The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis

Physical exercise, social relationships, and bullying perpetration among school adolescents in China

Despite contradictory empirical evidence, some suggest that physical exercise is directly related to bullying perpetration. Moreover, the quality of social relationships between adolescents and their parents, peers, and teachers has been proposed as a crucial mediator in the relationship between physical exercise and bullying perpetration. However, few empirical studies have examined such hypotheses. This study used data obtained from the 2014-2015 China Education Panel Survey to examine the direct association between physical exercise and bullying behaviors, as well as the indirect pathways from physical exercise to bullying that are mediated by teenagers' social relationship quality. The results showed no significant direct relationship between physical exercise and bullying behaviors. However, physical exercise has indirect associations with bullying behaviors mediated through social relationship quality, with peer relationships having the strongest mediating effect. The findings indicate that social relationships could mediate the association between physical exercise and bullying behaviors. The study suggests that future prevention and intervention programs should promote adolescents' participation in physical exercise and their social interactions with parents, peers, and teachers to reduce bullying perpetration.

Physically active learning for children with learning disorders attending special-needs schools: A program evaluation

BACKGROUND

Physically active learning (PAL) is a potentially valuable method to stimulate academic performance and physical activity (PA) in children with learning disorders (LD) attending special-needs schools. It is yet unknown whether PAL can be successfully implemented in special-needs schools.

AIMS

This study aimed to evaluate a PAL-program in special-needs schools by examining teacher's dose delivered, children's dose received, and associations of children's characteristics with dose received.

METHODS

Children (N = 37) from two special-needs schools participated in a six-week PAL-program. Dose delivered was evaluated based on PAL-lessons' implementation rate and duration. Dose received was assessed through time-on-task observations (n = 23) and PA (n = 37). To assess the association between dose received and children's characteristics (sex, behavioral disorders, motor skills, and physical fitness), Mann-Whitney U tests and Spearman's rho correlations were used.

RESULTS

For teacher's dose delivered, the implementation rate exceeded 95%, and the PAL-lessons lasted the intended 12 minutes. For dose received, children's on-task behavior was above 79%, and children spent 43% of the time in moderate-to-vigorous PA during PAL. Motor skills were positively related to on-task behavior related to the movements, and physical fitness was positively related to moderate-to-vigorous PA.

CONCLUSIONS

PAL was successfully implemented in terms of dose delivered and dose received for children with LD attending special-needs schools.

Associations of neighborhood greenspace, and active living environments with autism spectrum disorders: A matched case-control study in Ontario, Canada

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence links early life residential exposure to natural urban environmental attributes and positive health outcomes in children. However, few studies have focused on their protective effects on the risk of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The aim of this study was to investigate the associations of neighborhood greenspace, and active living environments during pregnancy with ASD in young children (≤6 years).

METHODS

We conducted a population-based matched case-control study of singleton term births in Ontario, Canada for 2012-2016. The ASD and environmental data was generated using the Ontario Autism Spectrum Profile, the Better Outcomes Registry & Network Ontario, and Canadian Urban Environmental Health Research Consortium. We employed conditional logistic regressions to estimate the odds ratio (OR) between ASD and environmental factors characterizing selected greenspace metrics and neighborhoods conducive to active living (i.e., green view index (GVI), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), tree canopy, park proximity and active living environments index (ALE)).

RESULTS

We linked 8643 mother-child pairs, including 1554 cases (18%). NDVI (OR 1.034, 0.944-1.024, per Inter Quartile Range [IQR] = 0.08), GVI (OR 1.025, 95% CI 0.953-1.087, per IQR = 9.45%), tree canopy (OR 0.992, 95% CI 0.903-1.089, per IQR = 6.24%) and the different categories of ALE were not associated with ASD in adjusted models for air pollution. In contrast, living closer to a park was protective (OR 0.888, 0.833-0.948, per 0.06 increase in park proximity index), when adjusted for air pollution.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reported mixed findings showing both null and beneficial effects of green spaces and active living environments on ASD. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the role of exposure to greenspaces and active living environments on the development of ASD.

The Influence of Kindergarten Environment on the Development of Preschool Children's Physical Fitness

The aim of this research is to find out to what extent the special qualifications of physical education teachers and the physical environment of kindergartens influence the physical development of preschoolers. Forty-four kindergartens across Estonia participated in the study, half of which had a physical education teacher (PEt), whereas the remaining 22 kindergartens were taught by non-qualified kindergarten teachers (NoPEt). Six Eurofit fitness tests were used to assess the physical development of children (n = 704; aged 6-7 years old, with an average age of 6.55 ± 0.5 years). An analysis of variance was used to compare the mean values of the fitness test results of the two groups. Linear regression analysis was applied to clarify the influence of individual and environmental factors on children's fitness scores. In kindergartens where the position of a PEt had been created, the results of children's physical fitness were statistically significantly better, more specifically in handgrip strength (m = 12.0, 95% CI = 11.8-12.3 vs. m = 11.5, 95% CI = 11.2-11.7) and in speed tests (m = 23.0, 95% CI = 22.8-23.2 vs. m = 23.6, 95% CI = 23.3-23.8). According to the teacher interviews, these kindergartens also had more rooms and areas specially created for physical exercises. The study revealed that the physical development of children is, when controlling for other individual and environmental factors, influenced by the professional qualification of the PE teacher (95% CI = 0.06-0.56) as well as children's participation in sports training (95% CI = 0.29-0.83). These findings are important for preschool institutions and municipalities in designing the optimal physical environment for facilitating children's physical fitness.

Brief Report: A Specialized Fitness Program for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder Benefits Physical, Behavioral, and Emotional Outcomes

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) engage in less physical activity than typically-developing peers. This can result in serious negative consequences for individual well-being and may contribute to the physical, behavioral, and emotional challenges associated with ASD. This study explored the potential benefits of trainer-led, individualized, physical fitness sessions specialized for ASD. Eleven individuals (ages 7-24 years) with ASD were assessed at baseline and following 15 fitness sessions. Participants demonstrated improvements in core and lower-body strength and reductions in restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, along with non-significant but marked reductions in issues with daytime sleepiness. Results suggest the merit of specialized fitness programs and emphasize the need for larger and more rigorous research studies on this topic.

Is adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines associated with greater academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents? A systematic review and meta-analysis

The purpose of this systematic review was to synthesise the evidence for the association of adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines with academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents. This systematic review was based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, WOS, SPORTDiscus, and EMBASE were searched from their inception to 12 December 2023. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Checklist was used to assess the risk of bias of included studies. In total, 4326 records were identified through database searches; 10 articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in this systematic review. There were eight cross-sectional studies and two longitudinal studies; the main academic-related outcomes were academic achievement and cognitive function. A small association between adherence to all three recommendations and academic achievement (k = 5, r = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.10-0.24, I2 = 49%) was found compared to those who did not adhere to any recommendations.   Conclusion: Findings from this systematic review and meta-analysis reveal a small association between adherence to all three recommendations and greater academic achievement in children and adolescents. Nevertheless, it is imperative to underscore the need for more studies to establish robust evidence underpinning this relationship.   Trial registration: PROSPERO (CRD42021295403). What is Known: • Regular physical activity, reduced screen time, and optimal sleep duration are independently associated with improved academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents. • The associations between adherence to the 24-h movement guidelines and academic-related outcomes in children and adolescents have not been quantitatively synthesised. What is New: • There is a small but positive association between adherence to all three recommendations of the 24-h movement guidelines and greater academic achievement in children and adolescents. • Further well-designed research is needed to focus on academic achievement, cognitive function and classroom behaviours in young individuals.

Study protocol for the ACTIVE SCHOOL study investigating two different strategies of physical activity to improve academic performance in Schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Previous research has suggested that school-based physical activity (PA) interventions may have a positive impact on academic performance. However, existing literature on school-based interventions encompasses various forms of PA, spanning from vigorous intensity PA outside the academic classes to light intensity PA and movement integrated into academic learning tasks, and results on academic performance are inconclusive. ACTIVE SCHOOL will implement two different PA interventions for one school year and assess the effects on the pupils' academic performance, with math performance as the primary outcome.

