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Radhouani M, Starkl P. Adjuvant-independent airway sensitization and infection mouse models leading to allergic asthma. FRONTIERS IN ALLERGY 2024; 5:1423938. [PMID: 39157265 PMCID: PMC11327155 DOI: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1423938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic respiratory disease of global importance. Mouse models of allergic asthma have been instrumental in advancing research and novel therapeutic strategies for patients. The application of relevant allergens and physiological routes of exposure in such models has led to valuable insights into the complexities of asthma onset and development as well as key disease mechanisms. Furthermore, environmental microbial exposures and infections have been shown to play a fundamental part in asthma pathogenesis and alter disease outcome. In this review, we delve into physiological mouse models of allergic asthma and explore literature reports on most significant interplays between microbial infections and asthma development with relevance to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariem Radhouani
- Research Division of Infection Biology, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp Starkl
- Research Division of Infection Biology, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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2
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Zhao P, Shao N, Dong J, Su H, Sui H, Zhang T, Yang F. Genetic diversity and characterization of rhinoviruses from Chinese clinical samples with a global perspective. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0084023. [PMID: 37733296 PMCID: PMC10715137 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00840-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Based on clinical samples collected in China, we detected and reported 22 types for the first time in China, as well as three types for the first time in Asia, and reported their genetic characteristics and diversity. We identified a novel type of Rhinovirus (RV), A110, highlighting its unique genetic features. We annotated the genomic structure and serotype of all the existing RV sequences in the database, and four novel RV types were identified and their genetic diversity reported. Combined with the sequence annotation, we constructed a complete VP1 data set of RV and conducted the first large-scale evolutionary dynamics analysis of RV. Based on a high-quality data set, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the guanine-cytosine (GC) content variations among serotypes of RVs. This study provides crucial theoretical support and valuable data for understanding RV's genetic diversity and developing antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Shao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Dong
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Haoxiang Su
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Hongtao Sui
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Yang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease Pathogenomics, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Beijing, China
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3
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Soto R, Paul L, Porucznik CA, Xie H, Stinnett RC, Briggs B, Biggerstaff M, Stanford J, Schlaberg R. Effectiveness of Self-Collected, Ambient Temperature-Preserved Nasal Swabs Compared to Samples Collected by Trained Staff for Genotyping of Respiratory Viruses by Shotgun RNA Sequencing: Comparative Study. JMIR Form Res 2023; 7:e32848. [PMID: 37999952 DOI: 10.2196/32848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has underscored the need for field specimen collection and transport to diagnostic and public health laboratories. Self-collected nasal swabs transported without dependency on a cold chain have the potential to remove critical barriers to testing, expand testing capacity, and reduce opportunities for exposure of health professionals in the context of a pandemic. OBJECTIVE We compared nasal swab collection by study participants from themselves and their children at home to collection by trained research staff. METHODS Each adult participant collected 1 nasal swab, sampling both nares with the single swab, after which they collected 1 nasal swab from 1 child. After all the participant samples were collected for the household, the research staff member collected a separate single duplicate sample from each individual. Immediately after the sample collection, the adult participants completed a questionnaire about the acceptability of the sampling procedures. Swabs were placed in temperature-stable preservative and respiratory viruses were detected by shotgun RNA sequencing, enabling viral genome analysis. RESULTS In total, 21 households participated in the study, each with 1 adult and 1 child, yielding 42 individuals with paired samples. Study participants reported that self-collection was acceptable. Agreement between identified respiratory viruses in both swabs by RNA sequencing demonstrated that adequate collection technique was achieved by brief instructions. CONCLUSIONS Our results support the feasibility of a scalable and convenient means for the identification of respiratory viruses and implementation in pandemic preparedness for novel respiratory pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Soto
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Litty Paul
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Christina A Porucznik
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Heng Xie
- IDbyDNA, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | | | | | - Matthew Biggerstaff
- Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Joseph Stanford
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Robert Schlaberg
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
- IDbyDNA, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
