Evidence linking cadmium and/or lead exposure to immunomodulatory effects in mammals based upon an adverse outcome pathways approach, and research perspectives

For decades, studies have shown how exposure to non-essential trace metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) largely impact global wildlife. Ecoimmunotoxicology has emerged in the past two decades and focuses on the effects of pollutants on the immune system of free-ranging organisms. Adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) represent a conceptual approach to explore the mechanistic linkage between a molecular initiating event and adverse outcomes, potentially at all biological levels of organisation. The present paper proposes putative AOPs related to the effects of Cd, Pb, and the mixture Cd-Pb, on the immune system of mammals to address future questions in ecoimmunotoxicology. Molecular Initiating Events for both metals relate to entrance in cells through Ca2+ channels or bond to cell surfaces. Exposure to Cd, Pb and Cd-Pb share several similar Key Events (KEs), primarily an increase of oxidative stress (OS) in immune cells through production of reactive oxygen species. For both metals and the mixture, OS affects mitochondrial membranes, and induces apoptosis, ultimately decreasing immune cell number. Both metals affect innate immune system through nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) inflammatory signalling pathways, leading to an upregulation of inflammatory markers and mediators. Adaptive immune system is also affected by the exposure to both metals though a decrease of CD4+/CD8+ ratio, a decrease of MHCII, an inactivation of TH1 and TH2 response, and an inhibition of the humoral response mediated by various Ig. Mixture effects of Cd-Pb are less documented resulting in a more speculative AOP, but potential synergic and antagonistic effects were identified. According to our AOPs, further research in ecoimmunotoxicology of metals in free-ranging mammals should focus on KEs related to NF-κB/MAPK inflammatory signalling pathways, changes in CD4+/CD8+ ratio and MHCII complexes, and on AOs related to auto-immune disorders and on the effective increase of infection rate, particularly in case of exposure to metal mixtures.

Reactivity of Zinc Fingers in Oxidizing Environments: Insight from Molecular Models Through Activation Strain Analysis

The reactivity of Zn2+ tetrahedral complexes with H2O2 was investigated in silico, as a first step in their disruption process. The substrates were chosen to represent the cores of three different zinc finger protein motifs, i. e., a Zn2+ ion coordinated to four cysteines (CCCC), to three cysteines and one histidine (CCCH), and to two cysteines and two histidines (CCHH). The cysteine and histidine ligands were further simplified to methyl thiolate and imidazole, respectively. H2O2 was chosen as an oxidizing agent due to its biological role as a metabolic product and species involved in signaling processes. The mechanism of oxidation of a coordinated cysteinate to sulfenate-κS and the trends for the different substrates were rationalized through activation strain analysis and energy decomposition analysis in the framework of scalar relativistic Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations at ZORA-M06/TZ2P ae // ZORA-BLYP-D3(BJ)/TZ2P. CCCC is oxidized most easily, an outcome explained considering both electrostatic and orbital interactions. The isomerization to sulfenate-κO was attempted to assess whether this step may affect the ligand dissociation; however, it was found to introduce a kinetic barrier without improving the energetics of the dissociation. Lastly, ligand exchange with free thiolates and selenolates was investigated as a trigger for ligand dissociation, possibly leading to metal ejection; molecular docking simulations also support this hypothesis.

Transfluthrin- and prallethrin-based insecticides elicit specific enzymatic antioxidant responses in different tissue of zebrafish

Pyrethroids prallethrin (P-BI) and transfluthrin (T-BI) are among the most commonly used molecules with insecticide action. These molecules comprise different formulations of insecticides largely used in household, agricultural, and animal production fields. However, the increased use of these molecules has led to concerns regarding their safety in animals and humans. Oxidative stress (OS) is believed to be easily established by xenobiotic contacts, such as pyrethroids. We aimed to evaluate and understand the impact of two household insecticides and two doses applied to different tissues of the antioxidant system of zebrafish (Danio rerio). We observed that the effect on the antioxidant system differed between tissues. The muscle was the most affected tissue in the body, the antioxidant enzymes were activated, and a mechanism of non-enzymatic antioxidants was activated; however, it could still cause cellular damage. The observed effect on muscle may be related to the progression of neurodegenerative conditions. In addition, in the brain, these compounds can inactivate the first line of enzymatic antioxidant defense, which is compensated for by the second line, avoiding cellular damage. Ultimately, the gill tissue did not appear to suffer lipid damage, but heme group formation was largely affected by the compounds.

ALAD and APOE polymorphisms are associated with lead and mercury levels in Italian pregnant women and their newborns with adequate nutritional status of zinc and selenium

The impacts of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in ALAD and VDR genes on Pb health effects and/or kinetics are inconclusive at low exposure levels, while studies including APOE SNPs are rare. In this study, we examined the associations of ALAD, VDR and APOE SNPs with exposure biomarkers of Pb and other trace elements (TEs) in Italian pregnant women (N = 873, aged 18-44 years) and their newborns (N = 619) with low-level mixed-element exposure through diet, the environment or endogenously. DNA from maternal peripheral venous blood (mB), sampled during the second and third trimesters, was genotyped for ALAD (rs1800435, rs1805313, rs1139488, rs818708), VDR (rs2228570, rs1544410, rs7975232, rs731236) and APOE (rs429358, rs7421) using TaqMan SNP assays. Personal and lifestyle data and TE levels (mB, maternal plasma, hair and mixed umbilical cord blood [CB]) from the PHIME project were used. Multiple linear regression models, controlling for confounding variables, were performed to test the associations between SNPs and TEs. The geometric means of mB-Pb, mB-Hg, mB-As and mB-Cd (11.0 ng/g, 2.16 ng/g, 1.38 ng/g and 0.31 ng/g, respectively) indicated low exposure levels, whereas maternal plasma Zn and Se (0.72 μg/mL and 78.6 ng/g, respectively) indicated adequate micronutritional status. Variant alleles of ALAD rs1800435 and rs1805313 were negatively associated with mB-Pb levels, whereas a positive association was observed for rs1139488. None of the VDR SNPs or their haplotypes had any association with Pb levels. Regarding APOE, the ϵ4 allele was associated with lower mB-Hg and CB-Hg, while a positive association was found with the ϵ2 allele and CB-Pb when the model included only newborn girls. The observed associations indicate possible modification effects of ALAD and APOE SNPs on Pb or Hg kinetics in women and their newborns with low exposure to non-essential TEs, as well as an adequate nutritional status of Zn and Se.

Clinical, demographic and oxidative profile of patients with COVID-19 and disease severity

This study aimed to profile the clinical progression, demographics, and oxidative status of COVID-19 patients, correlating with disease severity. The study included 143 participants: 93 patients with COVID-19 (28 outpatients, 65 inpatients), and 50 control participants. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) was used as an oxidative damage marker. Antioxidant activity was assessed via quantification of Vitamin C, sulfhydryl groups, ferric reduction ability of plasma (FRAP), Uric acid (UA), and evaluation of delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) enzymatic activity. Geriatric patients, especially men, with comorbidities such as obesity and/or chronic diseases were more likely to develop the most severe form of COVID-19. The activity of the δ-ALA-D was lower in inpatients, and there was no significant difference with the outpatient. Antioxidants decreased in COVID-19 groups, while lipid peroxidation increased. FRAP and Vitamin C decreased with evolution of the disease. Oxidative stress could be used as a predictor of worsening clinical condition.

