycline, which can effectively diminish neuropathic pain in animal studies. The genes associated with minocycline efficacy in neuropathic pain should provide insight into the etiology of neuropathic pain and identify novel therapeutic targets. Results We screened the ipsilateral dorsal part of the lumbar spinal cord of the rat CCI model for differentially expressed genes. Out of 22,500 studied transcripts, the abundance levels of 93 transcripts were altered following sciatic nerve ligation. Percentage analysis revealed that 54 transcripts were not affected by the repeated administration of minocycline (30 mg/kg, i.p.), but the levels of 39 transcripts were modulated following minocycline treatment. We then selected two gene expression patterns, B1 and B2. The first transcription pattern, B1, consisted of 10 mRNA transcripts that increased in abundance after injury, and minocycline treatment reversed or inhibited the effect of the injury; the B2 transcription pattern consisted of 7 mRNA transcripts whose abundance decreased following sciatic nerve ligation, and minocycline treatment reversed the effect of the injury. Based on the literature, we selected seven genes for further analysis: Cd40, Clec7a, Apobec3b, Slc7a7, and Fam22f from pattern B1 and Rwdd3 and Gimap5 from pattern B2. Additionally, these genes were analyzed using quantitative PCR to determine the transcriptional changes strongly related to the development of neuropathic pain; the ipsilateral DRGs (L4-L6) were also collected and analyzed in these rats using qPCR. Conclusion In this work, we confirmed gene expression alterations previously identified by microarray analysis in the spinal cord and analyzed the expression of selected genes in the DRG. Moreover, we reviewed the literature to illustrate the relevance of these findings for neuropathic pain development and therapy. Further studies are needed to elucidate the roles of the individual genes in neuropathic pain and to determine the therapeutic role of minocycline in the rat neuropathic pain model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland.
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Jagla G, Mika J, Makuch W, Obara I, Wordliczek J, Przewlocka B. Analgesic effects of antidepressants alone and after their local co-administration with morphine in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 66:459-65. [PMID: 24905524 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The therapy of neuropathic pain may include the use of co-analgesics, such as antidepressants, however, their desired analgesic effect is associated with significant side effects. An alternative approach to this is their local administration which has been proposed, but there is little data regarding their local co-administration with morphine and the nature of the interaction between morphine and either doxepin or venlafaxine, two antidepressant drugs that have been recently used in neuropathic pain therapies. METHODS This study was performed on rats after chronic constriction injury (CCI) to the sciatic nerve. The von Frey and Hargreaves' tests were used to assess mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, respectively, after intraplantar (ipl) or subcutaneous (sc) administration of amitriptyline, doxepin, or venlafaxine, or their ipl co-administration with morphine on day 12-16 after injury. RESULTS The ipl administration of amitriptyline (3, 15 mg), doxepin (1, 5, 10, 15 mg), or venlafaxine (2, 7 mg) was effective in antagonizing CCI-induced allodynia. Their sc injection at a site distal to the injured side, did not induce alterations in pain thresholds, which supports the local mode of action. Of the three antidepressants used in this study, only ipl co-administration of amitriptyline with morphine significantly enhanced its effect in contrast to doxepin and venlafaxine, both of which weakened the analgesic effect of morphine. CONCLUSIONS In summary, the results suggest that when amitriptyline (but not doxepin or venlafaxine) is locally co-administered with morphine the effectiveness under neuropathic pain is enhanced, although additional studies are necessary to explain differential mechanisms of interaction of antidepressant drugs with morphine after local administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz Jagla
- Department of Pain Treatment and Palliative Care, University Hospital, Kraków, Poland; Department of Anatomy, Medical College Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Wioletta Makuch
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ilona Obara
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jerzy Wordliczek
- Department of Pain Treatment and Palliative Care, University Hospital, Kraków, Poland
| | - Barbara Przewlocka
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Kraków, Poland.
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Complement and HIV-I infection/HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:184-98. [PMID: 24639397 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0243-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The various neurological complications associated with HIV-1 infection, specifically HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) persist as a major public health burden worldwide. Despite the widespread use of anti-retroviral therapy, the prevalence of HAND is significantly high. HAND results from the direct effects of an HIV-1 infection as well as secondary effects of HIV-1-induced immune reaction and inflammatory response. Complement, a critical mediator of innate and acquired immunity, plays important roles in defeating many viral infections by the formation of a lytic pore or indirectly by opsonization and recruitment of phagocytes. While the role of complement in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection and HAND has been previously recognized for over 15 years, it has been largely underestimated thus far. Complement can be activated through HIV-1 envelope proteins, mannose-binding lectins (MBL), and anti-HIV-1 antibodies. Complement not only fights against HIV-1 infection but also enhances HIV-1 infection. In addition, HIV-1 can hijack complement regulators such as CD59 and CD55 and can utilize these regulators and factor H to escape from complement attack. Normally, complement levels in brain are much lower than plasma levels and there is no or little complement deposition in brain cells. Interestingly, local production and deposition of complement are dramatically increased in HIV-1-infected brain, indicating that complement may contribute to the pathogenesis of HAND. Here, we review the current understanding of the role of complement in HIV-1 infection and HAND, as well as potential therapeutic approaches targeting the complement system for the treatment and eradications of HIV-1 infection.