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Georgieva I, Stoyanova A, Angelova S, Korsun N, Stoitsova S, Nikolaeva-Glomb L. Rhinovirus Genotypes Circulating in Bulgaria, 2018-2021. Viruses 2023; 15:1608. [PMID: 37515294 PMCID: PMC10385483 DOI: 10.3390/v15071608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RV) are one of the most common causative agents of respiratory infections, with significant socioeconomic impact. RV infections are not notifiable in Bulgaria, and little is known about the different RV genotypes circulating in the country. This study aims to investigate the diversity of RV genotypes that were circulating in Bulgaria in the period 2018-2021 in samples from ILI/ARI patients. Genotype assignment was based on sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 5' untranslated region and the VP4-VP2 region. Out of a total of 1385 nasopharyngeal swabs tested, 166 were RV-positive (RV detection rate: 11.99% (166/1385)). Those with a cycle threshold <25 were selected for genotyping (n = 63). RV isolates were successfully genotyped and classified into 34 genotypes within Rhinovirus A (RV-A), Rhinovirus B (RV-B) and Rhinovirus C (RV-C) species. Presumptive recombination events between the 5'UTR and VP4-VP2 regions were detected in three of the isolates. RV-A and RV-C were the prevalent RV species, with significantly more frequent detections of RV-A in the years before the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the post-pandemic period, when RV-C prevailed. The present study is the first to determine RV genotypes in Bulgaria and the circulation of RV-C has been described for the first time in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Georgieva
- Department of Virology, National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1233 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Asya Stoyanova
- Department of Virology, National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1233 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Svetla Angelova
- Clinic of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital "Prof. Dr. Stoyan Kirkovich" AD, 6003 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
| | - Neli Korsun
- Department of Virology, National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1233 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Savina Stoitsova
- Department of Virology, National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1233 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Lubomira Nikolaeva-Glomb
- Department of Virology, National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1233 Sofia, Bulgaria
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Hilvering B, Koenderman L. Quality over quantity; eosinophil activation status will deepen the insight into eosinophilic diseases. Respir Med 2023; 207:107094. [PMID: 36572067 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2022.107094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Eosinophil associated diseases have gained much attention recently because of the introduction of specific eosinophil targeted therapies. These diseases range from acute parasitic infections to chronic inflammatory diseases such as eosinophilic asthma. In eosinophilic asthma an increased eosinophil cell count in peripheral blood is the gold standard for determination of the pheno-/endotype and severity of disease. Despite a broad consensus there is concern on validity of this simple measurement, because the eosinophil compartment is far from homogenous. Multiple tissues harbour non-activated cells under homeostatic conditions and other tissues, normally devoid of eosinophils, become infested with these cells under inflammatory conditions. It will, therefore, be clear that eosinophils become differentially (pre)-activated at different tissue sites in homeostatic and inflammatory conditions. This complexity should be investigated in detail as it is 1) far from clear what the long-term side effects are that are caused by application of eosinophil targeted therapies in a "one size fits all" concept and 2) real-world data of eosinophil targeted therapies in asthma shows a broad variety in the treatment response. This review will focus on complex mechanisms of eosinophil activation in vivo to create a better view on the dynamics of the eosinophil compartment in health and disease both to prevent collateral damage caused by aberrant activation of eosinophils ánd to improve effectiveness of eosinophil targeted treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Hilvering
- Dept. Pulmonary Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Center, the Netherlands.
| | - L Koenderman
- Dept. Respiratory Medicine and Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Qian W, Wang X, Huang J, Liu J, Chen S, Wang T, Zhang D, Li Y. Sensitive and rapid RT-RPA-Cas12a-mediated detection method capable of human rhinovirus A and/or C species by targeting VP4. Virus Res 2023; 323:199001. [PMID: 36375713 PMCID: PMC10194307 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.199001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Human rhinovirus (HRV), the main etiologic agent of the common cold, is responsible for significant morbidity, medical costs, and the loss of productivity in the workplace and school. To prevent the spread of HRV, accurate, low-cost and rapid diagnostics of HRV is crucial for identifying those at-risk for the illness associated with HRV, with the most frequently detected species, including HRV species A (HRV-A) and C (HRV-C). Here, a novel HRV-A and/or HRV-C molecular diagnostic assay that integrates reverse-transcription recombinase polymerase amplification assay (RT-RPA) amplification with CRISPR/Cas12a detection, with the result readout using a fluorescence detector or lateral flow strip (LFS). The established assay could be completed within 50 min without complex instruments and skilled technicians. The limit of detection of the RT-RPA-Cas12a-mediated real-time fluorescence or LFS assay could reach 0.1 copy/μl, and 0.5 copy/μl for the end-point fluorescence assay with a UV light illuminator readout, respectively. Meanwhile, the assay demonstrates excellent specificity without cross-reactivity to non-target viruses. Furthermore, they were appraised using 80 clinical samples, and RT-RPA-Cas12a-mediated fluorescence or LFS assay displayed high-accuracy with positive and negative predictive agreement of 96.7%, 95% and 100%, respectively. Taken together, the RT-RPA-Cas12a-mediated assay is a rapid, sensitive, and specific detection tool for routine and on-site detection method for HRV-A and/or HRV-C infections, and shows great promise for use in resource-poor or constrained settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Qian
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, PR China
| | - Xuefei Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, PR China
| | - Jie Huang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, PR China
| | - Jian Liu
- Shanghai Animal Disease Prevention and Control Center, Shanghai 201103, PR China
| | - Si Chen
- University of Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518052, PR China
| | - Ting Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710021, PR China
| | - Dandan Zhang
- Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Ningbo 315010, PR China.
| | - Yongdong Li
- Ningbo Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Ningbo 315010, PR China.