Oxidative profile, inflammatory responses and δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase enzyme activity in influenza B virus infection

The aim of the current study was to determine the activity of the delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) enzyme, oxidative stress biomarkers and the expression of cytokines in those infected with influenza B virus (IBV). To evaluate the activity of the δ-ALA-D enzyme, lipid peroxidation was estimated as levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, protein and non-protein thiol groups, ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), vitamin C concentration and cytokine levels in IBV-infected individuals (n  = 50) and a control group (n = 30). δ-ALA-D activity was significantly lower in IBV-infected individuals compared with controls, as well as levels of thiols, vitamin C and FRAP. Lipid peroxidation and cytokine levels of IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A and IFN-y were statistically higher in the IBV group. In conclusion, we found evidence of the generation of oxidants, the depletion of the antioxidant system, decrease in the activity of the δ-ALA-D enzyme and an increase in the synthesis of cytokines, thus contributing to a better understanding of oxidative and inflammatory pathways during IBV infection.

Variation of the Oxidative Profile in Pregnant Women With and Without Gestational Complications

INTRODUCTION

Oxidative stress is closely related to the pathophysiology of gestation, where the placenta is susceptible to oxidative damage, contributing to the onset of gestational complications. Currently, few studies evaluate the use of oxidative markers for prediction of risk of gestational complications. However, there are some reports that suggest these biomarkers as potential prognostic biomarkers. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the biomarkers of oxidative stress from gestations with and without complications, and also evaluate the delta of variation in these markers from the first gestational trimester.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 45 pregnant women were evaluated during the three gestational trimesters, of whom 15 developed gestational complications by the end of gestation. The evaluated oxidative damage markers were thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and nitric oxide dosage. Evaluation of the antioxidant system was performed by the quantification of vitamin C, sulfhydryl groups, total antioxidant capacity, plasmatic iron reduction ability, the evaluation of catalase and delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase enzymatic activity.

RESULTS

According to the results, the markers of oxidative damage are increased, and the antioxidant profile decreased, in the third trimester of complicated pregnancies as compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. Moreover, the delta of variation in both oxidative damage markers and antioxidants was higher in complicated gestations as compared to uncomplicated gestations, thus suggesting a higher oxidative stress in pregnancies with complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxidative stress parameters appear altered in pregnant women with gestational complications. The markers to oxidative stress can be possible biomarkers, helping in understanding mechanisms underlying the associations between complications during pregnancy and various health outcomes.

Toxic metals that interact with thiol groups and alteration in insect behavior

Toxic metals, such as mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu), are widespread in the biosphere, and human activities have contributed to their continuous release into the ecosystems. Metal-induced toxicity has been extensively studied in mammals; however, the effects of these metals on insects' behavior have been explored to far lesser degree. As the main mechanism of toxicity, the cationic metals, explored in this review, have high affinity for thiol-containing molecules, disrupting the function of several proteins and low-molecular-weight thiol-containing molecules. Existing literature has corroborated that Hg, Pb, Cd, and Cu can disrupt locomotor and mating behaviors, but their effects on insects' memory and learning have yet to be fully characterized. Though field studies on metal-induced toxicity in insects are limited, results from Drosophila melanogaster as an experimental model suggest that insects living in contaminated environments can have behavioral foraging and reproductive deficits, which may cause population decline. In this review, we address the interaction between metals and endogenous thiol groups, with emphasis on alterations in insect behavior.

Brazilian workers occupationally exposed to different toxic agents: A systematic review on DNA damage

The evaluation of genotoxicity in workers exposed to different toxic agents is very important, especially considering the association between these exposures in a chronic context and DNA damage. Assessing biomarkers of exposure and, when possible, early biomarkers of effect, contributes to elucidating the potential toxic mechanisms involved in genotoxicity and its contribution to chronic non-communicable diseases. In Brazil, the biggest country in South America, workers are exposed to hazardous physical and chemical agents. Considering that these exposures occur, in most cases, throughout the worker's whole life, this is an important public health concern in Brazil. Therefore, this systematic review aims to analyze occupational exposure to chemical and physical agents and the association with DNA damage in studies carried out in Brazil from 1980 to 2021. A systematic and comprehensive literature search was performed in different databases based on occupational exposure to chemical and physical agents and DNA damage. Only full articles on studies that investigated experimental evidence on occupational exposure in Brazil and assessed DNA damage were included, amounting to 89 articles. Five main occupational exposure groups were identified: pesticides (36%), organic solvents (20%), dust and particles (16%), metals (11%), and ionizing radiation (6%). Another group called "others" included studies (11%) that did not fall into these main groups. It was found that comet assay and micronucleus tests are the most adopted methods to detect DNA damage. Occupational exposures were most associated with DNA damage. However, further improvements in study design would be needed to better characterize the association between biomonitoring and DNA damage, particularly to account for confounding factors.

p-Chloro-diphenyl diselenide modulates Nrf2/Keap1 signaling and counteracts renal oxidative stress in mice exposed to dexamethasone repeated administrations

Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid that has been associated with oxidative stress in central and peripheral tissues. p-Chloro-diphenyl diselenide (p-ClPhSe)2 is an antioxidant organoselenium compound. The present study aimed to evaluate whether Nrf2/Keap-1 signaling contributes to the (p-ClPhSe)2 antioxidant effects in the kidney of mice exposed to dexamethasone. Adult Swiss mice received dexamethasone (i.p) at a dose of 2 mg/kg or its vehicle for 21 days. After, mice were treated with (p-ClPhSe)2 (i.g)(1, 5, or 10 mg/kg) for 7 days. Samples of kidneys were collected for biochemical assays. (p-ClPhSe)2 at dose of 1 mg/kg reversed the renal reactive oxygen species (ROS) and carbonyl protein (CP) levels increased by dexamethasone. (p-ClPhSe)2 at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg was effective against the increase of TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances), ROS, and CP as well as the decrease of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) activity and non-protein SH (NPSH) levels induced by dexamethasone. At 5 mg/kg, (p-ClPhSe)2 reduced the renal levels of 4-OH-2-HNE and HO-1 as well as modulated the Nrf2/Keap-1 signaling in mice exposed to dexamethasone. The present findings revealed that (p-ClPhSe)2 antioxidant effects were associated with the modulation of Nrf2/Keap-1 signaling pathway in the kidney of mice exposed to dexamethasone.

Genetic Polymorphism of Delta Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase (ALAD) Gene and Symptoms of Chronic Mercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Children within the Brazilian Amazon

Genetic polymorphisms involved in mercury toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics may be associated with severe mercury toxicity. This study aimed to investigate the impact of an ALAD polymorphism on chronic mercury exposure and the health situation of indigenous children from the Brazilian Amazon. One-hundred-and-three indigenous children (under 15 years old) were included and genotyped (rs1800435) using a TaqMan validated assay. The mean age was 6.6 ± 4.5 years old, 60% were female, 49% presented with anemia, and the mean hair mercury concentration was 7.0 ± 4.5 (1.4-23.9) µg/g, with 49% exceeding the reference limit (≥6.0 µg/g). Only two children were heterozygous ALAD, while the others were all wild type. Minor allele frequency (ALAD G) and heterozygous genotype (ALAD CG) were 1% and 2%, respectively. The two children (12 and 14 years old) with the ALAD polymorphism had mercury levels above the average as well as had neurological symptoms related to chronic mercury exposure, such as visual field alterations, memory deficit, distal neuropathy, and toe amyotrophy. Both children also reported frequent consumption of fish in the diet, at least three times a week. In conclusion, our data confirm that an ALAD polymorphism can contribute to mercury half-life time, harmful effects, and neuropsychological disorders in indigenous children with chronic mercury exposure to gold mining activity.