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Merega E, Prisco SD, Lanfranco M, Severi P, Pittaluga A. Complement selectively elicits glutamate release from nerve endings in different regions of mammal central nervous system. J Neurochem 2014; 129:473-83. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 12/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Merega
- Department of Pharmacy; Pharmacology and Toxicology Section; University of Genoa; Genoa Italy
| | - Silvia Di Prisco
- Department of Pharmacy; Pharmacology and Toxicology Section; University of Genoa; Genoa Italy
| | | | - Paolo Severi
- Division of Neurosurgery; Galliera Hospital; Genoa Italy
| | - Anna Pittaluga
- Department of Pharmacy; Pharmacology and Toxicology Section; University of Genoa; Genoa Italy
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research; University of Genoa; Genoa Italy
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Effects of selective and non-selective inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase on morphine- and endomorphin-1-induced analgesia in acute and neuropathic pain in rats. Neuropharmacology 2013; 75:445-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Global Protein Differential Expression Profiling of Cerebrospinal Fluid Samples Pooled from Chinese Sporadic CJD and non-CJD Patients. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:290-302. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8519-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Zychowska M, Rojewska E, Kreiner G, Nalepa I, Przewlocka B, Mika J. Minocycline influences the anti-inflammatory interleukins and enhances the effectiveness of morphine under mice diabetic neuropathy. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 262:35-45. [PMID: 23870534 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
A single streptozotocin (STZ) injection in mice can induce significant neuropathic pain along with an increase in plasma glucose levels and a decrease in body weight. Seven days after the administration of STZ, an upregulation of C1q-positive cells was observed. Additionally, interleukins (IL-1beta, IL-3, IL-4, IL-6, IL-9, IL12p70, IL-17); proteins of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family, e.g., IFNgamma and sTNF RII, were upregulated. Chronic administration of minocycline increases antinociceptive factors (IL-1alpha, IL-2, IL-10, sTNFRII) in diabetic mice. Minocycline also reduces the occurrence of neuropathic pain and significantly potentiates the antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic effects of morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Zychowska
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
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Nazemi S, Manaheji H, Zaringhalam J, Sadeghi M, Haghparast A. Post-injury repeated administrations of minocycline improve the antinociceptive effect of morphine in chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain in rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 102:520-5. [PMID: 22789876 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2012] [Revised: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
It is confirmed that pharmacological attenuation of glial cells can alleviate neuropathic pain by lowering proinflammatory cytokine expression. The present study tries to confirm that post-injury administration of glia inhibitor, minocycline, can attenuate the neuropathic pain symptoms and improves the efficacy of morphine anti-nociception in chronic constriction injury (CCI). Male Wistar rats (230-270 g) underwent surgery for induction CCI model of neuropathy. For assessment of the thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia after CCI induction, morphine (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 15 mg/kg; s.c.) and saline were administered on post-operative days (PODs) 0, 6 and 14. Hargreaves and Von-Frey tests were performed before and 30 min after morphine administration, respectively. The results showed significant decrease in antinociceptive effect of morphine on POD 6 compared to POD 0 only at the dose of 5 mg/kg. On the other hand, on POD 14 the antinociceptive effect of morphine (5, 7.5, 10 and 15 mg/kg) significantly decreased in comparison with POD 0. In another set of experiments, animals received minocycline (10, 20 and 40 mg/kg; i.p.) for eight days from POD 6 to 13 and then the antinociceptive effect of single dose of morphine 5 mg/kg was tested on POD 14. Behavioral tests showed that minocycline (40 mg/kg) could effectively attenuate the thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia on POD 13. Moreover, minocycline (40, 20 mg/kg) improved the anti-hyperalgesic, and minocycline (40 mg/kg) improved the anti-allodynic effects of morphine 5 mg/kg on POD 14. It seems that the reduction of antinociceptive effect of morphine after CCI may be mediated through glia activation. Modulation of glial activity by minocycline can attenuate CCI-induced neuropathic pain. It is also shown that repeated post-injury administration of minocycline improves the antinociceptive effect of morphine in neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samad Nazemi
- Department of Physiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Tahtouh M, Garçon-Bocquet A, Croq F, Vizioli J, Sautière PE, Van Camp C, Salzet M, Nagnan-le Meillour P, Pestel J, Lefebvre C. Interaction of HmC1q with leech microglial cells: involvement of C1qBP-related molecule in the induction of cell chemotaxis. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:37. [PMID: 22356764 PMCID: PMC3298539 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In invertebrates, the medicinal leech is considered to be an interesting and appropriate model to study neuroimmune mechanisms. Indeed, this non-vertebrate animal can restore normal function of its central nervous system (CNS) after injury. Microglia accumulation at the damage site has been shown to be required for axon sprouting and for efficient regeneration. We characterized HmC1q as a novel chemotactic factor for leech microglial cell recruitment. In mammals, a C1q-binding protein (C1qBP alias gC1qR), which interacts with the globular head of C1q, has been reported to participate in C1q-mediated chemotaxis of blood immune cells. In this study, we evaluated the chemotactic activities of a recombinant form of HmC1q and its interaction with a newly characterized leech C1qBP that acts as its potential ligand. Methods Recombinant HmC1q (rHmC1q) was produced in the yeast Pichia pastoris. Chemotaxis assays were performed to investigate rHmC1q-dependent microglia migration. The involvement of a C1qBP-related molecule in this chemotaxis mechanism was assessed by flow cytometry and with affinity purification experiments. The cellular localization of C1qBP mRNA and protein in leech was investigated using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization techniques. Results rHmC1q-stimulated microglia migrate in a dose-dependent manner. This rHmC1q-induced chemotaxis was reduced when cells were preincubated with either anti-HmC1q or anti-human C1qBP antibodies. A C1qBP-related molecule was characterized in leech microglia. Conclusions A previous study showed that recruitment of microglia is observed after HmC1q release at the cut end of axons. Here, we demonstrate that rHmC1q-dependent chemotaxis might be driven via a HmC1q-binding protein located on the microglial cell surface. Taken together, these results highlight the importance of the interaction between C1q and C1qBP in microglial activation leading to nerve repair in the medicinal leech.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel Tahtouh