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Kreger JE, Hershenson MB. Effects of COVID-19 and Social Distancing on Rhinovirus Infections and Asthma Exacerbations. Viruses 2022; 14:2340. [PMID: 36366439 PMCID: PMC9698629 DOI: 10.3390/v14112340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Since their discovery in the 1950s, rhinoviruses (RVs) have been recognized as a major causative agent of the "common cold" and cold-like illnesses, accounting for more than 50% of upper respiratory tract infections. However, more than that, respiratory viral infections are responsible for approximately 50% of asthma exacerbations in adults and 80% in children. In addition to causing exacerbations of asthma, COPD and other chronic lung diseases, RVs have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of lower respiratory tract infections including bronchiolitis and community acquired pneumonia. Finally, early life respiratory viral infections with RV have been associated with asthma development in children. Due to the vast genetic diversity of RVs (approximately 160 known serotypes), recurrent infection is common. RV infections are generally acquired in the community with transmission occurring via inhalation of aerosols, respiratory droplets or fomites. Following the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), exposure to RV and other respiratory viruses was significantly reduced due to social-distancing, restrictions on social gatherings, and increased hygiene protocols. In the present review, we summarize the impact of COVID-19 preventative measures on the incidence of RV infection and its sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marc B. Hershenson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Sayama A, Okamoto M, Tamaki R, Saito-Obata M, Saito M, Kamigaki T, Sayama Y, Lirio I, Manalo JIG, Tallo VL, Lupisan SP, Oshitani H. Comparison of Rhinovirus A-, B-, and C-Associated Respiratory Tract Illness Severity Based on the 5'-Untranslated Region Among Children Younger Than 5 Years. Open Forum Infect Dis 2022; 9:ofac387. [PMID: 36267245 PMCID: PMC9579461 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofac387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rhinoviruses (RVs) are among the most frequently detected viruses from hospitalized children with severe acute respiratory infections, being classified into RV-A, RV-B, and RV-C (4 clades: C, GAC1, GAC2, and A2). This study aimed to compare the clinical characteristics and respiratory tract illness severity between the RV species and RV-C clades in children in primary care and hospital settings in rural communities in the Philippines. Methods Clinical samples and information of children <5 years old in the Philippines were collected from 2014 to 2016. The samples were tested by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) targeting the 5′-untranslated region. PCR-positive samples were sequenced, and RV species were identified by phylogenetic analysis. Results Overall, 3680 respiratory tract illness episodes in 1688 cohort children were documented; 713 of those were RV positive and identified as RV-A (n = 271), RV-B (n = 47), and RV-C (n = 395: C [n = 76], GAG1 [n = 172], GAG2 [n = 8], A2 [n = 138], and unidentified [n = 1]). Severe illnesses, low oxygen saturation, cough, and wheezing were more common in patients with RV-C, especially with GAC1, than in those with RV-A or RV-B. Furthermore, severe illness was significantly more common in RV-C (GAC1)–positive cases than in RV-A–positive cases (odds ratio, 2.61 [95% CI, 1.17–4.13]). Conclusions Children infected with RV-C had more severe illnesses than children infected with RV-A and RV-B. Moreover, emerging clades of RV-C were associated with increased severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Sayama
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Michiko Okamoto
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Raita Tamaki
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan,Japan International Cooperation Agency, Tokyo, Japan,Kenya Ministry of Health Disease Surveillance and Response Unit, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Mariko Saito-Obata
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Mayuko Saito
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Taro Kamigaki
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yusuke Sayama
- Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Irene Lirio
- Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | | | - Veronica L Tallo
- Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | | | - Hitoshi Oshitani
- Correspondence: Hitoshi Oshitani, MD, PhD, Department of Virology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan ()
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Jones RP, Ponomarenko A. Roles for Pathogen Interference in Influenza Vaccination, with Implications to Vaccine Effectiveness (VE) and Attribution of Influenza Deaths. Infect Dis Rep 2022; 14:710-758. [PMID: 36286197 PMCID: PMC9602062 DOI: 10.3390/idr14050076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogen interference is the ability of one pathogen to alter the course and clinical outcomes of infection by another. With up to 3000 species of human pathogens the potential combinations are vast. These combinations operate within further immune complexity induced by infection with multiple persistent pathogens, and by the role which the human microbiome plays in maintaining health, immune function, and resistance to infection. All the above are further complicated by malnutrition in children and the elderly. Influenza vaccination offers a measure of protection for elderly individuals subsequently infected with influenza. However, all vaccines induce both specific and non-specific effects. The specific effects involve stimulation of humoral and cellular immunity, while the nonspecific effects are far more nuanced including changes in gene expression patterns and production of small RNAs which contribute to pathogen interference. Little is known about the outcomes of vaccinated elderly not subsequently infected with influenza but infected with multiple other non-influenza winter pathogens. In this review we propose that in certain years the specific antigen mix in the seasonal influenza vaccine inadvertently increases the risk of infection from other non-influenza pathogens. The possibility that vaccination could upset the pathogen balance, and that the timing of vaccination relative to the pathogen balance was critical to success, was proposed in 2010 but was seemingly ignored. Persons vaccinated early in the winter are more likely to experience higher pathogen interference. Implications to the estimation of vaccine effectiveness and influenza deaths are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney P Jones
- Healthcare Analysis and Forecasting, Wantage OX12 0NE, UK
| | - Andrey Ponomarenko
- Department of Biophysics, Informatics and Medical Instrumentation, Odessa National Medical University, Valikhovsky Lane 2, 65082 Odessa, Ukraine
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Neugebauer F, Bergs S, Liebert UG, Hönemann M. Human Rhinoviruses in Pediatric Patients in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Germany: Molecular Epidemiology and Clinical Significance. Viruses 2022; 14:v14081829. [PMID: 36016451 PMCID: PMC9415293 DOI: 10.3390/v14081829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RVs) constitute a substantial public health burden. To evaluate their abundance and genetic diversity in pediatric patients, RV RNA in respiratory samples was assessed using real-time RT-PCR and partial nucleic acid sequencing of viral genomes. Additionally, clinical data were retrieved from patient charts to determine the clinical significance of pediatric RV infections. In total, the respiratory specimens of 776 patients (<18 years), collected from 2013 to 2017, were analyzed. Infections occurred throughout the entire year, with peaks occurring in fall and winter, and showed remarkably high intra- and interseasonal diversity for RV genotypes. RV species were detected in the following frequencies: 49.1% RV-A, 5.9% RV-B, and 43.6% RV-C. RV-C was found to be more frequently associated with asthma (p = 0.04) and bronchiolitis (p < 0.001), while RV-A was more frequently associated with fever (p = 0.001) and pneumonia (p = 0.002). Additionally, 35.3% of the patients had co-infections with other pathogens, which were associated with a longer hospital stay (p < 0.001), need for ventilation (p < 0.001), and pneumonia (p < 0.001). Taken together, this study shows pronounced RV genetic diversity in pediatric patients and indicates differences in RV-associated pathologies, as well as an important role for co-infections.