In silico Studies on the Interaction between Mpro and PLpro From SARS-CoV-2 and Ebselen, its Metabolites and Derivatives

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 has mobilized scientific attention in search of a treatment. The cysteine-proteases, main protease (Mpro) and papain-like protease (PLpro) are important targets for antiviral drugs. In this work, we simulate the interactions between the Mpro and PLpro with Ebselen, its metabolites and derivatives with the aim of finding molecules that can potentially inhibit these enzymes. The docking data demonstrate that there are two main interactions between the thiol (-SH) group of Cys (from the protease active sites) and the electrophilic centers of the organoselenium molecules, i. e. the interaction with the carbonyl group (O=C… SH) and the interaction with the Se moiety (Se… SH). Both interactions may lead to an adduct formation and enzyme inhibition. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations with Ebselen indicate that the energetics of the thiol nucleophilic attack is more favorable on Se than on the carbonyl group, which is in accordance with experimental data (Jin et al. Nature, 2020, 582, 289-293). Therefore, organoselenium molecules should be further explored as inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 proteases. Furthermore, we suggest that some metabolites of Ebselen (e. g. Ebselen diselenide and methylebselenoxide) and derivatives ethaselen and ebsulfur should be tested in vitro as inhibitors of virus replication and its proteases.

7-Chloro-4-(phenylselanyl) quinoline reduces renal oxidative stress induced by oxaliplatin in mice

The object of this study was to evaluate the relationship between oxidative damage induced by oxaliplatin (OXA) and the therapeutic potential of 7-chloro-4-(phenylselanyl) quinoline (4-PSQ) in kidney of mice. Mice received OXA (10 mg/kg) or vehicle intraperitoneally (days 0 and 2). Oral administration of 4-PSQ (1 mg/kg) or vehicle was performed on days 2 to 14. On day 15 the animals were euthanized and the kidneys and blood were collected. The effect of OXA and (or) 4-PSQ on urea, thiobarbituric acid reactive species, nonprotein thiol (NPSH), and protein carbonyl (PC) levels were investigated. Moreover, renal superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA-D), and Na⁺,K⁺ ATPase activities were evaluated. Our findings revealed an increase on urea levels and significant renal oxidative damage in OXA-induced mice. OXA exposure increased SOD, GPx, and GST activities and caused a reduction on NPSH levels and CAT and GR activities. Na⁺,K⁺ ATPase and δ-ALA-D activities were reduced by OXA. 4-PSQ decreased plasmatic urea levels and renal oxidative damage. SOD, GPx, CAT, GR, and Na⁺,K⁺ ATPase activities were restored by 4-PSQ. 4-PSQ may be a good prototype for the treatment of OXA-induced renal injury.

A comprehensive review on the neuropathophysiology of selenium

As an essential micronutrient, selenium (Se) exerts its biological function as a catalytic entity in a variety of enzymes. From a toxicological perspective, however, Se can become extremely toxic at concentrations slightly above its nutritional levels. Over the last few decades, there has been a growing level of concern worldwide regarding the adverse effects of both inorganic and organic Se compounds on a broad spectrum of neurological functions. A wealth of evidence has shown that exposure to excess Se may compromise the normal functioning of various key proteins, neurotransmitter systems (the glutamatergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, and cholinergic systems), and signaling molecules involved in the control and regulation of cognitive, behavioral, and neuroendocrine functions. Elevated Se exposure has also been suspected to be a risk factor for the development of several neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. Nonetheless, despite the various deleterious effects of excess Se on the central nervous system (CNS), Se neurotoxicity and negative behavioral outcomes are still disregarded at the expense of its beneficial health effects. This review focuses on the current state of knowledge regarding the neurobehavioral effects of Se and discusses its potential mode of action on different aspects of the central and peripheral nervous systems. This review also provides a brief history of Se discovery and uses, its physicochemical properties, biological roles in the CNS, environmental occurrence, and toxicity. We also review potential links between exposure to different forms of Se compounds and aberrant neurobehavioral functions in humans and animals, and identify key knowledge gaps and hypotheses for future research.

4,4'-Dichloro-diphenyl diselenide modulated oxidative stress that differently affected peripheral tissues in streptozotocin-exposed mice

Streptozotocin (STZ) is a substance used experimentally to induce a diabetes model, a metabolic disease associated with oxidative tissue damage. This study evaluated if 4-4'-dichloro-diphenyl diselenide (p-ClPhSe)₂ modulates oxidative stress in peripheral tissues of diabetic mice. Male Swiss mice received a single STZ injection (i.p.) at a dose of 200 mg/kg or its vehicle and were treated with (p-ClPhSe)₂ (7 days, 5 mg/kg) or metformin (200 mg/kg, twice per day). After, the mice were euthanized to collect liver, kidney, and skeletal muscle samples. In the liver, (p-ClPhSe)₂ reduced thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and protein carbonyl levels and normalized the superoxide dismutase activity in STZ-treated mice. In the kidney, (p-ClPhSe)₂ reversed the increase in the reactive species levels but not the catalase (CAT) activity reduction in STZ-treated mice. There was no evidence of oxidative damage in the skeletal muscle of STZ-treated mice, but an increase in the CAT activity and a reduction in non-protein thiol levels were found. (p-ClPhSe)₂ did not reverse a decrease in hepatic and renal δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in STZ-treated mice. The results show that the liver and kidney of STZ-treated mice were more susceptible to oxidative stress. This study reveals that (p-ClPhSe)₂ modulated oxidative stress, which differently affected peripheral tissues of diabetic mice.

Toxicology and pharmacology of synthetic organoselenium compounds: an update

Here, we addressed the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic organoselenium compounds and some naturally occurring organoselenium amino acids. The use of selenium as a tool in organic synthesis and as a pharmacological agent goes back to the middle of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries. The rediscovery of ebselen and its investigation in clinical trials have motivated the search for new organoselenium molecules with pharmacological properties. Although ebselen and diselenides have some overlapping pharmacological properties, their molecular targets are not identical. However, they have similar anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, possibly, via activation of transcription factors, regulating the expression of antioxidant genes. In short, our knowledge about the pharmacological properties of simple organoselenium compounds is still elusive. However, contrary to our early expectations that they could imitate selenoproteins, organoselenium compounds seem to have non-specific modulatory activation of antioxidant pathways and specific inhibitory effects in some thiol-containing proteins. The thiol-oxidizing properties of organoselenium compounds are considered the molecular basis of their chronic toxicity; however, the acute use of organoselenium compounds as inhibitors of specific thiol-containing enzymes can be of therapeutic significance. In summary, the outcomes of the clinical trials of ebselen as a mimetic of lithium or as an inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 proteases will be important to the field of organoselenium synthesis. The development of computational techniques that could predict rational modifications in the structure of organoselenium compounds to increase their specificity is required to construct a library of thiol-modifying agents with selectivity toward specific target proteins.