- Laboratoire de Spectrométrie de Masse Biologique Fondamentale et Appliquée - EA4550, Microglial activation group, Université Lille Nord de France, Université Lille 1, IFR 147, bâtiment SN3, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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Rainer J, Rambach G, Kaltseis J, Hagleitner M, Heiss S, Speth C. Phylogeny and immune evasion: a putative correlation for cerebral Pseudallescheria/Scedosporium infections*. Mycoses 2011; 54 Suppl 3:48-55. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2011.02117.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Veerhuis R, Nielsen HM, Tenner AJ. Complement in the brain. Mol Immunol 2011; 48:1592-603. [PMID: 21546088 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2011.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Revised: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The brain is considered to be an immune privileged site, because the blood-brain barrier limits entry of blood borne cells and proteins into the central nervous system (CNS). As a result, the detection and clearance of invading microorganisms and senescent cells as well as surplus neurotransmitters, aged and glycated proteins, in order to maintain a healthy environment for neuronal and glial cells, is largely confined to the innate immune system. In recent years it has become clear that many factors of innate immunity are expressed throughout the brain. Neuronal and glial cells express Toll like receptors as well as complement receptors, and virtually all complement components can be locally produced in the brain, often in response to injury or developmental cues. However, as inflammatory reactions could interfere with proper functioning of the brain, tight and fine tuned regulatory mechanisms are warranted. In age related diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), accumulating amyloid proteins elicit complement activation and a local, chronic inflammatory response that leads to attraction and activation of glial cells that, under such activation conditions, can produce neurotoxic substances, including pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxygen radicals. This process may be exacerbated by a disturbed balance between complement activators and complement regulatory proteins such as occurs in AD, as the local synthesis of these proteins is differentially regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. Much knowledge about the role of complement in neurodegenerative diseases has been derived from animal studies with transgenic overexpressing or knockout mice for specific complement factors or receptors. These studies have provided insight into the potential therapeutic use of complement regulators and complement receptor antagonists in chronic neurodegenerative diseases as well as in acute conditions, such as stroke. Interestingly, recent animal studies have also indicated that complement activation products are involved in brain development and synapse formation. Not only are these findings important for the understanding of how brain development and neural network formation is organized, it may also give insights into the role of complement in processes of neurodegeneration and neuroprotection in the injured or aged and diseased adult central nervous system, and thus aid in identifying novel and specific targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Veerhuis
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Vezzani A. Innate immunity and inflammation in temporal lobe epilepsy: new emphasis on the role of complement activation. Epilepsy Curr 2010; 8:75-7. [PMID: 18488060 DOI: 10.1111/j.1535-7511.2008.00243.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement Activation in Experimental and Human Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Aronica E, Boer K, van Vliet EA, RedekerS, Baayen JC, Spliet WG, van Rijen PC, Troost D, da Silva FH, Wadman WJ, Gorter JA. Neurobiol Dis 2007;26(3):497–511. We investigated the involvement of the complement cascade during epileptogenesis in a rat model of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), and in the chronic epileptic phase in both experimental as well as human TLE. Previous rat gene expression analysis using microarrays indicated prominent activation of the classical complement pathway which peaked at 1 week after SE in CA3 and entorhinal cortex. Increased expression of C1q, C3 and C4 was confirmed in CA3 tissue using quantitative PCR at 1 day, 1 week and 3–4 months after status epilepticus (SE). Upregulation of C1q and C3d protein expression was confirmed mainly to be present in microglia and in a few hippocampal neurons. In human TLE with hippocampal sclerosis, astroglial, microglial and neuronal (5/8 cases) expression of C1q, C3c and C3d was observed particularly within regions where neuronal cell loss occurs. The membrane attack protein complex (C5b-C9) was predominantly detected in activated microglial cells. The persistence of complement activation could contribute to a sustained inflammatory response and could destabilize neuronal networks involved.
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Jaremko KM, Chen-Roetling J, Chen L, Regan RF. Accelerated hemolysis and neurotoxicity in neuron-glia-blood clot co-cultures. J Neurochem 2010; 114:1063-73. [PMID: 20497302 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06826.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of experimental evidence suggests that an intracerebral hematoma is toxic to neighboring cells. However, injury mechanisms remain largely undefined, due in part to conflicting results from in vivo studies. In order to investigate blood toxicity in a more controlled environment, murine clots were co-cultured on porous membrane inserts with primary neurons and glia. Erythrocyte lysis was apparent within 48 h, but was reduced by almost 80% in cultures lacking neurons, and by over 90% in the absence of both neurons and glial cells. By 72 h, most released hemoglobin had oxidized to methemoglobin or its hemichrome degradation products. At this time point, approximately 50% of neurons were non-viable, as detected by propidium iodide staining; glia were not injured. Deferoxamine, Trolox and the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 prevented most neuronal death, but had no effect on hemolysis at neuroprotective concentrations. The 27-fold increase in culture malondialdehyde and 5.8-fold increase in heme oxygenase-1 expression were also attenuated by deferoxamine and Trolox, but not by MK-801. These results suggest that hemoglobin release from clotted blood is accelerated by adjacent neurons and glia. Subsequent neurotoxicity is mediated by both iron-dependent and excitotoxic injury pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kellie M Jaremko
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, USA
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Fumagalli M, Pozzoli U, Cagliani R, Comi GP, Bresolin N, Clerici M, Sironi M. Genome-wide identification of susceptibility alleles for viral infections through a population genetics approach. PLoS Genet 2010; 6:e1000849. [PMID: 20174570 PMCID: PMC2824813 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Accepted: 01/18/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses have exerted a constant and potent selective pressure on human genes throughout evolution. We utilized the marks left by selection on allele frequency to identify viral infection-associated allelic variants. Virus diversity (the number of different viruses in a geographic region) was used to measure virus-driven selective pressure. Results showed an excess of variants correlated with virus diversity in genes involved in immune response and in the biosynthesis of glycan structures functioning as viral receptors; a significantly higher than expected number of variants was also seen in genes encoding proteins that directly interact with viral components. Genome-wide analyses identified 441 variants significantly associated with virus-diversity; these are more frequently located within gene regions than expected, and they map to 139 human genes. Analysis of functional relationships among genes subjected to virus-driven selective pressure identified a complex network enriched in viral products-interacting proteins. The novel approach to the study of infectious disease epidemiology presented herein may represent an alternative to classic genome-wide association studies and provides a large set of candidate susceptibility variants for viral infections. Viruses have represented a constant threat to human communities throughout their history, therefore, human genes involved in anti-viral response can be thought of as targets of virus-driven selective pressure. Here we utilized the marks left by selection to identify viral infection-associated allelic variants. We analyzed more than 660,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped in 52 human populations, and we used virus diversity (the number of different viruses in a geographic region) to measure virus-driven selective pressure. Results showed that genes involved in immune response and in the biosynthesis of glycan structures functioning as viral receptors display more variants associated with virus diversity than expected by chance. The same holds true for genes encoding proteins that directly interact with viral components. Genome-wide analysis identified 441 variants, mapping to 139 human genes, significantly associated with virus-diversity. We analyzed the functional relationships among genes subjected to virus-driven selective pressure and identified a complex interaction network enriched in viral products-interacting proteins. Therefore, we describe a novel approach for the identification of gene variants that may be involved in the susceptibility to viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Fumagalli