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Zhang F, Chase-Topping M, Guo CG, Woolhouse MEJ. Predictors of human-infective RNA virus discovery in the United States, China, and Africa, an ecological study. eLife 2022; 11:e72123. [PMID: 35666108 PMCID: PMC9278958 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The variation in the pathogen type as well as the spatial heterogeneity of predictors make the generality of any associations with pathogen discovery debatable. Our previous work confirmed that the association of a group of predictors differed across different types of RNA viruses, yet there have been no previous comparisons of the specific predictors for RNA virus discovery in different regions. The aim of the current study was to close the gap by investigating whether predictors of discovery rates within three regions-the United States, China, and Africa-differ from one another and from those at the global level. Methods Based on a comprehensive list of human-infective RNA viruses, we collated published data on first discovery of each species in each region. We used a Poisson boosted regression tree (BRT) model to examine the relationship between virus discovery and 33 predictors representing climate, socio-economics, land use, and biodiversity across each region separately. The discovery probability in three regions in 2010-2019 was mapped using the fitted models and historical predictors. Results The numbers of human-infective virus species discovered in the United States, China, and Africa up to 2019 were 95, 80, and 107 respectively, with China lagging behind the other two regions. In each region, discoveries were clustered in hotspots. BRT modelling suggested that in all three regions RNA virus discovery was better predicted by land use and socio-economic variables than climatic variables and biodiversity, although the relative importance of these predictors varied by region. Map of virus discovery probability in 2010-2019 indicated several new hotspots outside historical high-risk areas. Most new virus species since 2010 in each region (6/6 in the United States, 19/19 in China, 12/19 in Africa) were discovered in high-risk areas as predicted by our model. Conclusions The drivers of spatiotemporal variation in virus discovery rates vary in different regions of the world. Within regions virus discovery is driven mainly by land-use and socio-economic variables; climate and biodiversity variables are consistently less important predictors than at a global scale. Potential new discovery hotspots in 2010-2019 are identified. Results from the study could guide active surveillance for new human-infective viruses in local high-risk areas. Funding FFZ is funded by the Darwin Trust of Edinburgh (https://darwintrust.bio.ed.ac.uk/). MEJW has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 874735 (VEO) (https://www.veo-europe.eu/).
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Zhang
- Usher Institute, University of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Margo Chase-Topping
- Usher Institute, University of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
- Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Chuan-Guo Guo
- Department of Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong KongHong KongChina
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12
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Giardina FAM, Piralla A, Ferrari G, Zavaglio F, Cassaniti I, Baldanti F. Molecular Epidemiology of Rhinovirus/Enterovirus and Their Role on Cause Severe and Prolonged Infection in Hospitalized Patients. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10040755. [PMID: 35456806 PMCID: PMC9030097 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10040755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhinovirus is one of the most common respiratory viruses, causing both upper and lower respiratory tract infections. It affects mainly children and could cause prolonged infections, especially in immunocompromised patients. Here we report our data on a 15-month surveillance of Rhinovirus seasonality and circulation in Lombardy Region, Italy. All rhinovirus/enterovirus-positive samples were amplified with RT-PCR for the VP4-VP2 region to assign the correct genotype. The median age of RV/EV-positive patients is 9 years, with a range of 0–96. RV-A and RV-C were detected in the majority of cases, while RV-B accounted for less than 10% of cases. An enterovirus species was detected in 6.45% of the cases. A total of 7% of the patients included in this study had a prolonged infection with a median duration of 62 days. All these patients were immunocompromised and most of them were pediatric with an RV-A infection. Two outbreaks were identified, mainly in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and Oncohematology Department, caused by RV A89 and C43, respectively. Nearly 4.5% of the patients were admitted to the ICU requiring mechanical ventilation; all of which had preexisting comorbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica A. M. Giardina
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.A.M.G.); (G.F.); (F.Z.); (I.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Antonio Piralla
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.A.M.G.); (G.F.); (F.Z.); (I.C.); (F.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-038-250-2420
| | - Guglielmo Ferrari
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.A.M.G.); (G.F.); (F.Z.); (I.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Federica Zavaglio
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.A.M.G.); (G.F.); (F.Z.); (I.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Irene Cassaniti
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.A.M.G.); (G.F.); (F.Z.); (I.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Fausto Baldanti
- Microbiology and Virology Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (F.A.M.G.); (G.F.); (F.Z.); (I.C.); (F.B.)