Role of 7-chloro-4-(phenylselanyl) quinoline in the treatment of oxaliplatin-induced hepatic toxicity in mice

There is an increasing incidence of hepatotoxicity induced by oxaliplatin (OXA); therefore, researchers' attention has been drawn to therapeutic alternatives that may decrease OXA-induced hepatotoxicity. Studies indicate that oxidative stress plays a major role in OXA-induced liver injury. As several pharmacological effects of 7-chloro-4-(phenylselanyl) quinole (4-PSQ) involve its antioxidant action, the hypothesis that this organoselenium compound could be promising for the treatment or prevention of hepatotoxicity induced by treatment with OXA was investigated. To test this hypothesis, male Swiss mice received OXA (10 mg·kg-1) on days 0 and 2, followed by oral administration of 4-PSQ (1 mg·kg-1) on days 2 to 14. 4-PSQ reduced the plasma aspartate, and alanine aminotransferase activity increased by exposure to OXA. The histopathological examination of the liver showed that 4-PSQ markedly improved OXA-induced hepatic injury. In addition, treatment with 4-PSQ reduced the oxidation of lipids and proteins (thiobarbituric acid reactive species levels and protein carbonyl content) and attenuated the increase of hepatic catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity caused by OXA. The inhibition of hepatic δ-aminolevulinic dehydratase activity induced by OXA was reverted by 4-PSQ. In conclusion, results indicate that 4-PSQ may be a good therapeutic strategy for attenuating OXA-induced liver damage.

Exploring human porphobilinogen synthase metalloprotein by quantum biochemistry and evolutionary methods

Previous studies have shown the porphobilinogen synthase (PBGS) zinc-binding mechanism and its conservation among the living cells. However, the precise molecular interaction of zinc with the active center of the enzyme is unknown. In particular, quantum chemistry techniques within the density functional theory (DFT) framework have been the key methodology to describe metalloproteins, when one is looking for a compromise between accuracy and computational feasibility. Considering this, we used DFT-based models within the molecular fractionation with conjugate caps scheme to evaluate the binding energy features of zinc interacting with the human PBGS. Besides, phylogenetic and clustering analyses were successfully employed in extracting useful information from protein sequences to identify groups of conserved residues that build the ions-binding site. Our results also report a conservative assessment of the relevant amino acids, as well as the benchmark analysis of the calculation models used. The most relevant intermolecular interactions in Zn2+-PBGS are due to the amino acids CYS0122, CYS0124, CYS0132, ASP0169, SER0168, ARG0221, HIS0131, ASP0120, GLY0133, VAL0121, ARG0209, and ARG0174. Among these residues, we highlighted ASP0120, GLY0133, HIS0131, SER0168, and ARG0209 by co-occurring in all clusters generated by unsupervised clustering analysis. On the other hand, the triple cysteines at 2.5 Å from zinc (CYS0122, CYS0124, and CYS0132) have the highest energy attraction and are absent in the taxa Viridiplantae, Sar, Rhodophyta, and some Bacteria. Additionally, the performance of the DFT-based models shows that the processing time-dependence is more associated with the choice of the basis set than the exchange-correlation functional.

Swimming training mitigates the sex-specific hepatic disruption caused by a high-calorie diet: The putative modulation of Nrf2/Keap-1 pathway in male mice

This study investigated whether swimming protocol induces adaptations to sex-specific oxidative stress and Nrf2/Keap-1 pathway in the liver of mice fed a high-calorie diet (HCD) during the early life period. Male and female Swiss mice were fed a standard or high-calorie (enriched with 20% lard and 20% corn syrup) diets, and the trained mice were subjected to a swimming protocol (5 days/week) from 21^st to 49^th postnatal days. Males fed a HCD had more pronounced alterations in all parameters evaluated than females. Although there was no increase in body weight, the fat deposition was higher in male mice exposed to diet. The intake of HCD induced dyslipidemia mainly in males. In a sex-dependent manner, the hepatic markers of oxidative damage, antioxidant defences, and a sensitive sulfhydryl protein were altered in mice fed a HCD. Swimming counteracted dyslipidemia, hepatic oxidative stress, and the Nrf2/Keap-1 signalling downregulation, in a sex-dependent manner, in mice exposed to a HCD. These findings demonstrate that a non-pharmacological therapy, swimming protocol, contributed to adaptations of sex-specific hepatic oxidative stress and Nrf2/Keap-1 regulation in male mice fed a HCD.

Selective activity of diselenides against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae

INTRODUCTION:

Aedes aegypti (L.) is the major vector of arboviruses that causes serious public health concerns in tropical and subtropical countries.

METHODS:

We examined the larvicidal activity of 1,2-diphenyldiselenide [(PhSe)₂] and 1,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl) diselenide [(p-ClPhSe)₂] and determine its toxicity to different non-target organisms.

RESULTS:

(PhSe)₂ and (p-ClPhSe)₂ killed Ae. aegypti L3 larvae with LC_50/24h values of 65.63 µM (20.48 mg/L) and 355.19 µM (135.33 mg/L), respectively. (PhSe)₂ was not toxic to the four model organisms.

CONCLUSIONS:

(PhSe)₂ is a larvicidal compound with selective action against Ae. aegypti larvae. The mechanisms of action of (PhSe)₂ under field conditions remain to be investigated.

Heme biosynthesis depends on previously unrecognized acquisition of iron-sulfur cofactors in human amino-levulinic acid dehydratase

Heme biosynthesis and iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) biogenesis are two major mammalian metabolic pathways that require iron. It has long been known that these two pathways interconnect, but the previously described interactions do not fully explain why heme biosynthesis depends on intact ISC biogenesis. Herein we identify a previously unrecognized connection between these two pathways through our discovery that human aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD), which catalyzes the second step of heme biosynthesis, is an Fe-S protein. We find that several highly conserved cysteines and an Ala306-Phe307-Arg308 motif of human ALAD are important for [Fe₄S₄] cluster acquisition and coordination. The enzymatic activity of human ALAD is greatly reduced upon loss of its Fe-S cluster, which results in reduced heme biosynthesis in human cells. As ALAD provides an early Fe-S-dependent checkpoint in the heme biosynthetic pathway, our findings help explain why heme biosynthesis depends on intact ISC biogenesis.

Heme biosynthesis depends on iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster biogenesis but the molecular connection between these pathways is not fully understood. Here, the authors show that the heme biosynthesis enzyme ALAD contains an Fe-S cluster, disruption of which reduces ALAD activity and heme production in human cells.