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Bioinformatic Lab, Bosisio Parini (LC), Italy
- Bioengineering Department, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Uberto Pozzoli
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Bioinformatic Lab, Bosisio Parini (LC), Italy
| | - Rachele Cagliani
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Bioinformatic Lab, Bosisio Parini (LC), Italy
| | - Giacomo P. Comi
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Milan, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Mangiagalli and Regina Elena Foundation, Milan, Italy
| | - Nereo Bresolin
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Bioinformatic Lab, Bosisio Parini (LC), Italy
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Milan, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Mangiagalli and Regina Elena Foundation, Milan, Italy
| | - Mario Clerici
- Department of Biomedical sciences and Technologies LITA Segrate, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Don C. Gnocchi ONLUS Foundation IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Manuela Sironi
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Bioinformatic Lab, Bosisio Parini (LC), Italy
- * E-mail:
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Fungal infections of the nervous system: Current perspective and controversies in management. Int J Surg 2010; 8:591-601. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.07.293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2009] [Revised: 06/06/2010] [Accepted: 07/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Mika J, Wawrzczak-Bargiela A, Osikowicz M, Makuch W, Przewlocka B. Attenuation of morphine tolerance by minocycline and pentoxifylline in naive and neuropathic mice. Brain Behav Immun 2009; 23:75-84. [PMID: 18684397 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2008.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2008] [Revised: 07/14/2008] [Accepted: 07/14/2008] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that glial inhibitors reduce the development of allodynia and hyperalgesia, potentiating the effect of a single morphine dose in a neuropathic pain model. This study explores the effects of two glial activation inhibitors, minocycline and pentoxifylline, on the development of tolerance to morphine in naive and chronic constriction injury (CCI)-exposed mice. Administration of morphine to naive (20 mg/kg; i.p.) and CCI-exposed mice (40 mg/kg; i.p.) twice daily resulted in tolerance to its anti-nociceptive effect after 6 days. Injections of morphine were combined with minocycline (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or pentoxifylline (20 mg/kg, i.p.) administered as two preemptive doses before first morphine administration in naive or pre-injury in CCI-exposed mice, and repeated twice daily 30 min before each morphine administration. With treatment, development of morphine tolerance was delayed by 5 days (from 6 to 11 days), as measured by the tail-flick test in naive and by tail-flick, von Frey, and cold plate tests in CCI-exposed mice. Western blot analysis of CD11b/c and GFAP protein demonstrated that minocycline and pentoxifylline, at doses delaying development of tolerance to morphine analgesia, significantly diminished the morphine-induced increase in CD11b/c protein level. We found that repeated systemic administration of glial inhibitors significantly delays development of morphine tolerance by attenuating the level of this microglial marker under normal and neuropathic pain conditions. Our results support the idea that targeting microglial activation during morphine therapy/treatment is a novel and clinically promising method for enhancing morphine's analgesic effects, especially in neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
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Rambach G, Maier H, Vago G, Mohsenipour I, Lass-Flörl C, Defant A, Würzner R, Dierich MP, Speth C. Complement induction and complement evasion in patients with cerebral aspergillosis. Microbes Infect 2008; 10:1567-76. [PMID: 18977454 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2008.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2008] [Revised: 09/18/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral aspergillosis is a mostly lethal infection of the central nervous system. Former results identified low cerebral complement levels as one cause for insufficient immune reaction. Therefore we studied cerebral complement expression after fungal invasion and investigated putative mechanisms of Aspergillus spp to cope with the complement-induced selection pressure. Brain tissue derived from patients with cerebral aspergillosis or non-infected individuals was analyzed immunohistochemically for complement synthesis. Correlations between expression levels were determined statistically. Increased complement synthesis, a prerequisite for strengthened antifungal potency, was visible in resident astrocytes, neurons, oligodendrocytes as well as in infiltrating macrophages after fungal infection. Surprisingly, microglia, although regarded as major immune cells, only marginally participated in synthesis of most complement proteins. Several evasion mechanisms were found that help the fungus to establish a cerebral infection even in the presence of complement: Fungal hyphae limit the surface deposition of C3 and thus interfere with complement-dependent phagocytosis. Furthermore, the "sealing off" in brain abscesses not only inhibits fungal spreading but also forms protection shields against complement attack. Complement indeed seems to represent an important selection pressure and evokes the development of fungal evasion mechanisms. Counteractions for these evasion processes might represent interesting therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günter Rambach
- Department of Hygiene, Microbiology and Social Medicine, Innsbruck Medical University, Fritz-Pregl-Str. 3, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Lackner P, Hametner C, Beer R, Burger C, Broessner G, Helbok R, Speth C, Schmutzhard E. Complement factors C1q, C3 and C5 in brain and serum of mice with cerebral malaria. Malar J 2008; 7:207. [PMID: 18847493 PMCID: PMC2572067 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-7-207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2008] [Accepted: 10/10/2008] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The patho-mechanisms leading to brain damage due to cerebral malaria (CM) are yet not fully understood. Immune-mediated and ischaemic mechanisms have been implicated. The role of complement factors C1q, C3 and C5 for the pathogenesis of CM were investigated in this study. Methods C57BL/6J mice were infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA blood stages. The clinical severity of the disease was assessed by a battery of 40 standardized tests for evaluating neurological functions in mice. Brain homogenates and sera of mice with CM, infected animals without CM and non-infected control animals were analyzed for C1q, C3 and C5 up-regulation by Western blotting. Results Densitometric analysis of Western blots of brain homogenates yielded statistically significant differences in the levels of C1q and C5 in the analyzed groups. Correlation analysis showed a statistically significant association of C1q and C5 levels with the clinical severity of the disease. More severely affected animals showed higher levels of C1q and C5. No differences in complement levels were observed between frontal and caudal parts of the brain. Densitometric analysis of Western blot of sera yielded statistically lower levels of C1q in infected animals without CM compared to animals of the control group. Conclusion The current study provides direct evidence for up-regulation of complement factors C1q and C5 in the brains of animals with CM. Local complement up-regulation is a possible mechanism for brain damage in experimental cerebral malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Lackner
- Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Abstract
Fungal infections are a serious complication in immunocompromised patients such as human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals, patients with organ transplantations or with haematological neoplasia. The lethality of opportunistic fungal infection is high despite a growing arsenal of antimycotic drugs, implying the urgent need for supportive immunological therapies to strengthen the current inefficient antimicrobial defences of the immunocompromised host. Therefore, increasing effort has been directed to investigating the interplay between fungi and the host immunity and thus to find starting points for additional therapeutic approaches. In this article, we review the actual state of the art concerning the role of complement in the pathogenesis of fungal infections. Important aspects include the activation of the complement system by the fungal pathogen, the efficiency of the complement-associated antimicrobial functions and the arsenal of immune evasion strategies applied by the fungi. The twin functions of complement as an interactive player of the innate immunity and at the same time as a modulator of the adaptive immunity make this defence weapon a particularly interesting therapeutic candidate to mobilise a more effective immune response and to strengthen in one fell swoop a broad spectrum of different immune reactions. However, we also mention the 'Yin-Yang' nature of the complement system in fungal infections, as growing evidence assigns to complement a contributory part in the pathogenesis of fungus-induced allergic manifestations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Speth
- Department of Hygiene, Microbiology and Social Medicine, Division of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Falsig J, van Beek J, Hermann C, Leist M. Molecular basis for detection of invading pathogens in the brain. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:1434-47. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Farina C, Aloisi F, Meinl E. Astrocytes are active players in cerebral innate immunity. Trends Immunol 2007; 28:138-45. [PMID: 17276138 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2007.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 946] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2006] [Revised: 01/02/2007] [Accepted: 01/19/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity is a constitutive component of the central nervous system (CNS) and relies strongly on resident myeloid cells, the microglia. However, evidence is emerging that the most abundant glial cell population of the CNS, the astrocyte, participates in the local innate immune response triggered by a variety of insults. Astrocytes display an array of receptors involved in innate immunity, including Toll-like receptors, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domains, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, scavenger receptors, mannose receptor and components of the complement system. Following activation, astrocytes are endowed with the ability to secrete soluble mediators, such as CXCL10, CCL2, interleukin-6 and BAFF, which have an impact on both innate and adaptive immune responses. The role of astrocytes in inflammation and tissue repair is elaborated by recent in vivo studies employing cell-type specific gene targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinthia Farina
- Neuroimmunology and Neuromuscular Disorders Unit, National Neurological Institute Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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Mika J, Osikowicz M, Makuch W, Przewlocka B. Minocycline and pentoxifylline attenuate allodynia and hyperalgesia and potentiate the effects of morphine in rat and mouse models of neuropathic pain. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 560:142-9. [PMID: 17307159 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2006] [Revised: 12/21/2006] [Accepted: 01/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has shown that microglial cells which are strongly activated in neuropathy can influence development of allodynia and hyperalgesia. Here we demonstrated that preemptive and repeated i.p., administration (16 h and 1 h before injury and then after nerve ligation twice daily for 7 days) of minocycline (15; 30; 50 mg/kg), a potent inhibitor of microglial activation, significantly attenuated the allodynia (von Frey test) and hyperalgesia (cold plate test) measured on day 3, 5, 7 after chronic constriction injury (CCI) in rats. Moreover, the 40% improvement of motor function was observed. In mice, i.p., administration of minocycline (30 mg/kg) or pentoxifylline (20 mg/kg) according to the same schedule also significantly decreased allodynia and hyperalgesia on day 7 after CCI. Antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic effect of morphine (10 mg/kg; i.p.) was significantly potentiated in groups preemptively and repeatedly injected with minocycline (von Frey test, 18 g versus 22 g; cold plate test, 13 s versus 20 s in rats and 1.2 g versus 2.2 g; 7.5 s versus 10 s in mice; respectively) or pentoxifylline (1.3 g versus 3 g; 7.6 s versus 15 s in mice; respectively). Antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic effect of morphine (30 microg; i.t.) given by lumbar puncture in mice was also significantly potentiated in minocycline-treated group (1.2 g versus 2.2 g; 7.5 s versus 11 s; respectively). These findings indicate that preemptive and repeated administration of glial inhibitors suppresses development of allodynia and hyperalgesia and potentiates effects of morphine in rat and mouse models of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Cracow, Poland
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35
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Griffiths M, Neal JW, Gasque P. Innate immunity and protective neuroinflammation: new emphasis on the role of neuroimmune regulatory proteins. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 82:29-55. [PMID: 17678954 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(07)82002-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Brain inflammation due to infection, hemorrhage, and aging is associated with activation of the local innate immune system as expressed by infiltrating cells, resident glial cells, and neurons. The innate immune response relies on the detection of "nonself" and "danger-self" ligands behaving as "eat me signals" by a plethora of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) expressed by professional and amateur phagocytes to promote the clearance of pathogens, toxic cell debris (amyloid fibrils, aggregated synucleins, prions), and apoptotic cells accumulating within the brain parenchyma and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). These PRRs (e.g., complement, TLR, CD14, scavenger receptors) are highly conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates and may represent the most ancestral innate scavenging system involved in tissue homeostasis. However, in some diseases, these protective mechanisms lead to neurodegeneration on the ground that several innate immune molecules have neurocytotoxic activities. The response is a "double-edged sword" representing a fine balance between protective and detrimental effects. Several key regulatory mechanisms have now been evidenced in the control of CNS innate immunity, and these could be harnessed to explore novel therapeutic avenues. We will herein provide new emphasis on the role of neuroimmune regulatory proteins (NIRegs), such as CD95L, TNF, CD200, CD47, sialic acids, CD55, CD46, fH, C3a, HMGB1, which are involved in silencing innate immunity at the cellular and molecular levels and suppression of inflammation. For instance, NIRegs may play an important role in controlling lymphocyte/macrophage/microglia hyperinflammatory responses, while sparing host defense and repair mechanisms. Moreover, NIRegs have direct beneficial effects on neurogenesis and contributing to brain tissue remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Griffiths