- Department of Clinical-Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, Università degli Studi di Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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13
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Kun Á. Is there still evolution in the human population? Biol Futur 2022; 73:359-374. [PMID: 36592324 PMCID: PMC9806833 DOI: 10.1007/s42977-022-00146-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
It is often claimed that humanity has stopped evolving because modern medicine erased all selection on survival. Even if that would be true, and it is not, there would be other mechanisms of evolution which could still led to changes in allelic frequencies. Here I show, by applying basic evolutionary genetics knowledge, that we expect humanity to evolve. The results from genome sequencing projects have repeatedly affirmed that there are still recent signs of selection in our genomes. I give some examples of such adaptation. Then I briefly discuss what our evolutionary future has in store for us.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ádám Kun
- grid.5591.80000 0001 2294 6276Department of Plant Systematics, Ecology and Theoretical Biology, Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary ,Parmenides Center for the Conceptual Foundations of Science, Pöcking, Germany ,grid.481817.3Institute of Evolution, Centre for Ecological Research, Budapest, Hungary ,grid.5018.c0000 0001 2149 4407MTA-ELTE Theoretical Biology and Evolutionary Ecology Research Group, Budapest, Hungary ,grid.5018.c0000 0001 2149 4407MTA-ELTE-MTM Ecology Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
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14
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Gagliardi TB, Goldstein ME, Song D, Gray KM, Jung JW, Ignacio MA, Stroka KM, Duncan GA, Scull MA. Rhinovirus C replication is associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and triggers cytopathic effects in an in vitro model of human airway epithelium. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010159. [PMID: 34995322 PMCID: PMC8741012 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The clinical impact of rhinovirus C (RV-C) is well-documented; yet, the viral life cycle remains poorly defined. Thus, we characterized RV-C15 replication at the single-cell level and its impact on the human airway epithelium (HAE) using a physiologically-relevant in vitro model. RV-C15 replication was restricted to ciliated cells where viral RNA levels peaked at 12 hours post-infection (hpi), correlating with elevated titers in the apical compartment at 24hpi. Notably, infection was associated with a loss of polarized expression of the RV-C receptor, cadherin-related family member 3. Visualization of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) during RV-C15 replication revealed two distinct replication complex arrangements within the cell, likely corresponding to different time points in infection. To further define RV-C15 replication sites, we analyzed the expression and colocalization of giantin, phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate, and calnexin with dsRNA. Despite observing Golgi fragmentation by immunofluorescence during RV-C15 infection as previously reported for other RVs, a high ratio of calnexin-dsRNA colocalization implicated the endoplasmic reticulum as the primary site for RV-C15 replication in HAE. RV-C15 infection was also associated with elevated stimulator of interferon genes (STING) expression and the induction of incomplete autophagy, a mechanism used by other RVs to facilitate non-lytic release of progeny virions. Notably, genetic depletion of STING in HAE attenuated RV-C15 and -A16 (but not -B14) replication, corroborating a previously proposed proviral role for STING in some RV infections. Finally, RV-C15 infection resulted in a temporary loss in epithelial barrier integrity and the translocation of tight junction proteins while a reduction in mucociliary clearance indicated cytopathic effects on epithelial function. Together, our findings identify both shared and unique features of RV-C replication compared to related rhinoviruses and define the impact of RV-C on both epithelial cell organization and tissue functionality–aspects of infection that may contribute to pathogenesis in vivo. Rhinovirus C has a global distribution and significant clinical impact–especially in those with underlying lung disease. Although RV-C is genetically, structurally, and biologically distinct from RV-A and -B viruses, our understanding of the RV-C life cycle has been largely inferred from these and other related viruses. Here, we performed a detailed analysis of RV-C15 replication in a physiologically-relevant model of human airway epithelium. Our single-cell, microscopy-based approach revealed that–unlike other RVs–the endoplasmic reticulum is the primary site for RV-C15 replication. RV-C15 replication also stimulated STING expression, which was proviral, and triggered dramatic changes in cellular organization, including altered virus receptor distribution, fragmented Golgi stacks, and the induction of incomplete autophagy. Additionally, we observed a loss of epithelial barrier function and a decrease in mucociliary clearance, a major defense mechanism in the lung, during RV-C15 infection. Together, these data reveal novel insight into RV-C15 replication dynamics and resulting cytopathic effects in the primary target cells for infection, thereby furthering our understanding of the pathogenesis of RV-C. Our work highlights similar, as well as unique, aspects of RV-C15 replication compared to related pathogens, which will help guide future studies on the molecular mechanisms of RV-C infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita B. Gagliardi
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Monty E. Goldstein
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel Song
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kelsey M. Gray
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jae W. Jung
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Maxinne A. Ignacio
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kimberly M. Stroka
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- Biophysics Program, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gregg A. Duncan
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Margaret A. Scull
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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15