Evaluation of antioxidant activity and toxicity of sulfur- or selenium-containing 4-(arylchalcogenyl)-1H-pyrazoles

Pyrazoles represent a significant class of heterocyclic compounds that exhibit pharmacological properties. The present study aimed to investigate the antioxidant potential of pyrazol derivative compounds in brain of mice in vitro and the effect of pyrazol derivative compounds in the oxidative damage and toxicity parameters in mouse brain and plasma of mice. The compounds tested were 3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-4-(phenylselanyl)-1H-pyrazol (1a), 3,5-dimethyl-4-(phenylselanyl)-1H-pyrazole (2a), 4-((4-methoxyphenyl)selanyl)-3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (3a), 4-((4-chlorophenyl)selanyl)-3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (4a), 3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-4-(phenylthio)-1H-pyrazole (1b), 3,5-dimethyl-4-(phenylthio)-1H-pyrazole (2b), 4-((4-methoxyphenyl)thio)-3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (3b), 4-((4-chlorophenyl)thio)-3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (4b), and 3,5-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (1c). In vitro, 4-(arylcalcogenyl)-1H-pyrazoles, at low molecular range, reduced lipid peroxidation and reactive species in mouse brain homogenates. The compounds also presented ferric-reducing ability as well nitric oxide-scavenging activity. Especially compounds 1a, 1b, and 1c presented efficiency to 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl-scavenging activity. Compounds 1b and 1c presented 2,20 -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)-scavenging activity. In vivo assays demonstrated that compounds 1a, 1b, and 1c (300 mg/kg, intragastric, a single administration) did not cause alteration in the of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity, an enzyme that exhibits high sensibility to prooxidants situations, in the brain, liver, and kidney of mice. Compound 1c reduced per se the lipid peroxidation in liver and brain of mice. Toxicological assays demonstrate that compounds 1a, 1b, and 1c did not present toxicity in the aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, urea, and creatinine levels in the plasma. In conclusion, the results demonstrated the antioxidant action of pyrazol derivative compounds in in vitro assays. Furthermore, the results showed low toxicity of compounds in in vivo assays.

The Se…S/N interactions as a possible mechanism of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase enzyme inhibition by organoselenium compounds: A computational study

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DPDS and PSA interacts with cysteine residues from AlaD active site.

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The Se…S interactions could be involved in the δ-AlaD inhibition.

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δ-AlaD from Cucumis sativus does not present cysteine residues in the active site.

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Se…N interactions could be involved in the organoselenium action.

Organoselenium compounds present many pharmacological properties and are promising drugs. However, toxicological effects associated with inhibition of thiol-containing enzymes, such as the δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-AlaD), have been described. The molecular mechanism(s) by which they inhibit thiol-containing enzymes at the atomic level, is still not well known. The use of computational methods to understand the physical–chemical properties and biological activity of chemicals is essential to the rational design of new drugs. In this work, we propose an in silico study to understand the δ-AlaD inhibition mechanism by diphenyl diselenide (DPDS) and its putative metabolite, phenylseleninic acid (PSA), using δ-AlaD enzymes from Homo sapiens (Hsδ-AlaD), Drosophila melanogaster (Dmδ-AlaD) and Cucumis sativus (Csδ-AlaD). Protein modeling homology, molecular docking, and DFT calculations are combined in this study. According to the molecular docking, DPDS and PSA might bind in the Hsδ-AlaD and Dmδ-AlaD active sites interacting with the cysteine residues by Se^…S interactions. On the other hand, the DPDS does not access the active site of the Csδ-AlaD (a non-thiol protein), while the PSA interacts with the amino acids residues from the active site, such as the Lys291. These interactions might lead to the formation of a covalent bond, and consequently, to the enzyme inhibition. In fact, DFT calculations (mPW1PW91/def2TZVP) demonstrated that the selenylamide bond formation is energetically favored. The in silico data showed here are in accordance with previous experimental studies, and help us to understand the reactivity and biological activity of organoselenium compounds.

Trace elements and ALAD gene polymorphisms in general population from three uranium legacy sites - A case study in Kyrgyzstan

At three uranium (U) legacy sites in Kyrgyzstan, namely, Kadji Sai, Mailuu-Suu and Sumsar, an initial human bio-monitoring programme was introduced as a complementary activity to environmental impact studies in these areas. The aim was to assess trace element (TE) contents in blood and genetic susceptibility for Pb as one of the contaminants. The programme included the determination of 9 TE in blood samples from 123 residents living permanently in this environment. The analyses included U and the potentially toxic TE, lead (Pb), cadmium, mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As), together with essential elements iron (Fe), copper, selenium (Se) and manganese (Mn). TE were analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) and genetic background effect by three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD; rs1805313, rs818708, rs1800435) genotyped by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The obtained results were generally similar to literature reference values obtained from the U non-exposed environments. However, some significant findings indicated elevated levels of certain contaminants typical of the studied environment (U, Pb). Several essential (Se, Mn) and toxic TE (Pb, Hg, As, U) in blood showed statistically significant differences among the studied areas. All areas showed diminished Fe blood levels. Altogether, this indicated specific and different environmental conditions at three industrial legacy sites for U milling and processing along with the accompanying chemical (pollutant) elements. Blood U concentrations were slightly higher at Mailuu-Suu, known for elevated technogenic and naturally occurring U. At Sumsar, the distribution of elevated blood Pb concentrations indicated an airborne source of pollution that was different from the anticipated aqueous exposure pathway. Pb blood variability was found associated with ALAD polymorphisms (SNPs rs1805313, rs1800435). Results are confirming that human data will be a useful and scientifically important additional tool for environmental impact assessment studies at industrial legacy sites in Kyrgyzstan.

Ebselen reversed peripheral oxidative stress induced by a mouse model of sporadic Alzheimer's disease

Intracerebroventricular streptozotocin injection (icv STZ) is a well established sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) model in rodents. AD is characterized by neuronal degeneration accompanied by central oxidative stress. Studies also indicate peripheral oxidative damage in AD, but if the icv STZ model of sporadic AD mimics this feature is an open question. This study aimed to investigate if icv STZ administration induces peripheral oxidative stress and the antioxidant action of Ebselen, compared to the reference drug (donepezil), in this sporadic AD model. Male adult Swiss mice received icv STZ (days 1 and 3). Mice received Ebselen (10 mg/kg, i.p) or Donepezil (5 mg/kg, i.p) for 14 days. Mice were killed and the kidney and liver were excised to determine parameters of oxidative stress and toxicity markers. The mice icv STZ-injected showed peripheral oxidative stress. Ebselen reversed renal lipid peroxidation in the icv STZ administered mice by modulating NPSH levels, SOD and CAT activities, whereas Donepezil, modulated only NPSH levels. Ebselen and Donepezil counteracted hepatic lipid peroxidation in STZ-injected mice by modulating NPSH levels and CAT activity. The δ-ALA-D activity was inhibited in the kidney, but not in the liver, whereas the icv STZ-injected mice had an increase in the GST activity in both tissues. Ebselen reversed the increase in the hepatic GST activity of the STZ-injected mice. Donepezil increased renal GST activity in the control mice. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the icv STZ administration induced peripheral oxidative stress. Ebselen, similar to Donepezil, was effective against peripheral oxidative stress in a mouse model of sporadic AD.

Activity of the enzyme delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase and parameters of oxidative stress in different modes of delivery

Aims: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the type of delivery (vaginal and cesarean) on the activity of the enzyme delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D), which as yet has not been studied, and the markers of oxidative stress.Methods: Seventy-six mothers and their newborns were divided into two groups: normal birth (VD) and elective cesarean section (ECS). Samples of maternal and umbilical cord blood were collected up to 5 min after birth. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), protein thiol (P-SH), nonprotein (NP-SH), the ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), catalase, and δ-ALA-D enzyme activity were tested.Results: TBARS and AOPP were significantly higher in mothers of the VD group, while P-SH, NP-SH, FRAP and TAC were reduced. In newborns, TBARS and AOPP did not differ between the groups; however, in the VD group, there was a decrease in P-SH, NP-SH, FRAP, TAC, and catalase. The activity of the δ-ALA-D enzyme was decreased in mothers and neonates born by VD.Conclusions: Mothers undergoing VD had higher levels of free radicals and lower antioxidant defenses, while their newborns decreased antioxidant defenses likely to contain the oxidative imbalance. The inhibition of the δ-ALA-D enzyme in this scenario allows its use as a useful marker of oxidative stress in different obstetric settings.