METHODS/DESIGN

The ACTIVE SCHOOL project consists of two phases: 1) Development phase and 2) Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT). In phase one, two interventions were developed in collaboration with school staff. The two interventions were tested in an 8-weeks feasibility study. In phase two, a RCT-study with three arms will be conducted in 9-10-year-old children for one school year. The RCT-study will be carried out in two intervention rounds during the school years 2023/2024 and 2024/2025. Schools will be randomized to one of two interventions or control;1) Run, Jump & Fun intervention (4 × 30 min/week of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; 2) Move & Learn intervention (4 × 30 min/week focusing on embodied learning in math and Danish lessons); or 3) a control condition, consisting of normal teaching practices. Outcome measures include academic performance, PA level, cognitive functions, cardiorespiratory fitness, anthropometry, well-being and school motivation (collected before, during and after the intervention period). A process evaluation will be conducted to assess implementation.

DISCUSSION

The ACTIVE SCHOOL study will expand knowledge regarding the impact of PA on academic performance. The study will have the potential to significantly contribute to future research, as well as the scientific and educational debate on the best way to implement PA to support education and learning.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was registered on the 25th of October 2022 in ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05602948.

Associations between biological maturation, physical performance, postural control, and mathematical achievement in youth soccer players

This investigation explored relationships between biological maturation, physical and academic performance in young male soccer players. Thirty-eight players (age: 9.79 ± 1.21 years; body mass index (BMI): 20.4 ± 2.39 kg/m2; body fat: 16.8 ± 2.21%) participated. Measures of anthropometry used for body mass, body fat percentage (%BF), and BMI as well. Postural control, 15 m sprint, squat jumps and counter-movement jumps (SJ, CMJ), and T-half test for change-of-direction (CoD) were parameters of physical performance. The grade point average (GPA) of mathematics determined academic attainment. Moore's equations were used to estimate their maturity status (PHV). Biological maturation was highly correlated with most (not 15 m sprint) physical and academic performance parameters, especially CMJ (r = -0.812) and mathematics (r = -0.781). Academic performance showed the largest relations to the jumping performance (CMJ: r = 0.771; SJ: r = 0.723). In contrast, anthropometric and fatness parameters were not relevantly (r ≥ 0.5) correlated with any other parameters. The largest correlations were calculated for sitting height vs. SJ (r = -0.408), sitting height vs. postural control (r = -0.355), leg length vs. postural control (r = -0.339). As a result, it is essential to take biological maturation inconsideration while assessing the physical and academic achievement of young soccer players. In consequence, soccer coaches and physical education (PE) teachers should be cognizant of the impact of biological maturity on physical and academic performance to assist fair and equal opportunities for achievement in young players.

Association of aerobic fitness and grip strength with cognitive and academic performance in Arab children

This study investigated the association between aerobic and muscular fitness with the cognitive control and academic performance of preadolescent Arab children. Ninety-three children aged 10-13years (mean=11.5, SD=0.5) representing eight Arab nations (Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Yemen, and Morocco) participated in this cross-sectional study. The participants completed tests for aerobic (progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run) and muscular (maximum grip strength) fitness, and cognitive control (flanker task). We assessed their academic performance based on their overall grade point average (GPA). Our analyses revealed that greater aerobic fitness was associated with higher GPA scores and greater muscular fitness was associated with a shorter response time in a task condition requiring extensive cognitive control (incongruent condition). No association was found between aerobic fitness and flanker task performance nor between muscular fitness and GPA. These results bridge the knowledge gap on the associations of physical fitness to the cognitive control and academic performance of Arab children, suggesting that the positive associations found in Western and Asian literature can be generalized to the Arab context.

Relationships between Math Skills, Motor Skills, Physical Activity, and Obesity in Typically Developing Preschool Children

There is evidence of a relationship between motor and cognitive development. The literature has shown that of all the motor skills, fine motor skills are those that contribute most to mathematical performance in preschool children. As this is a sensitive period in the development of motor skills, low levels of physical activity in this period can compromise their development and contribute to weight gain and obesity. The aim of this study was therefore to analyze the relationship between mathematical and motor skills, physical activity levels, and obesity. The sample consisted of 62 preschool children (32 males) with an average age of 4.63 ± 0.81. The Weschler preschool and primary scale of intelligence-revised arithmetic test was used to assess mathematical skills. The tests to assess fine motor skills were the "Adapted Threading Beads Test" and the "Adapted Visuomotor Integration Test". The movement assessment battery for children-2, band 1, "Aiming & Catching", and "Balance" tests were used to assess gross motor skills. Levels of physical activity were assessed using the "Preschool-age physical activity questionnaire" and obesity using the body mass index. The results indicated that only the fine motor skills of visuomotor integration were included in the multiple linear regression model (F < 0.001; r = 0.464; R2 = 0.215; p < 0.001), with the exclusion of gross motor skills, physical activity levels, and obesity levels. Thus, it was concluded that mathematical skills were only directly and significantly influenced by visuomotor integration. However, visuomotor integration was positively and significantly associated with gross motor skills (r = 0.269; p < 0.05) and not with levels of physical activity and obesity. Thus, gross motor skills could contribute to improving visuomotor integration directly and consequently mathematical skills indirectly. The results of this study suggest that the implementation of structured physical activity programs can contribute to mathematical performance.

Systems-Level Evaluation of Safe Routes to School Policies in El Paso, Texas: A Modeling Study on Health and Economic Outcomes

Safe Routes to School (SRTS) policies are linked to physical health benefits for school-age children; however, few studies have assessed long-term impacts on cardiovascular disease (CVD). This study used systems science methods to predict long-term health and economic impact of SRTS among school-age children in El Paso County, Texas. We developed an agent-based model containing 2 modules: the pedestrian injury module and the CVD module. We simulated 10 000 school-age children under 2 scenarios-SRTS policies implemented and no SRTS policies implemented-and then calculated pedestrian injuries, pedestrian injury-related deaths, coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke events, and health care costs. When SRTS policies were implemented, the model estimated 157 fewer CHD cases and 217 fewer stroke cases per 10 000 people and reduced CVD-related health care costs ($13 788 per person). The model also predicted 129 fewer pedestrian injuries and 1.3 injury-related deaths per 10 000 people and $2417 savings in injury-related health care costs. SRTS could save an estimated $16 205 per person in health care costs. This simulation shows SRTS in El Paso County could prevent pedestrian injuries among school-age children and protect cardiovascular health in the long term. Our findings provide evidence for practitioners and policy makers to advocate for SRTS policies at the local level.

Biological, behavioral, and social correlates of executive function in low-income preschoolers: Insights from the perspective of the networks

Behavioral, biological, and social correlates may be related to the association between executive function (EF) and physical activity (PA), when considering such variables as an integrated and non-linear system. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between EF, PA and associated correlates in low-income preschoolers according to a network perspective. Thus, 142 preschoolers of both sexes, age 3-to-5-years-old (51% girls) were analyzed. Light, moderate and vigorous PA, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), body mass index, family income, preterm birth, presence of siblings, presence of other children at home and the child's primary caregiver were assessed. Our results showed that EF was positively associated with age (b = 0.47), child's primary caregivers (b = 0.37), moderate PA (b = 0.30) and CRF (b = 0.25). Negative associations were seen with preterm birth (b = -0.50), vigorous PA (b = -0.34), presence of other children at home (b = -0.25), and sex (b = -0.33). The network's centrality indicators highlighted preterm birth and moderate PA as the most important variables in the network. Future interventions aiming to increase low-income preschoolers' EF should focus on increasing moderate PA, with special attention to preterm children.

Observed and perceived benefits of providing physical activity opportunities in elementary schools: a qualitative study

Introduction

Schools play an important role in promoting physical activity for youth. However, school-based physical activity opportunities often compete with other academic priorities, limiting their implementation. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore elementary school teacher and staff perspectives on providing physical activity opportunities and how they impact students and learning.