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Haddad-Boubaker S, Ben Hamda C, Ghedira K, Mefteh K, Bouafsoun A, Boutiba-Ben Boubaker I, Slim A, Menif K, Triki H, Ben Hadj Kacem MA, Smaoui H. Phylogeography and phylogeny of Rhinoviruses collected from Severe Acute Respiratory Infection (SARI) cases over successive epidemic periods in Tunisia. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0259859. [PMID: 34807924 PMCID: PMC8608298 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RV) are a major cause of Severe Acute Respiratory Infection (SARI) in children, with high genotypic diversity in different regions. However, RV type diversity remains unknown in several regions of the world. In this study, the genetic variability of the frequently circulating RV types in Northern Tunisia was investigated, using phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses with a specific focus on the most frequent RV types: RV-A101 and RV-C45. This study concerned 13 RV types frequently circulating in Northern Tunisia. They were obtained from respiratory samples collected in 271 pediatric SARI cases, between September 2015 and November 2017. A total of 37 RV VP4-VP2 sequences, selected among a total of 49 generated sequences, was compared to 359 sequences from different regions of the world. Evolutionary analysis of RV-A101 and RV-C45 showed high genetic relationship between different Tunisian strains and Malaysian strains. RV-A101 and C45 progenitor viruses’ dates were estimated in 1981 and 1995, respectively. Since the early 2000s, the two types had a wide spread throughout the world. Phylogenetic analyses of other frequently circulating strains showed significant homology of Tunisian strains from the same epidemic period, in contrast with earlier strains. The genetic relatedness of RV-A101 and RV-C45 might result from an introduction of viruses from different clades followed by local dissemination rather than a local persistence of an endemic clades along seasons. International traffic may play a key role in the spread of RV-A101, RV-C45, and other RVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sondes Haddad-Boubaker
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Bechir Hamza Children’s Hospital, Bab-Saadoun Square, Tunis, Tunisia
- * E-mail:
| | - Cherif Ben Hamda
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biomathematics and Biostatistics, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Kais Ghedira
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biomathematics and Biostatistics, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Khaoula Mefteh
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Bechir Hamza Children’s Hospital, Bab-Saadoun Square, Tunis, Tunisia
- Microbiology of Children and Immunocompromised, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Aida Bouafsoun
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Bechir Hamza Children’s Hospital, Bab-Saadoun Square, Tunis, Tunisia
- Microbiology of Children and Immunocompromised, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Ilhem Boutiba-Ben Boubaker
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Charles Nicolle Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
- Laboratory Research ‘‘Antimicrobial Resistance”, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Amin Slim
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Charles Nicolle Hospital, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Khaled Menif
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Bechir Hamza Children’s Hospital in Tunis, Bab-Saadoun Square, Tunis Tunisia
| | | | - Mohamed Ali Ben Hadj Kacem
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Bechir Hamza Children’s Hospital in Tunis, Bab-Saadoun Square, Tunis Tunisia
| | - Hanen Smaoui
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Bechir Hamza Children’s Hospital, Bab-Saadoun Square, Tunis, Tunisia
- Microbiology of Children and Immunocompromised, Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
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16
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Ackland J, Watson A, Wilkinson TMA, Staples KJ. Interrupting the Conversation: Implications for Crosstalk Between Viral and Bacterial Infections in the Asthmatic Airway. FRONTIERS IN ALLERGY 2021; 2:738987. [PMID: 35386999 PMCID: PMC8974750 DOI: 10.3389/falgy.2021.738987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a heterogeneous, chronic respiratory disease affecting 300 million people and is thought to be driven by different inflammatory endotypes influenced by a myriad of genetic and environmental factors. The complexity of asthma has rendered it challenging to develop preventative and disease modifying therapies and it remains an unmet clinical need. Whilst many factors have been implicated in asthma pathogenesis and exacerbations, evidence indicates a prominent role for respiratory viruses. However, advances in culture-independent detection methods and extensive microbial profiling of the lung, have also demonstrated a role for respiratory bacteria in asthma. In particular, airway colonization by the Proteobacteria species Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) and Moraxella catarrhalis (Mcat) is associated with increased risk of developing recurrent wheeze and asthma in early life, poor clinical outcomes in established adult asthma and the development of more severe inflammatory phenotypes. Furthermore, emerging evidence indicates that bacterial-viral interactions may influence exacerbation risk and disease severity, highlighting the need to consider the impact chronic airway colonization by respiratory bacteria has on influencing host responses to viral infection. In this review, we first outline the currently understood role of viral and bacterial infections in precipitating asthma exacerbations and discuss the underappreciated potential impact of bacteria-virus crosstalk in modulating host responses. We discuss the mechanisms by which early life infection may predispose to asthma development. Finally, we consider how infection and persistent airway colonization may drive different asthma phenotypes, with a view to identifying pathophysiological mechanisms that may prove tractable to new treatment modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie Ackland
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Alastair Watson
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, United Kingdom
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
- College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Tom M. A. Wilkinson
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, United Kingdom
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
- Wessex Investigational Sciences Hub, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Karl J. Staples
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton, United Kingdom
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
- Wessex Investigational Sciences Hub, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Karl J. Staples
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17