Influence of maternal labor time on delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase enzyme activity and markers of oxidative stress in newborns

The purpose is to determine markers of oxidative stress related to the longer and shorter duration of labor (DOL) of pregnant women in the umbilical cord blood of neonates, not yet studied. Blood samples from the umbilical cord were collected from pregnant women with normal delivery and classified according to DOL in two groups: a group with DOL less than 310 min (n = 33) and a group with DOL greater than or equal to 310 min (n = 35). The oxidative stress parameters were analyzed by the quantification of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), nitrate/nitrite (NOx), protein thiol groups (P-SH) and non-protein (NP-SH), vitamin C and plasma iron reduction capacity (FRAP), in addition to the activity of the enzyme delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D). The activity of the δ-ALA-D enzyme was shown to be decreased in longer DOL, however, the oxidant parameters and antioxidants were higher in the longer DOL, with the exception of NP-SH that was lower. The longer maternal DOL time is related to the alteration of δ-ALA-D enzyme activity and other parameters in neonates, suggesting an increase in the passage of maternal oxidative markers by umbilical cord blood.

Effect of Zinc on the Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in the Brain of Nickel-Treated Mice

The overexposure to nickel due to the extensive use of it in modern technology remains a major public health concern. The mechanisms of pathological effects of this metal remain elusive. The present study was devoted to evaluate the effect of nickel on the oxidative state of the brain cells of mice and to assess whether zinc as redox state modulator could efficiently protect cells against nickel's neurotoxicity. As oxidative stress biomarkers in the present study, we have measured the concentrations of reduced glutathione, metallothioneins, and malondialdehyde and the activity of the enzyme δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase. For the single metal exposure, mice were i.p. injected once with solutions of NiCl₂ and/or ZnSO₄; repeated exposure was performed i.p. injecting metal salt solutions for 14 days (once a day). The control mice received i.p. injections of saline. Results of our study demonstrate that single and 14 days of Ni²⁺ exposure decreased reduced glutathione and increased malondialdehyde contents in the brain of mice. Repeated Ni²⁺ administration significantly inhibited δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase while increasing brain metallothionein concentration at both exposure periods. Zinc exhibited a protective effect against nickel-induced glutathione and lipid peroxidation in brain cells of mice at both intervals of time, while repeated exposure to this metal significantly raised the brain metallothionein content. Repeated Zn²⁺ pretreatment protected δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase from Ni²⁺-induced inhibition and significantly increased metallothionein concentration at both investigated time intervals.

Dietary supplementation of jute leaf (Corchorus olitorius) modulates hepatic delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity and oxidative status in high-fat fed/low streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Impaired liver function is associated with decreased hepatic delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity in diabetes mellitus. Hence, this study described the effect of dietary jute leaf (Corchorus olitorius) on hepatic δ-ALAD activity in high-fat fed combined with low-dose streptozotocin administered diabetic rats. Animals were fed diets containing 35% fat for 14 days prior to a single administration of low-dose (35 mg/kg body weight) streptozotocin to induce diabetes. Thereafter, the animals were randomly placed in groups and fed 100 mg/g jute leaf-supplemented diets for 30 days. The result showed that jute leaf supplementation significantly (p < 0.05) reversed the decreased hepatic δ-ALAD activity, increased hepatic catalase and SOD activity accompanying the decrease in serum AST and AST activities. This finding suggests that restoration of hepatic δ-ALAD activity, modulation of hepatic function biomarkers, and increase in antioxidant status could be possible underlying events mediating the hepatoprotective effect of jute leaf in diabetic conditions. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Decrease in hepatic δ-ALAD activity has been associated with diabetes-induced hepatotoxicity arising from prolonged and uncontrolled hyperglycemia. Therefore, increased δ-ALAD activity represents improved hepatic function in diabetic situations. Antidiabetic properties of jute leaf have been demonstrated but information on its effect on hepatic δ-ALAD is lacking. Thus, this study revealed that dietary supplementation of jute leaf restored hepatic δ-ALAD activities and improved liver antioxidant status in diabetic rats which is an indication of its hepatoprotective properties.

Post-mortem interval estimative through determination of catalase and Δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase activities in hepatic, renal, skeletal muscle and cerebral tissues of Swiss mice

Purpose: Determining the post-mortem interval (PMI) is one of the challenging tasks in forensic science due to the lack of quick and inexpensive methods. Our objective is to develop innovative and alternative means for PMI evaluation. Methods: The relationship between PMI and enzymatic modifications in mice tissues was described. After being sacrificed, Swiss mice were randomly divided into groups according to the time elapsed since death. The activities of catalase (CAT) and δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) were determined in hepatic, renal, skeletal muscle and cerebral tissues. Results: CAT activity increased in kidney and brain 6 h after death and this increase remained for up to 24 h in the brain and 48 h in the kidney. δ-ALA-D had its activity decreased in the liver and kidneys in 6 h. In the skeletal muscle, δ-ALA-D activity was reduced only 48 h after death. Conversely, an increase on δ-ALA-D activity was observed in the brain at 6 h, followed by its decrease at 24 and 48 h. Conclusion: With the association of this set of results, it is possible to provide an estimate of PMI. Additionally, these results can be used as an auxiliary parameter associated with other methods to estimate PMI.

Influence of gestational diabetes on the activity of δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase and oxidative stress biomarkers

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the activity of delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) and oxidative stress biomarkers in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), in order to demonstrate the involvement of oxidative stress in this condition, which presents pathophysiology still undetermined.

METHODS

δ-ALA-D activity, lipid peroxidation estimated as the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), protein (P-SH) and non-protein thiol (NP-SH) content, catalase (CAT) activity and concentration of vitamin C (VIT C) in samples of pregnant women with GDM (n = 48) and in healthy pregnant women (n = 30), who constituted the control group.

RESULTS

The δ-ALA-D activity was significantly lower in pregnant women with GDM compared to controls, as well as levels of thiols, VIT C and CAT activity. Lipid peroxidation was higher in GDM group.

DISCUSSION

The results suggest that the main factor for the increase in oxidative stress and reduced δ-ALA-D activity in diabetic pregnant women is gestational hyperglycemic environment, which changed the redox balance and interfered on mechanism of the δ-ALA-D activity in relation to normoglycemic pregnant women.