Methods

We partnered with a school district in Texas to conduct semi-structured individual interviews. We used a purposeful sampling approach to recruit elementary teachers and staff knowledgeable about the physical activity opportunities provided at their school. Interviews included questions about participant opinions of providing physical activity opportunities and the types of opportunities provided. We analyzed data using a directed content analysis and iterative categorization approach.

Results

Fifteen participants (4 teachers, 4 physical education teachers, 3 assistant principals, and 4 principals) completed interviews from 10 elementary schools. Participants discussed observed and perceived benefits when providing physical activity opportunities, which emerged into four themes and subthemes: (1) academic benefits (learning readiness, learning engagement, and academic performance); (2) social-emotional benefits (behavior, interpersonal and social skills, and classroom culture); (3) physical benefits (brain health, skill development, physical health); and (4) instructional benefits (quality teaching time, helpful teaching tools, and teacher-student relationships).

Conclusions

Teachers and staff observed numerous benefits when students had opportunities to be physically active, including the positive impact on academic and social-emotional outcomes. Our findings highlight the alignment of physical activity with other school priorities. Physical activity programming can be used in ways to support academics, learning, behavior, and other important outcomes.

Youth sport participation, injury history, and current physical activity among young adults

Objective: To examine the interaction between high school (HS) sports participation and injury history with current moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among young adults. Participants: Participants (N = 236) were 18-25 years old, not currently injured, and reported no physical activity limitations. Methods: Participants completed online demographic, injury history, and physical activity surveys. A two-way analysis of covariance was used to test the interaction between HS athlete status and previous injury severity on current self-reported MVPA. Results: Participants were 22.2 ± 2.1 years, primarily White (81.8%) or Asian (6.4%), and female (77.5%). After including body mass index and race as covariates, there was a statistically significant interaction between HS athlete status and previous injury history such that current MVPA was higher among former HS athletes compared to HS recreational/nonathletes when individuals reported no injuries or mild injury severity. MVPA was similar across athlete status groups when participants reported high levels of injury severity. Conclusions: Future studies should examine whether young adults who have experienced multiple and/or severe injuries as competitive HS athletes have unique physical activity barriers.

Physical Activity Interventions for Improving Cognitive Functions in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Protocol for a Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

BACKGROUND

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects millions of children worldwide, with a current prevalence of approximately 1 in 54 children in the United States. Although the precise mechanisms underlying ASD remain unclear, research has shown that early intervention can have a significant impact on cognitive development and outcomes in children with ASD. Physical activity interventions have emerged as a promising intervention for children with ASD, but the efficacy of different types of interventions remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study protocol aims to update the knowledge on extant literature and explore the efficacy of physical activity intervention strategies on cognitive functions in children with ASD.

METHODS

A systematic review and network meta-analysis (NMA) will be conducted following the PRISMA-NMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols for Network Meta-Analyses) statement. A total of 9 bibliographic databases (APA PsycInfo, CENTRAL, Dimensions, ERIC, MEDLINE Complete, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) will be systematically searched to screen eligible articles based on a series of inclusion and exclusion criteria. A study will be considered for inclusion if it is not classified as a systematic review with or without meta-analysis, was published from inception to present, includes children aged 0 to 12 years with ASD, quantitively measures cognitive outcomes, and examines treatment comprising at least 1 physical activity intervention strategy. The internal validity and quality of evidence will be evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation framework. Statistical analyses will be performed in the RStudio software (version 3.6; RStudio Inc) with the BUGSnet package and the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (version 3.3; Biostat Inc). The results of our NMA will be illustrated through network diagrams accompanied by geometry and league tables. Further, to rank the interventions based on their efficacy, we will use the surface under the cumulative ranking curve.

RESULTS

Our preliminary search identified 3778 potentially relevant studies. The screening of the studies based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria is ongoing, and we anticipate that the final number of eligible studies will be in the range of 30 to 50.

CONCLUSIONS

This study will provide a comprehensive review of the literature on physical activity interventions for children with ASD and will use NMA to compare the efficacy of different types of interventions on cognitive outcomes. Our findings will have important implications for clinical practice and future research in this area and will contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of physical activity interventions as a key component of early intervention for children with ASD.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42021279054; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=279054.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/40383.

Effects of a daily physical activity intervention on the health-related fitness status of primary school children: A cluster randomized controlled trial

An important barrier for a nationwide implementation of a daily physical activity (PA) at primary schools is the lack of spatial and human resources. Therefore, we developed a PA intervention that can be implemented without additional spatial resources or changes in school curricula. In the intervention group, children received a daily PA unit consisting of physical education lessons and simultaneous academic content over a 9-month period. The control group received conventional (physical education) classes. Body weight, height, waist circumference and health-related fitness parameters were measured. Of 412 children (9.7 ± 0.5 years) included, 228 participated in the intervention group. In regression analysis adjusted for baseline, gender, school location, sports club membership (total only) with standardized outcome variables, the intervention group showed a reduction in waist-to-height ratio (B = 0.30, p < 0.001) and an increase in several fitness parameters (cardiorespiratory endurance: B = 0.20, p = 0.037; lower body muscle strength: B = 0.11, p = 0.041; lower body muscle endurance: B = 0.12, p = 0.027; flexibility: B = 0.19, p = 0.019) compared to the control group. Intervention effects for cardiorespiratory endurance and flexibility were more pronounced in the group of children without sports club membership. Thus, especially children with no sport club membership seem to benefit from daily PA in school (Trial registration: DRKS00025515).

Impact of COVID-19 on Physical Activity in Families Managing ADHD and the Cyclical Effect on Worsening Mental Health

Physical activity supports symptom management in children with ADHD and reduces the mental health burden associated with caregiving for children with ADHD. Survey-based research shows that COVID-19 reduced physical activity among diverse populations. This study used a qualitative approach situated within a socioecological framework to (1) understand how COVID-19 impacted physical activity of children with ADHD and their caregivers, to (2) identify barriers to their physical activity, and to (3) identify potential areas of support. Thirty-three participants were interviewed between October 2020 and January 2021. Content analysis revealed that physical activity declined for children and caregivers; significant barriers were social isolation and rising intrapersonal difficulties such as diminishing self-efficacy and energy levels and increased mental health difficulties. Worsening mental health further alienated caregivers and children from physical activity, undermining its protective effects on ADHD symptom management and mental wellbeing. Participants identified needing community support programs that offer virtual, live physical activity classes as well as psycho-emotional support groups. There is vital need to support physical activity opportunities during high-stress situations in families managing ADHD to buffer against diminishing mental wellbeing. This will promote further physical activity engagement and allow families to reap the cognitive, psychological, and emotional benefits.

Gardening in Childcare Centers: A Randomized Controlled Trial Examining the Effects of a Garden Intervention on Physical Activity among Children Aged 3-5 Years in North Carolina

This study examined the effects of a childcare gardening intervention on children's physical activity (PA). Eligible childcare centers were randomly assigned to: (1) garden intervention (n = 5; year 1); (2) waitlist control (n = 5; control year 1, intervention year 2); or (3) control (n = 5; year 2 only) groups. Across the two-year study, PA was measured for 3 days at four data collection periods using Actigraph GT3X+ accelerometers. The intervention comprised 6 raised fruit and vegetable garden beds and a gardening guide with age-appropriate learning activities. The sample included a total of 321 3-5-year-olds enrolled in childcare centers in Wake County, North Carolina, with n = 293 possessing PA data for at least one time point. The analyses employed repeated measures linear mixed models (SAS v 9.4 PROC MIXED), accounting for clustering of the children within the center and relevant covariates (e.g., cohort, weather, outside days, accelerometer wear). A significant intervention effect was found for MVPA (p < 0.0001) and SED minutes (p = 0.0004), with children at intervention centers acquiring approximately 6 min more MVPA and 14 min less sedentary time each day. The effects were moderated by sex and age, with a stronger impact for boys and the youngest children. The results suggest that childcare gardening has potential as a PA intervention.