- Brain Inflammation and Immunity Group (BIIG), Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, CF144XN Cardiff, United Kingdom
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36
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Rambach G, Hagleitner M, Mohsenipour I, Lass-Flörl C, Maier H, Würzner R, Dierich MP, Speth C. Antifungal activity of the local complement system in cerebral aspergillosis. Microbes Infect 2005; 7:1285-95. [PMID: 16027023 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2004] [Revised: 03/30/2005] [Accepted: 04/22/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Dissemination of aspergillosis into the central nervous system is associated with nearly 100% mortality. To study the reasons for the antifungal immune failure we analyzed the efficacy of cerebral complement to combat the fungus Aspergillus. Incubation of Aspergillus in non-inflammatory cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) revealed that complement levels were sufficient to obtain a deposition on the surface, but opsonization was much weaker than in serum. Consequently complement deposition from normal CSF on fungal surface stimulated a very low phagocytic activity of microglia, granulocytes, monocytes and macrophages compared to stimulation by conidia opsonized in serum. Similarly, opsonization of Aspergillus by CSF was not sufficient to induce an oxidative burst in infiltrating granulocytes, whereas conidia opsonized in serum induced a clear respiratory signal. Thus, granulocytes were capable of considerably reducing the viability of serum-opsonized Aspergillus conidia, but not of conidia opsonized in CSF. The limited efficacy of antifungal attack by cerebral complement can be partly compensated by enhanced synthesis, leading to elevated complement concentrations in CSF derived from a patient with cerebral aspergillosis. This inflammatory CSF was able to induce (i) a higher complement deposition on the Aspergillus surface than non-inflammatory CSF, (ii) an accumulation of complement activation products and (iii) an increase in phagocytic and killing activity of infiltrating granulocytes. However, levels and efficacy of the serum-derived complement were not reached. These data indicate that low local complement synthesis and activation may represent a central reason for the insufficient antifungal defense in the brain and the high mortality rate of cerebral aspergillosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günter Rambach
- Department of Hygiene, Microbiology and Social Medicine, Innsbruck Medical University, and Ludwig-Boltzmann-Institute for AIDS Research, Fritz-Pregl-Str. 3, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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37
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Hauwel M, Furon E, Canova C, Griffiths M, Neal J, Gasque P. Innate (inherent) control of brain infection, brain inflammation and brain repair: the role of microglia, astrocytes, "protective" glial stem cells and stromal ependymal cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 48:220-33. [PMID: 15850661 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In invertebrates and primitive vertebrates, the brain contains large numbers of "professional" macrophages associated with neurones, ependymal tanycytes and radial glia to promote robust regenerative capacity. In higher vertebrates, hematogenous cells are largely excluded from the brain, and innate immune molecules and receptors produced by the resident "amateur" macrophages (microglia, astrocytes and ependymal cells) control pathogen infiltration and clearance of toxic cell debris. However, there is minimal capacity for regeneration. The transfer of function from hematogenous cells to macroglia and microglia is associated with the sophistication of a yet poorly-characterized neurone-glia network. This evolutionary pattern may have been necessary to reduce the risk of autoimmune attack while preserving the neuronal web but the ability to repair central nervous system damage may have been sacrificed in the process. We herein argue that it may be possible to re-educate and stimulate the resident phagocytes to promote clearance of pathogens (e.g., Prion), toxic cell debris (e.g., amyloid fibrils and myelin) and apoptotic cells. Moreover, as part of this greater division of labour between cell types in vertebrate brains, it may be possible to harness the newly described properties of glial stem cells in neuronal protection (revitalization) rather than replacement, and to control brain inflammation. We will also highlight the emerging roles of stromal ependymal cells in controlling stem cell production and migration into areas of brain damage. Understanding the mechanisms involved in the nurturing of damaged neurons by protective glial stem cells with the safe clearance of cell debris could lead to remedial strategies for chronic brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Hauwel
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, Brain Inflammation and Immunity Group (BIIG), University of Wales College of Medicine, Tenovus Building, Heath Park, Cardiff, UK
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Anderson AJ, Najbauer J, Huang W, Young W, Robert S. Upregulation of complement inhibitors in association with vulnerable cells following contusion-induced spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2005; 22:382-97. [PMID: 15785233 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2005.22.382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously described the activation of the classical, alternative, and terminal complement cascade pathways after acute contusion spinal cord injury using the New York University (NYU) weight-drop impactor. In the present study, we examined the induction of protein regulators of the complement cascade, factor H (FH), and clusterin, in the same experimental paradigm. The spinal cord of laminectomized adult rats was subjected to mild or severe injury using impactor weight-drop heights of 12.5 and 50 mm, respectively. The spinal cords of control and injured animals were evaluated at 1, 7, and 42 days after injury. Immunocytochemistry revealed a robust increase in the numbers and intensity of staining of FH, and clusterin-positive cells in the injured cord at all three time points, with the highest increases observed at 1 and 42 days after injury. FH and clusterin-positive cells were observed among neurons as well as oligodendrocytes. The increased expression was detected both rostrally and caudally from the injury site, in the latter case at distances up to 20 mm. The precise biological significance of injury-induced upregulation of these proteins remains to be determined. However, FH and clusterin are potent regulators of complement activity targeting upstream (FH) and downstream (clusterin) molecules of the pro-inflammatory cascade, which could be of vital importance in preventing a "runaway" inflammatory reaction in the injured spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen J Anderson
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, and the Reeve-Irvine Center, University of California, Irvine, California, USA.