Interaction of metals from group 10 (Ni, Pd, and Pt) and 11 (Cu, Ag, and Au) with human blood δ-ALA-D: in vitro and in silico studies

Mammalian δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) is a metalloenzyme, which requires Zn(II) and reduced thiol groups for catalytic activity, and is an important molecular target for the widespread environmental toxic metals. The δ-ALA-D inhibition mechanism by metals of Group 10 (Ni, Pd, and Pt) and 11 (Cu, Ag, and Au) of the periodic table has not yet been determined. The objective of this study was to characterize the molecular mechanism of δ-ALA-D inhibition caused by the elements of groups 10 and 11 using in vitro (δ-ALA-D activity from human erythrocytes) and in silico (docking simulations) methods. Our results showed that Ni(II) and Pd(II) caused a small inhibition (~ 10%) of the δ-ALA-D. Pt(II) and Pt(IV) significantly inhibited the enzyme (75% and 44%, respectively), but this inhibition was attenuated by Zn(II) and dithiothreitol (DTT). In group 11, all metals inhibited δ-ALA-D with great potency (~ 70-90%). In the presence of Zn(II) and DTT, the enzyme activity was restored to the control levels. The in silico molecular docking data suggest that the coordination of the ions Pt(II), Pt(IV), Cu(II), Ag(I), and Au(III) with thiolates groups from C135 and C143 residues from the δ-ALA-D active site are crucial to the enzyme inhibition. The results indicate that a possible mechanism of inhibition of δ-ALA-D by these metals may involve the replacement of the Zn(II) from the active site and/or the cysteinyl residue oxidation.

Lead modulated Heme synthesis inducing oxidative stress mediated Genotoxicity in Drosophila melanogaster

The mechanism of lead (Pb) modulated heme synthesis pathway induced oxidative stress mediated genotoxicity using standard (ST) and high bioactivation (HB) crosses of Drosophila melanogaster was addressed in the present study. Third instar larvae derived from the ST or HB crosses were reared in sub lethal concentrations of lead acetate (PbAc) treated food media and showed that Pb was readily taken up and accumulated in the said crosses. Pb modulated heme synthesis was evident by significant reductions of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and increased accumulation of δ-aminolevulinic acid (δ-ALA). The results have also demonstrated that Pb induced oxidative stress by overproducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) and depletion of the antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH) and glutathione-s-transferase (GST). Wing somatic mutation and recombination test (SMART) using ST and HB crosses revealed that Pb is mutagenic and weakly recombinogenic. By employing larval hemocytes, there was an increase in percent of tail DNA in alkaline comet compared to that of neutral comet revealing the DNA single strand breaks were the products of Pb modulated heme synthesis pathway induced oxidative free radicals. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that Pb modulated heme synthesis pathway induces oxidative stress that mediates the genotoxicity in D. melanogaster.

Diphenyl diselenide regulates Nrf2/Keap-1 signaling pathway and counteracts hepatic oxidative stress induced by bisphenol A in male mice

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical toxicant that has deleterious effects on human. BPA causes oxidative stress in tissues, including the liver. Diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)₂ improves the antioxidant response via activation of the nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2)/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein (keap 1) pathway in macrophage cells. In the present study, we investigated whether (PhSe)₂ counteracts hepatic oxidative stress induced by BPA in male and female Swiss mice. Three-week-old mice received by the intragastric (i.g.) route BPA (5 mg/kg) from 21st to 60th postnatal day (PND). At PND 61, the mice were treated with (PhSe)₂ (1 mg/kg, i.g.) for seven days. Parameters of hepatic damage and oxidative stress were determined in male and female mice. The results show that BPA increased the activity of aspartate aminotransferase in female mice, and in male mice the activity of alanine aminotranseferase was increased. Male and female mice had an increase in fat mass accumulation. Male mice showed an increase in hepatic oxidative damage of proteins and a decrease in non-enzymatic (ascorbic acid and non-protein thiol) and enzymatic (superoxide dismutase) defenses, which are consistent with oxidative stress status. Male mice were more susceptible than female mice to hepatic oxidative stress induced by BPA. BPA decreased Nrf2/Keap1 protein content in male mice. (PhSe)₂ reduced hepatic oxidative stress induced by BPA in male mice. Our results demonstrate that male mice were more susceptible to hepatic oxidative stress induced by BPA than female mice. (PhSe)₂ regulated Nrf2/Keap-1 signaling pathway and countered hepatic oxidative stress induced by BPA in male mice.

Copper attenuates early and late biochemical alterations induced by inorganic mercury in young rats

Mercury (Hg), a divalent metal, produces adverse effects predominantly in the renal and central nervous systems. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of copper (Cu) in prevention of mercuric mercury (Hg²⁺)-mediated toxic effects as well as the role metallothioneins (MT) play in this protective mechanism in young rats. Wistar rats were treated subcutaneously with saline (Sal) or CuCl₂.2H₂O (Cu 2.6 mg/kg/day) from 3 to 7 days old and with saline or HgCl₂ (Hg 3.7 mg/kg/day) from 8 to 12 days old. The experimental groups were (1) Sal-Sal, (2) Cu-Sal, (3) Sal-Hg, and (4) Cu-Hg. MTs and metal contents were determined at 13 and 33 days of age. Porphobilinogen synthase (PBG-synthase) activity as well as renal and hepatic parameters were measured at 33 days. At 13 day, Hg²⁺ exposure increased hepatic MT, Hg, zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) levels, in kidney elevated Cu and Hg and decreased renal Fe concentrations, accompanied by elevated blood Hg levels. At 33 days, Hg²⁺ exposure inhibited renal PBG-synthase activity, increased serum urea levels and lowered Fe and Mg levels. Copper partially prevented the rise in blood Hg and liver Fe noted at 13 days; and completely blocked urea rise and diminished renal PBG-synthase activity inhibition at 33 days. In 13-day-old rats, Cu exposure redistributed the Hg in the body, decreasing hepatic and blood levels while increasing renal levels, accompanied by elevated renal and hepatic MT levels in Hg²⁺-exposed animals. These results suggest that hepatic MT might bind to hepatic and blood Hg for transport to the kidney in order to be excreted.

ABBREVIATIONS

MT: metallothioneins; PBG-synthase: porphobilinogen synthase.

Neurodevelopmental Effects of Mercury

The toxicology of mercury (Hg) is of concern since this metal is ubiquitously distributed in the environment, and living organisms are routinely exposed to Hg at low to high levels. The toxic effects of Hg are well studied and it is known that they may differ depending on the Hg chemical species. In this chapter, we emphasize the neurotoxic effects of Hg during brain development. The immature brain is more susceptible to Hg exposure, since all the Hg chemical forms, not only the organic ones, can harm it. The possible consequences of Hg exposure during the early stages of development, the additive effects with other co-occurring neurotoxicants, and the known mechanisms of action and targets will be addressed in this chapter.

Organoselenium compounds as mimics of selenoproteins and thiol modifier agents

Selenium is an essential trace element for animals and its role in the chemistry of life relies on a unique functional group: the selenol (-SeH) group. The selenol group participates in critical redox reactions. The antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) exemplify important selenoproteins. The selenol group shares several chemical properties with the thiol group (-SH), but it is much more reactive than the sulfur analogue. The substitution of S by Se has been exploited in organic synthesis for a long time, but in the last 4 decades the re-discovery of ebselen (2-phenyl-1,2-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one) and the demonstration that it has antioxidant and therapeutic properties has renovated interest in the field. The ability of ebselen to mimic the reaction catalyzed by GPx has been viewed as the most important molecular mechanism of action of this class of compound. The term GPx-like or thiol peroxidase-like reaction was previously coined in the field and it is now accepted as the most important chemical attribute of organoselenium compounds. Here, we will critically review the literature on the capacity of organoselenium compounds to mimic selenoproteins (particularly GPx) and discuss some of the bottlenecks in the field. Although the GPx-like activity of organoselenium compounds contributes to their pharmacological effects, the superestimation of the GPx-like activity has to be questioned. The ability of these compounds to oxidize the thiol groups of proteins (the thiol modifier effects of organoselenium compounds) and to spare selenoproteins from inactivation by soft-electrophiles (MeHg⁺, Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺, etc.) might be more relevant for the explanation of their pharmacological effects than their GPx-like activity. In our view, the exploitation of the thiol modifier properties of organoselenium compounds can be harnessed more rationally than the use of low mass molecular structures to mimic the activity of high mass macromolecules that have been shaped by millions to billions of years of evolution.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling plays a role in resilience to stress promoted by isoquinoline in defeated mice