Physical Education for Health Among School-Aged Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review of Reviews

BACKGROUND

Physical education (PE) classes in schools are considered relevant to implement interventions, especially focused on physical activity. However, evidence overviews on how PE classes contribute to general health (physical, social, affective, and cognitive domains) are still needed. Thus, we summarized evidence synthesis (eg, systematic reviews) that addressed the contribution of PE classes to the health of school-aged children and adolescents.

METHODS

We performed a scoping review with searches in 8 databases and institutional websites to find systematic reviews or meta-analyses that answered this review's research question. Data charting form included the identification of the study, health outcomes, and PE classes' strategies (policies and environment, curriculum, appropriate instructions, and evaluation). An interactive process was performed to build the evidence summary.

RESULTS

An initial search yielded 2264 titles, and 49 systematic reviews (including 11 with meta-analysis) were included in this review. Most documents reported the main benefits of PE classes on physical domain outcomes (eg, physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, body mass index, and fundamental motor skills). However, evidence on the benefits of PE classes in affective (eg, enjoyment, motivation, and autonomy); social (eg, cooperation, problem-solving, and making friends); and cognitive (eg, memory, attention, concentration, and decision making) domains were found. Strategies on PE classes for health benefits were highlighted.

CONCLUSIONS

These elements were detailed in the evidence summary, which may be considered to guide researchers, teachers, and practitioners to define research and practice priorities on PE class interventions for health in the school context.

Influence of Parental Perception of Child's Physical Fitness on Body Image Satisfaction in Spanish Preschool Children

It is well known that poor physical fitness is an exponential risk factor in the increase in chronic diseases, not only physical but also psychological. Even in childhood, a critical period of development, the perception of physical fitness plays a fundamental role in the individual's self-concept of body image.

AIM

To find out how self-perceived physical fitness influences self-perceived body image in preschoolers.

METHODS

475 preschool pupils were recruited in the schools of Extremadura (Spain). They were administered a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Preschool Physical Fitness Index (IFIS) and the Preschool Body Scale (PBS).

FINDINGS

Significant correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between body dissatisfaction and perceived physical fitness (IFIS), being higher in girls. In terms of variables, general fitness (<0.001), cardio-respiratory fitness (<0.001), muscular strength (<0.001), speed/agility (<0.001) and balance (<0.001) have a negative, medium and significant association with body dissatisfaction in girls; however, this association was lower in the case of boys.

CONCLUSIONS

The influence of physical fitness had a clear impact on self-perceived body image. With better findings on self-perceived physical fitness variables (IFIS) there was less body dissatisfaction (PBS), especially in the female sex. The results also showed that parents who perceived their children to be in poorer physical condition had higher body dissatisfaction. Therefore, it would be interesting for the context involved, particularly parents, to implement strategies to improve positive body image through the promotion of physical education and physical fitness at an early age.

Physical activity predicts task-related behaviour, affect and tiredness in the primary school classroom: A within-person experiment

AIM

We investigated the dose-response relationship between acute physical activity (PA) intensity during physical education (PE) lessons (dose), and task behaviour and learning experiences in the classroom after PE (response), and mediation effects of acute PA on-task behaviour via learning experiences.

METHOD

A total of 78 children (Mage  = 9.30 years; 43 females) took part. Participants reported learning experiences (tiredness, positive and negative affect) during one afternoon per week for 6 weeks. Their task behaviour was observed (on-task, active off-task and passive off-task) during two classroom lessons. Between the classroom lessons, they took part in a PE lesson, with experimentally induced PA intensity (low, medium and high). Accelerometers were worn for 24 h leading up to and during every intervention afternoon. Participants completed self-reports three times per classroom lesson, both before and after PE. Intra- and interindividual differences in PA, task behaviour and learning experiences were analysed with multilevel structural equation models.

RESULTS

Moderate PA directly increased on-task behaviour and reduced passive off-task behaviour, whereas light PA increased active off-task behaviour and reduced on-task behaviour. We found no direct effects of vigorous PA or mediated effects of any PA intensity on-task-related behaviour. However, a greater positive affect during PE indirectly led to more on-task and less passive off-task behaviour. Regularly active children reported less tiredness in the classroom.

CONCLUSION

PE lessons can increase on-task behaviour and reduce both passive and active off-task behaviours. Positive affect and tiredness are indirectly involved in the impact of PA on task-related behaviour. The greatest benefits were found for moderate PA and for PE lessons, which left children feeling positive. Moreover, regular participation in moderate-to-vigorous PA leads children to feel less tired during school lessons.

Differences in body composition, static balance, field test performance, and academic achievement in 10–12-year-old soccer players

Introduction: This study aimed to compare 10–12-year-old Qatari male soccer players (n = 45) regarding different dimensions (anthropometric, academic and physical performance).

Methods: Anthropometric parameters (body mass, fat percentage (%BF), body mass index (BMI)) academic achievement (mathematics and science grade point average [GPA]) and physical performance [Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test (level 1), squat jumps (SJ), counter-movement jumps (CMJ), stork balance test, 10 and 15 m sprint tests, T-half test for change-of-direction (CoD) ability, hand-grip strength, medicine ball throw (MBT)] were measured. Schoolchild soccer players were divided into three groups: 12-year-old players (U12; n = 16), 11-year-old players (U11; n = 14), 10-year-old players (U10; n = 15).

Results: Apart from mathematics, Yo-Yo IR1 and 10 m sprint, all performance parameters showed significant age effects. The largest age-related difference was observed for 15 m sprint (p &lt; 0.001). Both adjacent age groups displayed significant differences for 15 sprint (U10 vs. U11: p = 0.015; U11 vs. U12: p = 0.023). Concerning academic performance, a significant age effect was found for science (p &lt; 0.001). There was a main age effect on academic performance difference between U10 and U11 (p = 0.007). Academic parameters did not correlate with any physical performance parameter or anthropometric parameter. The strongest correlations were detected for body height and agility T-half test (r = −0.686) and medicine ball throw (r = 0.637). The biological maturity was strongly correlated with handgrip strength (r = −0.635).

Discussion: Soccer coaches and physical education teachers can use these data as reference values for evaluation of school-aged soccer players, and for ascertaining specific training targets. Obviously, short sprinting ability and aerobic capacity are not functions of age and need a specific training for significant improvements.

Analysis of Self-Perceived Physical Fitness of Physical Education Students in Public Schools in Extremadura (Spain)

Adolescence is a stage of crucial physiological and psychological changes within the individual's life cycle, where fitness work is important. With self-perception being crucial in relation to adolescent health and well-being, a positive perception of fitness is directly related to increased practice or higher level of physical activity (PA). Thus, the aims were: (1) to analyze, with the Visual Analogue Fitness Perception Scale for Adolescents (FP VAS A), the self-perceived physical fitness (PF) of high school students, (2) to investigate if there are differences according to sex and school location, and (3) to study the correlations between the items of the FP VAS A with age and body mass index (BMI). For this purpose, a cross-sectional study was designed with a total of 961 participants, 48.8% boys and 51.2% girls in secondary education, where 31.9% studied in rural schools and 68.1% in urban schools. The FP VAS A scale was used to assess self-reported PF. Regarding the results, there were statistically significant differences between sexes (p < 0.001), with boys showing higher scores than girls in all the items of the FP VAS A scale, with the exception of global flexibility. Inverse, mean and significant correlations were established between BMI and self-perceived overall PF (r = -0.202; p < 0.001), cardiorespiratory endurance (r = -0.226; p < 0.001) and movement speed (r = -0.268; p < 0.001). Between age and self-perceived cardiorespiratory endurance (r = -0.138; p < 0.001) an inverse, mean and significant correlation was also observed. In conclusion, boys showed a better self-perception of PF than girls for all physical abilities, with the exception of flexibility. School location was not shown to influence students' self-perceived PF. In addition, most of the self-perceived PF abilities for overall fitness correlated inversely with BMI.