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Defining Age-specific Relationships of Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Rhinovirus Species in Hospitalized Children With Acute Wheeze. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2021; 40:873-879. [PMID: 34321447 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000003194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute wheezing is one of the most common hospital presentations for young children. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus (RV) species A, B and the more recently described species C are implicated in the majority of these presentations. However, the relative importance and age-specificities of these viruses have not been defined. Hence, this study aimed to establish these relationships in a large cohort of prospectively recruited hospitalized children. METHODS The study cohort was 390 children 0-16 years of age presenting with acute wheezing to a children's emergency department, 96.4% being admitted. A nonwheezing control population of 190 was also recruited. Nasal samples were analyzed for viruses. RESULTS For the first 6 months of life, RSV was the dominant virus associated with wheezing (P < 0.001). From 6 months to 2 years, RSV, RV-A and RV-C were all common but none predominated. From 2 to 6 years, RV-C was the dominant virus detected (50-60% of cases), 2-3 times more common than RV-A and RSV, RSV decreasing to be absent from 4 to 7 years. RV-B was rare at all ages. RV-C was no longer dominant in children more than 10 years of age. Overall, RV-C was associated with lower mean oxygen saturation than any other virus (P < 0.001). Controls had no clear age distribution of viruses. CONCLUSION This study establishes a clear profile of age specificity of virus infections causing moderate to severe wheezing in children: RSV as the dominant cause in the first 6 months and RV-C in preschool-age children.
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18
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Genetic diversity and epidemiology of human rhinovirus among children with severe acute respiratory tract infection in Guangzhou, China. Virol J 2021; 18:174. [PMID: 34425845 PMCID: PMC8382100 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-021-01645-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human rhinovirus (HRV) is one of the major viruses of acute respiratory tract disease among infants and young children. This work aimed to understand the epidemiological and phylogenetic features of HRV in Guangzhou, China. In addition, the clinical characteristics of hospitalized children infected with different subtype of HRV was investigated. METHODS Hospitalized children aged < 14 years old with acute respiratory tract infections were enrolled from August 2018 to December 2019. HRV was screened for by a real-time reverse-transcription PCR targeting the viral 5'UTR. RESULTS HRV was detected in 6.41% of the 655 specimens. HRV infection was frequently observed in children under 2 years old (57.13%). HRV-A and HRV-C were detected in 18 (45%) and 22 (55%) specimens. All 40 HRV strains detected were classified into 29 genotypes. The molecular evolutionary rate of HRV-C was estimated to be 3.34 × 10-3 substitutions/site/year and was faster than HRV-A (7.79 × 10-4 substitutions/site/year). Children who experienced rhinorrhoea were more common in the HRV-C infection patients than HRV-A. The viral load was higher in HRV-C detection group than HRV-A detection group (p = 0.0148). The median peak symptom score was higher in patients with HRV-C infection as compared to HRV-A (p = 0.0543), even though the difference did not significance. CONCLUSION This study revealed the molecular epidemiological characteristics of HRV in patients with respiratory infections in southern China. Children infected with HRV-C caused more severe disease characteristics than HRV-A, which might be connected with higher viral load in patients infected with HRV-C. These findings will provide valuable information for the pathogenic mechanism and treatment of HRV infection.
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19
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Coultas JA, Cafferkey J, Mallia P, Johnston SL. Experimental Antiviral Therapeutic Studies for Human Rhinovirus Infections. J Exp Pharmacol 2021; 13:645-659. [PMID: 34276229 PMCID: PMC8277446 DOI: 10.2147/jep.s255211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinovirus infection is common and usually causes mild, self-limiting upper respiratory tract symptoms. Rhinoviruses can cause exacerbation of chronic respiratory diseases, such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, leading to a significant burden of morbidity and mortality. There has been a great deal of progress in efforts to understand the immunological basis of rhinovirus infection. However, despite a number of in vitro and in vivo attempts, there have been no effective treatments developed. This review article summarises the up to date virological and immunological understanding of these infections. We discuss the challenges researchers face, and key solutions, in their work to investigate potential therapies including in vivo rhinovirus challenge studies. Finally, we explore past and present experimental therapeutic strategies employed in the treatment of rhinovirus infections and highlight promising areas of future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Coultas
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - John Cafferkey
- Respiratory Medicine, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Patrick Mallia
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
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20
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The Molecular Epidemiology and Clinical Phylogenetics of Rhinoviruses Among Paediatric Cases in Sydney, Australia. Int J Infect Dis 2021; 110:69-74. [PMID: 34174431 PMCID: PMC10161873 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2021.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Rhinoviruses (RV) represent the most common aetiological agent of all acute respiratory tract infections across all age groups and a significant burden of disease among children. Recent studies have shown that RV-A and RV-C species are associated with increased disease severity. In order to better understand the potential associations between RV species and clinical features among paediatric cases, this study aimed to integrate genetic and epidemiological data using Bayesian phylogenetic methods. METHODS Potential associations between RV species and subtypes, and clinical disease severity using a matched dataset of 52 RV isolates sampled from children (< 18 years) in Sydney, Australia, between 2006 and 2009 were uncovered using epidemiological and phylogenetic methods. RESULTS It was found that RV-C was significantly more likely to be isolated from paediatric cases aged < 2 years compared with RV-A, although no significant differences in recorded symptoms were observed. Significant phylogenetic-trait associations between age and the VP4/VP2 capsid protein phylogeny suggest that age-specific variations in infectivity among subtypes may may be possible. CONCLUSION This study adds to the growing body of epidemiological evidence concerning RV. Improving surveillance and testing for RV, including routine whole genome sequencing, may improve understanding of the varied disease outcomes of RV species and subtypes. Future studies could aim to identify specific genetic markers associated with age-specific infectivity of RV, which could inform treatment practices and public health surveillance of RV.