Certain stressful life events have been associated with the onset of depression. This study aims to investigate if 7-fluoro-1,3-diphenylisoquinoline-1-amine (FDPI) is effective against social avoidance induced by social defeat stress model in mice. Furthermore, it was investigated the effects of FDPI in the mouse prefrontal cortical plasticity-related proteins and some parameters of toxicity. Adult Swiss mice were subjected to social defeat stress for 10 days. Two protocols with FDPI were carried out: 1- FDPI (25 mg/kg, intragastric) was administered to mice 24 h after the last social defeat stress episode; 2- FDPI (1-25 mg/kg, intragastric) was administered to mice once a day for 10 days concomitant with the social defeat stress. The mice performed social avoidance and locomotor tests. The prefrontal cortical protein contents of kinase B (Akt), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (proBDNF), p75^NTR, neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) were determined in mice. A single administration of FDPI (25 mg/kg) partially protected against social avoidance induced by stress in mice. Repeated administration of FDPI (25 mg/kg) protected against social avoidance induced by stress in mice. Social defeat stress decreased the protein contents of p75^NTR, NeuN and the pERK/ERK ratio but increased those of proBDNF and the pCREB/CREB ratio, without changing that of NF-κB. Repeated administration of FDPI modulated signaling pathways altered by social defeat stress in mice. The present findings demonstrate that FDPI promoted resilience to stress in mice.

Induction of reactive oxygen species by diphenyl diselenide is preceded by changes in cell morphology and permeability in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Organoselenium compounds, such as diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)₂ and phenylselenium zinc chloride (PhSeZnCl), show protective activities related to their thiol peroxidase activity. However, depending on experimental conditions, organoselenium compounds can cause toxicity by oxidising thiol groups of proteins and induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we analysed the toxicity of (PhSe)₂ and PhSeZnCl in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cell growth of S. cerevisiae after 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 16 h of treatment with 2, 4, 6, and 10 μM of (PhSe)₂ was evaluated. For comparative purpose, PhSeZnCl was analysed only at 16 h of incubation at equivalent concentrations of selenium (i.e. 4, 8, 12, and 20 μM). ROS production (DCFH-DA), size, granularity, and cell membrane permeability (propidium iodide) were determined by flow cytometry. (PhSe)₂ inhibited cell growth at 2 h (10 μM) of incubation, followed by increase in cell size. The increase of cell membrane permeability and granularity (10 μM) was observed after 3 h of incubation, however, ROS production occurs only at 16 h of incubation (10 μM) with (PhSe)₂, indicating that ROS overproduction is a more likely consequence of (PhSe)₂ toxicity and not its determinant. All tested parameters showed that only concentration of 20 μM induced toxicity in samples incubated with PhSeZnCl. In summary, the results suggest that (PhSe)₂ toxicity in S. cerevisiae is time and concentration dependent, presenting more toxicity when compared with PhSeZnCl.

δ-Aminolevulinate Dehydratase Activity is Stimulated in a MPTP Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease: Correlation with Myeloperoxidase Activity

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is an inducible heme peroxidase responsive to some stress situations. It is already known that its activity is stimulated in neurodegenerative disorders and in the animal model of parkinson's disease (PD) induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). By contrast, the role of δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D), an essential enzyme for heme synthesis, has not been investigated in the MPTP model. The aim of this study was to investigate the involvement of striatal δ-ALA-D activity in an acute model of PD, induced by MPTP, in C57Bl/6 mice and its correlation with MPO activity. Animals received four MPTP injections (20 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline (vehicle) to induce a PD model. 7 days after MPTP administration, the motor function was evaluated through rotarod and challenging beam tests in mice. Afterward, mice were killed, and the striata were removed for biochemical analyses. MPTP-treated mice showed impairment in motor skills, such as balance and motor coordination. Furthermore, there was a reduction of tyrosine hydroxylase levels in these animals, which characterizes the dopaminergic lesion. Striatal δ-ALA-D activity was stimulated by MPTP, as well as the MPO activity, and a significant positive correlation between δ-ALA-D and MPO activities was also demonstrated. These data suggest that δ-ALA-D activity could be stimulated due to the requirement of heme groups by peroxidases. Therefore, this study demonstrated for the first time the involvement of striatal δ-ALA-D activity in the MPTP model and its correlation with the MPO activity.

p,p'-Methoxyl-diphenyl diselenide-loaded polymeric nanocapsules are chemically stable and do not induce toxicity in mice

Organoselenium compounds have been targeted to new therapeutic tools development due to their pharmacological actions. However, some toxicity issues and physicochemical limitations delay the clinical application of these compounds. The incorporation of organoselenium molecules into nanostructured systems arises as a promising alternative to overcome such restrictions. The current study proposed the characterization of the polymeric nanocapsules of p,p'-methoxyl-diphenyl diselenide [(OMePhSe)₂] as well as the evaluation of the in vivo toxicity and biodistribution profile. The nanocapsules, which were composed by medium-chain triglycerides as the oil core and poly(ε-caprolactone) as the polymeric wall, showed nanometric size (236±4), low polydispersity (<0.2), negative zeta potential (-5.4±0.06), neutral pH values (7.2±0.08) and a high encapsulation efficiency (98%). Besides, the nanoencapsulation process increased the (OMePhSe)₂ stability. The repeated intragastric administration of (OMePhSe)₂ nanoencapsulated (25mg/kg/day during 7days) did not cause any alteration in the oxidative status, hematological parameters, and plasma biochemical markers of cellular damage. Moreover, the (OMePhSe)₂ incorporation into nanocapsules increased the selenium concentrations in the tissues (kidneys, liver and plasma) suggesting an improvement in its oral bioavailability.

Blueberry (Vaccinium ashei Reade) extract ameliorates ovarian damage induced by subchronic cadmium exposure in mice: Potential δ-ALA-D involvement

Females are born with a finite number of oocyte-containing follicles and ovary damage results in reduced fertility. Cadmium accumulates in the reproductive system, damaging it, and the cigarette smoke is a potential exposure route. Natural therapies are relevant to health benefits and disease prevention. This study verified the effect of cadmium exposure on the ovaries of mice and the blueberry extract as a potential therapy. Blueberry therapy was effective in restoring reactive species levels and δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase activity, and partially improved the viability of cadmium-disrupted follicles. This therapy was not able to restore the 17 β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity. Extract HPLC evaluation indicated the presence of quercetin, quercitrin, isoquercetin, and ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid was the major substance and its concentration was 620.24 µg/mL. Thus, cadmium accumulates in the ovaries of mice after subchronic exposure, inducing cellular damage, and the blueberry extract possesses antioxidant properties that could protect, at least in part, the ovarian tissue from cadmium toxicity. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 188-196, 2017.