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Kim TS, Perlman S. Virus-specific antibody, in the absence of T cells, mediates demyelination in mice infected with a neurotropic coronavirus. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2005; 166:801-9. [PMID: 15743792 PMCID: PMC1602352 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)62301-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mice infected with mouse hepatitis virus strain JHM develop an inflammatory demyelinating disease in the central nervous system with many similarities to human multiple sclerosis. The mouse disease is primarily immune-mediated because demyelination is not detected in JHM-infected mice lacking T or B cells but does occur after transfer of JHM-specific T cells. Although less is known about the ability of antibodies to mediate demyelination, the presence of oligoclonally expanded B cells and high concentrations of antibodies (against self or infectious agents) in the central nervous system of many multiple sclerosis patients suggests that antibodies may also contribute to myelin destruction. Here, we show that anti-JHM antibodies, in the absence of T or B cells, caused demyelination in JHM-infected mice. Anti-JHM antibody was detected adjacent to areas of demyelination, consistent with a direct interaction between antibody and infected cells. Demyelination was reduced by 85 to 90% in infected RAG1(-/-) mice lacking normal expression of activating Fc receptors (FcRgamma(-/-)) and by approximately 76% when complement was depleted by treatment with cobra venom factor. These data demonstrate that JHM-specific antibodies are sufficient to cause demyelination and that myelin destruction in the presence of anti-virus antibodies results from a combination of complement- and Fc receptor-dependent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeg S Kim
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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40
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Speth C, Dierich MP, Sopper S. HIV-infection of the central nervous system: the tightrope walk of innate immunity. Mol Immunol 2005; 42:213-28. [PMID: 15488609 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2004.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Infection of the central nervous system (CNS) by HIV is a frequent and sometimes very early event in the course of HIV pathogenesis. Possible consequences are diverse symptoms of neurological dysfunction, but also the establishment of a lifelong latent viral reservoir in the brain. Whereas in the periphery innate and adaptive immunity are equal partners, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) with its restricted access of peripheral immune effectors shifts this balance in favour of the local innate immunity. Four main elements of cerebral innate immunity are discussed in the present article, including two cell types with immunological functions and two soluble immune systems: (1) the stimulation of microglial cells as the predominant brain-resident immune cell and the main local reservoir for the virus; (2) the reaction of astrocytes in response to viral infection; (3) the activation of the local complement system as important soluble immune cascade; and (4) the role of chemokines and cytokines which help to conduct and cross-link the interplay between the different immune elements. These components of the cerebral innate immunity do not act separately from each other but form a functional immunity network. A dual role of these components with both harmful and protective effects further enhances the complexity of the mutual interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Speth
- Institute of Hygiene and Social Medicine, Medical University Innsbruck and Ludwig-Boltzmann-Institute for AIDS Research, Fritz-Pregl-Str. 3, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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Abstract
The complement system is an essential component of the innate immune system that aids the recognition and destruction of pathogens. Despite the potent cytolytic activity of this system, some pathogens have turned interactions with complement to their advantage. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), or prion diseases, also seem to use the complement system to facilitate target cell infection in lymphoid tissues. TSEs are associated with the accumulation of disease-specific prion protein in the brain, which is accompanied by progressive neurodegeneration. Unregulated activation of complement can cause host tissue damage, as observed in some neurodegenerative disorders, and active complement components have been detected in the brains of hosts with TSEs. Whether complement inhibitors will be useful to treat TSEs remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Mabbott
- Institute for Animal Health, Neuropathogenesis Unit, Ogston Building, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JF, UK.
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Speth C, Williams K, Hagleitner M, Westmoreland S, Rambach G, Mohsenipour I, Schmitz J, Würzner R, Lass-Flörl C, Stoiber H, Dierich MP, Maier H. Complement synthesis and activation in the brain of SIV-infected monkeys. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 151:45-54. [PMID: 15145603 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2003] [Revised: 01/12/2004] [Accepted: 02/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Complement is one of the most critical defence tools against cerebral infections, but uncontrolled complement biosynthesis and activation can induce profound brain tissue damage. To clarify the role of complement in the pathogenesis of AIDS-associated neurological disorders, we analysed the synthesis of complement in the brains of SIV-infected rhesus macaques. Using immunohistochemical staining we could show that the cerebral synthesis of complement factors C1q and C3 was strongly upregulated in SIV-infected monkeys compared to the spontaneous synthesis in uninfected control monkeys. Astrocytes, neurons, microglia, infiltrating macrophages and multinuclear giant cells all contribute to the high amounts of C1q and C3 in the brain. Secreted C1q and C3 are also deposited on the membrane of neurons, a prerequisite for formation of the membrane-driven lytic membrane attack complex. The membrane deposition thus might suggest complement-induced lysis of bystander neurons as a potential mechanism for cell damage during viral infection of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Speth
- Institute of Hygiene and Social Medicine, Innsbruck Medical University and Ludwig-Bolthmann-Institute for AIDS Research, Fritz-Pregl-Str. 3, Innsbruck A-6020, Austria.
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Storstein A, Knudsen A, Bjørge L, Meri S, Vedeler C. Heterogeneous expression of CD59 on human Purkinje cells. Neurosci Lett 2004; 362:21-5. [PMID: 15147772 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.01.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2003] [Revised: 01/26/2004] [Accepted: 01/29/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The expression of CD59 and other complement regulators was studied in human cerebellum from 14 individuals with no cerebellar pathology, from one patient with multiple sclerosis (MS) and from two patients with paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration (PCD). CD59 was present on the Purkinje cells at various levels in eight of the 14 cases with no cerebellar pathology. CD59 was also present on the Purkinje cells of the patient with MS, but not on the scarce remaining Purkinje cells of the two patients with PCD. Other complement regulators (CD35, CD46 and CD55) were not expressed on the Purkinje cells, whereas CD59, CD46 and CD55 were present on the molecular, granulosa and endothelial cells. The results suggest that Purkinje cells not expressing CD59 could be especially prone to complement-mediated damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anette Storstein
- Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, N-5021 Bergen, Norway.