Sports Participation and Academic Performance in Primary School: A Cross-Sectional Study in Chinese Children

Previous studies have demonstrated that the effect of sports participation on student health and academic performance is significant. However, the relationship between sports participation and academic performance in specific subjects (e.g., English) in the Chinese population is not clear, especially in primary schools. Therefore, the present cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the relationship between sports participation and academic performance in Chinese elementary schools.

METHODS

All study participants were asked to self-report their sociodemographic factors (e.g., sex, grade, age), independence, and outcomes. Alongside that, a self-reported questionnaire was used to assess participation in sports and academic performance of three core subjects in China's schooling system (Chinese; math; English; from A to F, with A indicating the best academic performance). An ordered logistic regression, with an odds ratio (OR) at 95%CI confidence interval, was performed to examine the association between sports team participation and academic performance.

RESULTS

The final analysis included 27,954 children aged 10-14. Children in the fifth and sixth grades accounted for 50.2% and 49.8%. Chinese, math, and English academic performance were positively correlated with participation in sports. Compared with students who never participate in sports, those students who participate in sports 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, and 3 or more times a week, were more likely to achieve better grades. In terms of math, compared with students who never participate in sports, those students who participate in sports 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, and 3 or more times a week, were more likely to achieve better grades. Regarding English, compared with students who never participate in sports, those students who participate in sports 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, and 3 or more times a week, were more likely to achieve better grades.

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with previous studies, the current study confirms the positive effect of sports participation on children's academic performance. For an academic-related outreach, gender-, grade- and area-specific strategies should be considered in future research.

Physical activity reduces internet addiction among "post-00" college students: The mediating role of coping styles

Objective

To explore the role of coping styles (CS) in mediating the relationship between physical activity (PA) and internet addiction (IA), and to provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of IA among Chinese "post-00" college students.

Methods

A total of 410 university students from five universities in Anhui Province were surveyed using the Chinese Internet addiction scale, the Coping Styles Scale for Chinese University Students, and the International Physical Activity Scale Short Form.

Results

(1) Boys are better than girls in PA. However, there was no significant difference between male and female students on CS and IA. (2) PA was positively correlated with CS (r = 0.278, p < 0.01), PA was negatively correlated with IA (r = -0.236, p < 0.01), CS was negatively correlated with IA (r = -0.560, p < 0.01). (3) PA was negatively predicted IA (B = -0.198, p < 0.01), PA was positively predicted CS (B = 0.986, p < 0.01), CS was negatively predicted IA (B = -0.065, p < 0.01). (4) CS plays a partially mediating role between PA and IA, with a mediating effect proportion of 48.33%.

Conclusion

PA can improve IA not only directly for university students, but also indirectly by increasing CS. The intervention for IA of "post-00" college students can start by increasing PA and improving CS.

Exploring Extreme Weather and Recess Policies, Practices, and Procedures in the Canadian Context

The purpose of this study was to explore the different policies, practices, and procedures that are used on weather and recess in the Canadian context. Fifty school websites were examined, and ten key informants were interviewed. Policies, practices, and procedures from school websites were downloaded, and interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using a qualitative content analysis. Fourteen schools had an outwardly facing policy, practice, or procedure for weather and recess. Cold temperatures were the most often cited reason for modifying recess to be indoors, with temperatures ranging from -20 to -40 for complete indoor recess. Precipitation was only found in four online documents but was mentioned as a reason to modify recess by all key informants. Additionally, key informants discussed variability in how recess policies, practices, and procedures were followed. The findings of this study illustrate inconsistencies in both formal and informal school weather and recess policies. With outdoor recess providing numerous opportunities to improve various domains of well-being, it is pertinent to understand the conditions on which it is being modified.

Motor skills and cognitive benefits in children and adolescents: Relationship, mechanism and perspectives

OBJECTIVE

There is a strong interaction between motor skills and cognitive benefits for children and young people. The aim of this paper is to explore the relationship between motor skill types and their development and the cognitive benefits of children and adolescents. In turn, on this basis, it proposes pathways and mechanisms by which motor skills improve cognition, and provide a basis for subsequent teaching of skills that follow the laws of brain cognitive development.

METHODS

This paper summarizes the research on the relationship between different types of motor skills and their development and cognitive benefits of children and adolescents. Based on these relationships, pathways, and mechanisms for motor skills to improve cognition are tentatively proposed.

RESULTS

There is an overall pattern of "open > closed, strategy > interception, sequence > continuous" between motor skill types and the cognitive benefits of children and adolescents. Long-term motor skill learning practice is accompanied by increased cognitive benefits as skill proficiency increases. The dynamic interaction between motor skills and physical activity exposes children and adolescents to environmental stimuli and interpersonal interactions of varying complexity, promoting the development of agility, coordination and cardiorespiratory fitness, enhancing their motor experience, which in turn improves brain structure and functional activity.

CONCLUSION

Motor skills training promote cognitive efficiency in children and adolescents. Motor skill interventions that are open-ended, strategic and sequential in nature are more effective. Environmental stimuli, interpersonal interaction, agility, coordination, and cardiorespiratory fitness can be considered as skill attribute moderators of motor skills to improve cognition.

Relations between physical activity and hippocampal functional connectivity: Modulating role of mind wandering

Physical activity is critical for maintaining cognitive and brain health. Previous studies have indicated that the effect of physical activity on cognitive and brain function varies between individuals. The present study aimed to examine whether mind wandering modulated the relations between physical activity and resting-state hippocampal functional connectivity. A total of 99 healthy adults participated in neuroimaging data collection as well as reported their physical activity in the past week and their propensity to mind wandering during typical activities. The results indicated that mind wandering was negatively related to the resting-state functional connectivity between hippocampus and right inferior occipital gyrus. Additionally, for participants with higher level of mind wandering, physical activity was negatively related to hippocampal connectivity at left precuneus and right precentral gyrus. In contrast, such relations were positive at right medial frontal gyrus and bilateral precentral gyrus for participants with lower level of mind wandering. Altogether, these findings indicated that the relations between physical activity and hippocampal functional connectivity vary as a function of mind wandering level, suggesting that individual differences are important to consider when we aim to maintain or improve cognitive and brain health through increasing physical activity.

How Elementary In-School Play Opportunities Relate to Academic Achievement and Social-Emotional Well-Being: Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Play is essential for child growth and development, and may have academic and social-emotional implications. To understand the relationship between in-school play opportunities and academic achievement (AA) and social-emotional well-being among elementary school students, a systematic review of the current in-school play literature was conducted.

METHODS

Keywords were input across 7 search engines. After screening, 20 peer-reviewed publications related to play, AA, and social-emotional well-being met the inclusion criteria for this review.

FINDINGS

Across the included publications, recess was the only in-school play opportunity assessed. Overall, student behavior and social-emotional outcomes benefited from more recess while mixed results were found between recess participation and academic outcomes. However, more recess was not detrimental to AA.

CONCLUSION

The findings from this review support the need for recess as part of a whole child approach to education that may mitigate the negative outcomes of sitting through long periods of instruction. More research is needed on the AA and social-emotional effects of other types of in-school play opportunities (ie, centers, play stations, and other breaks). Findings from this review indicate that recess is a necessary part of the elementary school day.

Physical Activity at School Recess: A Key Element in Balancing Social Disparities

BACKGROUND

Since children are generally not achieving desirable levels of physical activity (PA), schools can provide an opportunity to increase their active time. This study aimed to describe individual- and social-level variables associated with PA at school recess in a culturally diverse primary school.

METHODS

This observational cross-sectional study included 131 children attending primary school. PA data were measured via accelerometry during school recess and analyzed in relation to data on sociodemographics, anthropometrics, and PA outside school. Data were analyzed using generalized linear modeling and logistic regression.

FINDINGS

Girls were more sedentary and engaged in less moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) than boys (p < .001), while older girls were less active than younger girls (p < .001). Also, non-Caucasian children were less sedentary (p < .001) and engaged in more MVPA (p = .007). Belonging to ethnic minorities was also associated with lower socioeconomic status, higher body mass index, and less PA outside of school and on weekends.

CONCLUSIONS

Girls (especially older girls) and children from lower socioeconomic contexts should be prioritized when promoting PA.

IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY

School recess can be used as an effective strategy aimed at increasing PA and reducing social inequalities.

Examining Pride Cups as a health promotion resource to address homophobia in Australian men's sport

Effective interventions are needed to stop homophobic behaviours in sport settings as these behaviours are associated with negative health and social outcomes for individuals who identify as Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer or other diverse genders and sexualities. This paper reports the results of a quasi-experimental study commissioned by a public health agency to explore the benefits of a novel intervention that has been widely adopted by Australian community sport clubs. The 'Pride Cup' intervention includes education for club leaders, sport participants and the hosting of a rainbow-themed 'pride game'. Survey responses of male participants from six randomly selected sport clubs which had received the intervention (n = 148) were compared to responses (n = 137) from six randomly selected comparison clubs (Australian Football, cricket, field hockey, roller derby). Employing a post-test-only design, the study explored differences in homophobic attitudes, behaviours and individual efficacy to react negatively to homophobic behaviours. The study found significant differences (p < 0.001) in self-reported use of homophobic slurs (e.g. fag) in the last 2 weeks by participants in the treatment (11%) versus comparison (31.8%) clubs, and significant differences in the perceived use of these slurs by teammates (25.9% vs. 56.6%) or coaches (7.8% vs. 23.3%). There were also significant differences in efficacy scores, but no differences in homophobic attitudes. These results, combined with evidence of community-driven adoption, support the allocation of public health resources to conduct larger scale trials using pre/post designs to confirm these findings.

The Effect of Leisure Time Sport on Executive Functions in Danish 1st Grade Children

Physical inactivity can influence children’s executive functions with severe impact on wellbeing and academic learning. The objective is to study the effect of leisure time sport on executive functions in Danish 1st grade children, and secondary to explore if socio-economy is a confounder for associations between leisure time sport and executive functions. This study is a sub-study nested within a cluster-randomized controlled trial with two arms (ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02488460). 505 children from twelve schools, mean age 7.2 ± 0.3 years participated. Outcomes for executive function were “Modified Eriksen Flanker/Reverse Flanker Task” and “Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function” (BRIEF-P). Parents used SMS-tracking to register their children’s leisure time sport. Multivariate analyzes was performed using mixed linear regression, with adjustment for highest parental education, sex, municipality, and school-type. We found that leisure time sport seems to significantly improve working memory (WM) with nearly 20%, and furthermore it seems to be a significant predictor of ‘Initiate’ (the ability to begin an activity, to generate ideas, responses or problem-solving strategies). Socio-economy was not found to be a confounder. This study lends support to the hypothesis that leisure time sport is related to working memory capacity in children.

Higher Running Speed and Cardiovascular Endurance Are Associated with Greater Level of Academic Achievement in Urban Catalan Primary School Children

The purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in a sample of primary-school children. Data of 116 sixth-grade primary-school students (68 girls, 48 boys) from Barcelona (Catalonia, Spain) with a mean (SD) age of 11.4 years (0.4) was analyzed. To determine academic achievement, proficiency scores in the subjects Catalan language, Spanish language, English language, and Maths were derived from the Test de Compètencies Bàsiques. Physical fitness was assessed using the Cooper test (aerobic capacity), 20-m sprint test (linear velocity), and 4 × 10-m test (agility). The results showed that participants with a higher performance in the Cooper and 20-m sprint tests had significantly better academic achievement in the assessed subjects (p < 0.05; d range = 0.93 to −2.98). The findings of this investigation are interesting from a curricular perspective since a positive association between academic achievement and physical fitness indicates a strong reason to raise the physical education status in educational systems, a subject that has traditionally been considered less important by the educational community.

Does a Physical Activity Intervention on Classroom-Based Ergometers During Teaching Lessons Effect Physical Fitness, Body Composition, and Health-Related Blood Parameters? A Pilot Cluster Randomized Controlled Study

BACKGROUND

Time constraints comprise one limiting factor for implementing school-based physical activity programs. The aim of this pilot cluster randomized controlled study was to explore the effects of a cycle ergometer intervention during regular lessons on physical fitness, body composition, and health-related blood parameters.

METHODS

Participants attended one of 2 classes selected from one school, which were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 23, 11.2 [0.5] y) consisting of cycling on classroom-based ergometers during 3 lessons per week at a self-selected intensity and a control group (n = 21, 11.3 [0.5] y) not receiving any treatment. Prior to and after the 5-month intervention period, physical fitness (with ventilatory threshold as primary outcome), body composition, and parameters of glucose and lipid metabolism were assessed.

RESULTS

A significant time × group interaction was revealed for ventilatory threshold (P = .035), respiratory compensation point (P = .038), gross efficiency (P < .001), maximal aerobic power (P = .024), triglycerides (P = .041), and blood glucose levels (P = .041) with benefits for the intervention group. Peak oxygen uptake and body composition were not affected.

CONCLUSIONS

Children's aerobic capacity benefited from the low-intensity school-based cycling intervention, while body composition and most blood parameters were not affected. The intervention using cycle ergometers is a feasible and time-saving strategy to elevate submaximal physical fitness.

Physical activity and quality of life among college students without comorbidities for cardiometabolic diseases: systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To systematically review studies on the relationship between physical activity (PA) and quality of life (QOL) in university students without comorbidities for cardiometabolic diseases from around the world.

METHODS

We included observational studies with university students of both sexes, from public or private institutions, and that investigated the association or correlation between physical activity and quality of life among these students, without delimitation of date, language, or location. Reviews, letters to the editors, studies with qualitative methodologies, case studies, book chapters, articles with college students who had some specific disease or condition, such as obesity, diabetes, and others; studies with children of parents with chronic diseases, and those that were institutions aimed only at very specific populations, were excluded. Meta-analysis was calculated.

RESULTS

Thirty studies, consisting of 19,731 students, were included. The most commonly used instruments to assess the quality of life of the university population were the Quality of Life Questionnaire-short version (WHOQOL-BREF), and the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36). The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was the most commonly used instrument to assess PA. For the meta-analysis, 22 studies were included. Weak but positive correlations were found between PA and the QOL domains: physical health (0.16. 95% CI 0.11 0.22; I2 = 99.96%); mental health (0.14; 95% CI 0.07-0.20; I2 = 99.97%); social relations (0.24, 95% CI 0.08-0. 38; I2 = 99.99%); environment (0.23, 95% CI 0.14-0.32; I2 = 99.90%); vitality (0.17. 95% CI 0.15-0.20; I2 = 99.49%) pain (0.02. 95% CI - 0.02 to 0.12; I2 = 99.96%); QOL and PA (0.21, 95% CI 0.08-0.34; I2 = 99.99%).An association of R = 0.60 (95% CI 0.25-0.95; I2 = 85.61%) was found between QOL and PA in total.

CONCLUSION

The results of our study showed a weak but positive relationship between physical activity and overall quality of life in college students, and also between PA and the domains of QL: physical health, social relationships, mental health, environment, and vitality, in this same population. It is important to study this population, since risk behaviors in this phase tend to perpetuate in the other phases of life.

Associations between meeting 24-hour movement guidelines and academic achievement in Australian primary school-aged children

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated associations between academic achievement and meeting recommendations from the 24-hour (24-h) movement guidelines. The specific guidelines associated with the most benefit academic achievement are unknown. Utilizing both self-report and objective movement data, this study examined associations between academic achievement and meeting individual recommendations and combinations of recommendations from the 24-h movement guidelines (sleep, physical activity, and screen time).