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Speth C, Rambach G, Lass-Flörl C, Dierich MP, Würzner R. The role of complement in invasive fungal infections. Die Rolle des Komplements bei invasiven Pilzinfektionen. Mycoses 2004; 47:93-103. [PMID: 15078425 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2004.00979.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
New therapeutic approaches enable organ transplantations and guarantee longer survival for AIDS patients or patients with haematological neoplasia. The price for these medical advances is immunosuppression and thus enhanced susceptibility to opportunistic fungal infections. As a consequence invasive fungal infections are on the march in modern medicine. Therapeutic limitations and difficulties strongly demand for a deeper understanding of the interaction between the various fungi and the hosts' innate and adaptive immune defence system. This understanding is the essential prerequisite for a potential therapeutic approach, which may support specifically the insufficient antifungal attack of the host. In the present article, we therefore review the current knowledge of the role of the complement system as a central part of innate immunity and as a fine tuner of adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of invasive fungal infections, such as aspergillosis, candidosis, cryptococcosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis and histoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Speth
- Institute of Hygiene and Social Medicine, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Lynch NJ, Willis CL, Nolan CC, Roscher S, Fowler MJ, Weihe E, Ray DE, Schwaeble WJ. Microglial activation and increased synthesis of complement component C1q precedes blood-brain barrier dysfunction in rats. Mol Immunol 2004; 40:709-16. [PMID: 14644096 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2003.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A reliable way to visualise the state of microglial activation is to monitor the microglial gene expression profile. Microglia are the only CNS resident cells that synthesise C1q, the recognition sub-component of the classical complement pathway, in vivo. C1q biosynthesis in resting ramified microglia is often low, but it increases dramatically in activated microglia. In this study, the expression of C1q was used to monitor microglial activation at all stages of 3-chloropropanediol-induced neurotoxicity, a new model of blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. In rats, 3-chloropropanediol produces very focused lesions in the brain, characterised by early astrocyte swelling and loss, followed by neuronal death and barrier dysfunction. Using in situ hybridisation, immunohistochemistry, and real-time RT-PCR, we found that increased C1q biosynthesis and microglial activation precede BBB dysfunction by at least 18 and peak 48 h after injection of 3-chloropropanediol, which coincides with the onset of active haemorrhage. Microglial activation is biphasic; an early phase of global activation is followed by a later phase in which microglial activation becomes increasingly focused in the lesions. During the early phase, expression of the pro-inflammatory mediators interleukin-1beta (IL1beta), tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and early growth response-1 (Egr-1) increased in parallel with C1q, but was restricted to the lesions. Expression of C1q (but not IL1beta, TNFalpha or Egr-1) remains high after BBB function is restored, and is accompanied by late up-regulation of the C1q-associated serine proteases, C1r and C1s, suggesting that microglial biosynthesis of the activation complex of the classical pathway may support the removal of cell debris by activation of complement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Lynch
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK.
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Stoiber H, Speth C, Dierich MP. Role of complement in the control of HIV dynamics and pathogenesis. Vaccine 2003; 21 Suppl 2:S77-82. [PMID: 12763687 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(03)00203-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In all ex vivo preparations of HIV tested so far, C3 fragments and, after seroconversion, antibodies were detected on the viral surface. This indicates that HIV survives complement-mediated lysis. The virus has adopted different protection mechanisms to keep complement activation under the threshold necessary to induce virolysis. Among them are complement regulatory proteins that remain functionally active on the surface of HIV and turn down the complement cascade and serum proteins with complement regulatory activities. Therefore, opsonized virions accumulate in HIV-infected individuals, and subsequently adhere to complement receptor (CR) expressing cells. Among them are B cells, which bind opsonized virus. Such bound virus is efficiently transferred to autologous T cells, which subsequently are infected. Other cells interacting via CR with opsonized HIV are follicular dendritic cells (FDC). As shown by ex vivo experiments, up to 80% of virus is bound to follicular dendritic cells through C3-CR interactions. In the brain, HIV is not only interacting with complement proteins, but is able to induce their expression. Thus, interaction of HIV with the complement system is a main mechanism for pathogenesis to AIDS, since retention of (complement-resistant) opsonized viral particles on cell surfaces via CRs occurs in different compartments in HIV-infected individuals, thereby promoting transmission of virus to other permissive cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heribert Stoiber
- Institute of Hygiene and Social Medicine and Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for AIDS Research, University Innsbruck, Fritz Pregl-Strasse 3, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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Speth C, Stoiber H, Dierich MP. Complement in different stages of HIV infection and pathogenesis. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2003; 130:247-57. [PMID: 12740525 DOI: 10.1159/000070211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system is one of the most important weapons of innate immunity and is involved in all infectious processes. It is not only a mechanism for direct protection against an invading pathogen but it also interacts with the adaptive immunity to optimize the pathogen-specific humoral and cellular defence cascade in the body. One of the greatest challenges for the complement system is infection by HIV with its chronic course and sequential destruction of immune cells and immune organs. Due to its dual role as direct effector and as fine tuner of adaptive immunity, we focussed on complement in this review and analysed in detail the contribution of complement to the antiviral defence and to HIV pathogenesis on the one hand and the complement evasion strategies of the virus on the other hand. In the present review, this interplay between complement and the virus is illuminated for the three different stages of HIV pathogenesis and for events during therapy: (1) the acute infection process with the early events in mucosa and serum; (2) the asymptomatic stage with the complex interplay between complement-induced lysis and viral evasion strategies; (3) the symptomatic infection and AIDS stage with progressive destruction of the lymph nodes, opportunistic infections and development of neuropathogenesis, and (4) finally, during highly active antiretroviral therapy and in vaccination approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Speth
- Institute of Hygiene and Social Medicine, University of Innsbruck and Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for AIDS Research, Austria.
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