METHODS

Data from CheckPoint, a cross-sectional study nested between Waves 6 and 7 of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, were used. Movement behaviors were measured using 24-h wrist-worn accelerometry (GENEActiv (Activinsights, Kimbolton, UK)) and were self-reported by children using the Multimedia Activity Recall for Children and Adolescents. Academic achievement was measured using a nationally administered standardized test in literacy and numeracy. Analysis of covariance, with t tests with sequential Bonferroni adjustments, was used to compare academic achievement with all possible combinations of meeting recommendations, adjusting for demographic confounders. Two models were considered: guideline compliance assessed by self-report (n = 1270, mean age = 11.99 years, 52% males) and by accelerometry (for moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) and sleep)) and self-report (screen time) in combination (n = 927, mean age = 11.97 years, 52% males).

RESULTS

Literacy achievement significantly differed based on self-report (F_{(7, 1258)} = 3.08, p = 0.003) and accelerometer derived (F_{(7, 915)} = 2.40, p = 0.02) guideline compliance. Numeracy achievement significantly differed based on self-report (F_{(7, 1258)} = 2.92, p = 0.005) but not accelerometer derived guideline compliance (F_{(7, 915)} = 0.80, p = 0.58). When assessed by self-report, children who met all guidelines (t₍₃₃₄₎ = -4.05, p = 0.0001) or met the screen time and sleep guidelines in combination (t₍₁₂₅₎ = -5.02, p < 0.001) had superior literacy achievement. Meeting the self-report MVPA guideline in any combination was associated with higher numeracy scores (p < 0.05). Post-hoc analyses showed no differences in academic achievement for any category of accelerometer derived guideline compliance.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that limiting recreational screen time is important for literacy achievement and that encouraging compliance with the MVPA guideline is important for numeracy achievement.

Activity Workstations in High Schools: Decreasing Sedentary Behavior Without Negatively Impacting Schoolwork

High school students are at risk for increased sedentary behavior due in part to a decrease in physical activity throughout adolescence and to required sedentary behavior during much of the school day. The purpose of the current study is to examine the impact of using activity workstations in a high school English class for struggling readers. Twenty high school students participated in the study. The participants completed a 16-week study where each participant used an activity workstation for 8 weeks and a traditional desk for 8 weeks in a crossover design for a 40-min period during normal class. They responded to a series of subjective questions about reading and schoolwork at the beginning and end of each 8-week session and followed the READ 180 program designed to help struggling readers during the study. The results indicated that academic performance increased in both desk conditions during the study and from the beginning to the end of the study. In addition, there was a significant improvement in items in the subjective survey related to reading, motivation, and schoolwork in both desk conditions across the study. The current results suggest that using an activity workstation in the classroom did not negatively affect academic performance or students’ perceptions of working on academic assignments compared to the traditional desk condition. These results indicate that activity workstations could be implemented in classrooms to provide students with a non-sedentary option during the school day thus increasing physical activity in students.

Does sport type matter? The effect of sport discipline on cognitive control strategies in preadolescents

This study aimed to test the effects of specific sport practices on cognitive sensory-motor performance and underlying brain functions in children. Behavioral performance and event-related potentials (ERP) were investigated during a cognitive visuomotor task in 64 preadolescent children practicing racket (Rack) sports, martial arts (Mart), indoor climbing (Clim), or not practicing any sport (controls, Cont). At the behavioral level, response speed and accuracy were studied. At the electrophysiological level, motor, cognitive and sensory-attentional readiness, and post-perceptual attentional functions were investigated. Behavioral results showed that Mart players had the fastest response time (RT). Rack players had the most consistent RT and committed the lowest omission errors. Clim athletes were the most accurate in terms of false alarms. ERP results showed that motor readiness was largest in Mart players. The Rack group had the largest cognitive preparation and the Clim one had the largest sensory-attentional readiness activity. Rack and Mart players had the largest activity associated with post-perceptual attentional processing. This result shows that practicing specific sports may allow differential benefits on cognitive processing. Racket sports seem to stimulate action speed consistency and improve accuracy for omissions, increasing cognitive preparation, and post-perceptual attentional processing. Mart practice may allow a more speed-oriented response behavior, probably due to large motor preparation and allocation of post-perceptual attentional resources, but only when response execution is required. Indoor climbing may favor response accuracy reducing unwanted responses as indexed by an increased sensory-attentional readiness. Overall, all the considered sports disciplines may improve cognitive processing, but each one is associated with different benefits on cognitive performance by possibly stimulating separate brain processing. This kind of information could be crucial to select the more appropriate sport depending on individual demands.

Bullying and Health Related Quality of Life among Adolescents-A Systematic Review

Health-related quality of life is among global health goals not only in adulthood but also in childhood and adolescence. Being a multi-component construct, health-related quality of life covers various domains, such as physical and psychological wellbeing and social and environmental areas. Bullying might significantly influence those domains especially in adolescence, a period of life when numerous personal and interpersonal transformations are experienced. Therefore, the aim of the current systematic review was to provide a comprehensive overview of the relationship of bullying with the health-related quality of adolescents' lives. An electronic literature search was performed using PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library, and 3621 full-text articles were identified. After a selection process, 12 studies covering diagnosis, prevention and treatment for each of the three sections "adolescents", "health related quality of life" and "bullying" were reviewed. An overall reduction in health-related quality of life in regard to bullying appeared from the studies analyzed, as well as a decline in adolescent mental health. Different bullying types were identified as causing harm to various adolescents' health-related quality of life domains. These findings may contribute to effective bullying management in schools and/or societal settings, and inform intervention strategies for maintaining the quality of life of adolescents being bullied.

Associations between measures of physical fitness and cognitive performance in preschool children

BACKGROUND

Given that recent studies report negative secular declines in physical fitness, associations between fitness and cognition in childhood are strongly discussed. The preschool age is characterized by high neuroplasticity which effects motor skill learning, physical fitness, and cognitive development. The aim of this study was to assess the relation of physical fitness and attention (including its individual dimensions (quantitative, qualitative)) as one domain of cognitive performance in preschool children. We hypothesized that fitness components which need precise coordination compared to simple fitness components are stronger related to attention.

METHODS

Physical fitness components like static balance (i.e., single-leg stance), muscle strength (i.e., handgrip strength), muscle power (i.e., standing long jump), and coordination (i.e., hopping on one leg) were assessed in 61 healthy children (mean age 4.5 ± 0.6 years; girls n = 30). Attention was measured with the "Konzentrations-Handlungsverfahren für Vorschulkinder" [concentration-action procedure for preschoolers]). Analyses were adjusted for age, body height, and body mass.

RESULTS

Results from single linear regression analysis revealed a significant (p < 0.05) association between physical fitness (composite score) and attention (composite score) (standardized ß = 0.40), showing a small to medium effect (F² = 0.14). Further, coordination had a significant relation with the composite score and the quantitative dimension of attention (standardized ß = 0.35; p < 0.01; standardized ß =  - 0.33; p < 0.05). Coordination explained about 11% (composite score) and 9% (quantitative dimension) of the variance in the stepwise multiple regression model.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that performance in physical fitness, particularly coordination, is related to attention in preschool children. Thus, high performance in complex fitness components (i.e., hopping on one leg) tends to predict attention in preschool children. Further longitudinal studies should focus on the effectiveness of physical activity programs implementing coordination and complex exercises at preschool age to examine cause-effect relationships between physical fitness and attention precisely.

The Role of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in the Relation between Physical Activity and Executive Functioning in Children

Physical activity (PA) can improve children’s executive functioning (EF), which might be caused by increased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This study investigated whether acute and/or chronic PA leads to increased BDNF levels and enhanced EF in children. Methods: In total, 47 children (mean age 9.69 ± 0.60; 46.8% boys) participated. Children performed a maximal exercise test to measure acute PA. Before and after, BDNF was collected and EF was measured. Chronic PA was proxy-reported. Repeated Measures ANOVAs were performed to study the effect of acute PA on BDNF and EF. Mediation analyses were performed to investigate the mediation effect of BDNF on the association between chronic PA and BDNF. Results: A borderline significant effect of acute PA on BDNF was found (F = 3.32, p = 0.075) with an increase in BDNF (+29.58 pg/mL) after acute PA. A significant effect was found for performance on inhibition tasks (Flanker (accuracy +5.67%, p = 0.034) and Go/No-Go (+0.15%, p = 0.022)). No effect of acute PA was found on the EF outcomes. No significant correlation between chronic PA and EFs nor BDNF was found. Conclusions: Acute PA might increase BDNF and improve some EFs (i.e., inhibition) in children. Chronic PA was not associated with EF nor BDNF. Trial Registration Number: NCT02503579.

Weekday and Weekend Physical Activity of Preschool Children in Relation to Selected Socioeconomic Indicators

Physical activity (PA) is as vital for improving the health of young children as it is positively associated with a broad range of psychological, cognitive, and cardio-metabolic outcomes. The aims of this study were to: (1) to assess the level of PA and meeting the WHO recommendations: moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and the number of steps in Polish preschool boys and girls on weekdays and on weekends; (2) to investigate the relationship between selected socioeconomic indicators (self-reported by parents) and PA, including meeting the WHO recommendation for daily MVPA and the number of steps on weekdays and on weekends among Polish preschoolers. Data were collected in the 2017/2018 school year. The study included a total of 522 boys and girls both aged between 5 and 6 years. The ActiGraph GT3X-BT tri-axial accelerometer was used to measure PA. Selected socioeconomic indicators as well as parental body weight and body height were self-reported by parents/caregivers using a questionnaire. In most of the PA indicators analyzed for girls (moderate, vigorous, total MVPA, and steps/day), the averages were higher during the week than during the weekend. Moreover, significantly more boys met the criteria of MVPA, both on weekdays and over the weekend (32.3% boys and 19.2% girls on weekdays and 31.1% boys and 18.1% girls on weekends). Additionally, more boys met the step recommendations, but only on weekends (15.5% boys and 6.6% girls). It was found that if there were two people in a household, there was an almost a three-fold greater chance (adj. OR = 2.94, p = 0.032) of meeting the MVPA criterion with an even stronger association (over fivefold greater chance) in meeting the step recommendation (adj. OR = 5.56, p = 0.033). The differences in the day schedule may potentially contribute with the level of PA in girls. Among the analyzed selected socioeconomic indicators, only the number of people in a household had a significant association on PA.

Association of Health and Psychological Factors with Academic Achievement and Non-Verbal Intelligence in University Students with Low Academic Performance: The Influence of Sex

Academic achievement, measured with the grade point average (GPA), is a stable characteristic that has been associated with many sociodemographic and psychological variables; however, the relation of these variables with GPA has not been totally elucidated. The objective of this study was to perform an association of health, psychological and personal variables with GPA and non-verbal intelligence in low-academic performance population according to sex. We invited health sciences university students who had failed the same subject twice to complete a set of sociodemographic and psychological variables and a non-verbal intelligence test. The GPA, admission exam test and preparatory GPA were obtained. We included 124 students, and found that GPA was associated with non-verbal intelligence in women but not in men; in whom, having a job and having a romantic partner, were more correlated. In women, positive relations with others, emotion perception and weekly physical activity hours were marginally correlated with GPA; while in men, emotion regulation and self-motivation had a tendency of correlation with GPA. In addition, we found that non-verbal intelligence was associated somatization and the number of diseases in women. Academic achievement is regulated by different variables in each sex; therefore, intervention programs addressed by sex are needed to increase it.

Can exercise shape your brain? A review of aerobic exercise effects on cognitive function and neuro-physiological underpinning mechanisms

It is widely accepted that physical exercise can be used as a tool for the prevention and treatment of various diseases or disorders. In addition, in the recent years, exercise has also been successfully used to enhance people's cognition. There is a large amount of research that has supported the benefits of physical exercise on human cognition, both in children and adults. Among these studies, some have focused on the acute or transitory effects of exercise on cognition, while others have focused on the effects of regular physical exercise. However, the relation between exercise and cognition is complex and we still have limited knowledge about the moderators and mechanisms underlying this relation. Most of human studies have focused on the behavioral aspects of exercise-effects on cognition, while animal studies have deepened in its possible neuro-physiological mechanisms. Even so, thanks to advances in neuroimaging techniques, there is a growing body of evidence that provides valuable information regarding these mechanisms in the human population. This review aims to analyze the effects of regular and acute aerobic exercise on cognition. The exercise-cognition relationship will be reviewed both from the behavioral perspective and from the neurophysiological mechanisms. The effects of exercise on animals, adult humans, and infant humans will be analyzed separately. Finally, physical exercise intervention programs aiming to increase cognitive performance in scholar and workplace environments will be reviewed.

Research Brief: Physical Activity Trends Among Incarcerated Youth During a Sport Leadership Program

Research indicates that engagement in physical activity is advantageous to adolescents' overall health. One subset of the population that is not provided with ample opportunities to be physically active includes incarcerated youth. To date, sport leadership programs have been designed to target this population; yet, little is known about physical activity opportunities for participants. The purpose of this study was to explore physical activity during a sport leadership program within a juvenile detention center. The participants were 27 incarcerated male youth (Mage = 18.7 years), all of whom participated in a sport leadership program. Physical activity was assessed during 32 sessions using Yamax DigiWalker SW 701 pedometers. Youth who participated in the sport leadership program accumulated an average of 3232 steps per session, with average standard deviation of 1245.5. As youth attended more sessions, overall physical activity levels during programming increased with a drastic reduction in variance among participants. This study is the first to closely examine and provide insights into youths' physical activity trends across programming and demonstrates a noticeable uptrend in activity and deceleration of variability among participants. Findings suggest that participation in a structured sport leadership program within juvenile detention centers can provide participants a critical opportunity to engage in physical activity.

The effectiveness of school physical education on students' cognitive competence: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

School physical education plays an important role in improving the cognitive competencies of students. The theoretical background related to how school physical education positively influences students' cognitive domains has been consistently structured; however, there are few previous studies that have systematically analyzed how physical education interventions produce positive outcomes related to learners' cognitive competencies. The aim of the present study was to analyze the effectiveness of physical education interventions on students' cognitive competencies.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

The study involved searching for related quantitative research studies through electronic research databases including SPORTDiscus, ScienceDirect, and MEDLINE Patent Applications and conducting a screening process considering the purpose of the meta-analysis. The present study assessed for a risk of bias, extracted data, and conducted a meta-analysis to determine the effectiveness of physical education interventions.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

According to the results of the meta-analysis, school physical education has a significant impact on students' cognitive competencies such as intelligence and academic achievement. In terms of the characteristics of the interventions, the effectiveness of aerobic exercise rooted in physical education was more significant than that of model-based physical education or traditional physical education.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of the meta-analysis, the present study concluded that school physical education has a statistically significant impact on changing students' cognitive conditions; however, there is need for a follow-up study on how the contents of school physical education and the methods of teaching have distinct effects on students' cognitive competencies.

Are Physically Active Breaks in School-Aged Children Performed Outdoors? A Systematic Review

(1) Background: Children spend an ever-increasing amount of time performing sedentary behaviors, and an important part of their daily life is at school. Learning in an outdoor environment improves children’s physical activity levels, and their cognitive and social spheres. Furthermore, physically active breaks are a solution to reduce sedentary behaviors and improve well-being and academic performance. The study evaluated the published literature on physically active breaks during school hours and explored (a) if the interventions were proposed in an outdoor context and (b) the outcomes of these interventions. (2) Methods: This review collected 31,559 articles from different electronic databases. After the screening, the results were analyzed narratively. (3) Results: 41 studies have been included in the analysis. As reported by the results, most of the interventions took place in the classroom, and only three studies were performed outside. A common aspect of all studies is the feasibility of active breaks, assessing positive outcomes. (4) Conclusions: Physically active outdoor breaks are poorly adopted, highlighting the necessity for deeper study on this topic. Although the protocols considered present differences, generally breaks increase physical activity levels, present positive learning outcomes, and improve social well-being. Furthermore, they are sustainable in terms of time, cost, and effort of the teacher.