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21
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Rajput C, Han M, Ishikawa T, Lei J, Goldsmith AM, Jazaeri S, Stroupe CC, Bentley JK, Hershenson MB. Rhinovirus C Infection Induces Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Expansion and Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation. Front Immunol 2021; 12:649520. [PMID: 33968043 PMCID: PMC8100319 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.649520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinovirus C (RV-C) infection is associated with severe asthma exacerbations. Since type 2 inflammation is an important disease mechanism in asthma, we hypothesized that RV-C infection, in contrast to RV-A, preferentially stimulates type 2 inflammation, leading to exacerbated eosinophilic inflammation. To test this, we developed a mouse model of RV-C15 airways disease. RV-C15 was generated from the full-length cDNA clone and grown in HeLa-E8 cells expressing human CDHR3. BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally with 5 x 106 ePFU RV-C15, RV-A1B or sham. Mice inoculated with RV-C15 showed lung viral titers of 1 x 105 TCID50 units 24 h after infection, with levels declining thereafter. IFN-α, β, γ and λ2 mRNAs peaked 24-72 hrs post-infection. Immunofluorescence verified colocalization of RV-C15, CDHR3 and acetyl-α-tubulin in mouse ciliated airway epithelial cells. Compared to RV-A1B, mice infected with RV-C15 demonstrated higher bronchoalveolar eosinophils, mRNA expression of IL-5, IL-13, IL-25, Muc5ac and Gob5/Clca, protein production of IL-5, IL-13, IL-25, IL-33 and TSLP, and expansion of type 2 innate lymphoid cells. Analogous results were found in mice treated with house dust mite before infection, including increased airway responsiveness. In contrast to Rorafl/fl littermates, RV-C-infected Rorafl/flIl7rcre mice deficient in ILC2s failed to show eosinophilic inflammation or mRNA expression of IL-13, Muc5ac and Muc5b. We conclude that, compared to RV-A1B, RV-C15 infection induces ILC2-dependent type 2 airway inflammation, providing insight into the mechanism of RV-C-induced asthma exacerbations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Marc B. Hershenson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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22
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Prevalence of Respiratory Viral Infections in Children with Asthma in Kermanshah. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2021. [DOI: 10.5812/jjm.100101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of lung airways, affecting about 300 million people worldwide. Several risk factors are involved in asthma development, such as environmental allergens, genetic susceptibility, and respiratory viral infections. Viral infections induce NF-kB and inflammatory pathways that lead to the production of cytokines, chemokines, and inflammatory proteins and, finally, a reduction of lung volume and function. Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate viral infections’ prevalence in children with asthma from 2016 to 2017. Methods: One hundred throat swab samples were collected from asthmatic children. Extraction of RNA and cDNA synthesis were performed to recognize parainfluenza viruses, rhinoviruses, influenza viruses, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) using real-time PCR. Also, the associations of age, sex, and other studied factors with asthmatic attacks were evaluated. Results: In this study, 41 viruses were detected, including 21 cases of rhinoviruses (51.22%), 10 cases of parainfluenza (24.39%), seven cases of respiratory syncytial virus (17.07%), and three cases of the influenza virus (7.32%). Regarding seasonal incidence, the prevalence of the viruses was high in autumn and winter, and there was a significant relationship between seasonal incidence and gender. However, there were no statistically significant relationships between the prevalence of the viruses and age or gender. Conclusions: The most important viral causes of childhood asthma in this study were found to be rhinoviruses, followed by parainfluenza. The lowest prevalence was related to the RSV and influenza virus, which the two viruses also showed the lowest seasonal outbreaks. Therefore, it can be said that with an increase in the seasonal incidence of respiratory viruses, the effects of these viruses will be greater on asthma.
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23
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Gray GC, Robie ER, Studstill CJ, Nunn CL. Mitigating Future Respiratory Virus Pandemics: New Threats and Approaches to Consider. Viruses 2021; 13:637. [PMID: 33917745 PMCID: PMC8068197 DOI: 10.3390/v13040637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite many recent efforts to predict and control emerging infectious disease threats to humans, we failed to anticipate the zoonotic viruses which led to pandemics in 2009 and 2020. The morbidity, mortality, and economic costs of these pandemics have been staggering. We desperately need a more targeted, cost-efficient, and sustainable strategy to detect and mitigate future zoonotic respiratory virus threats. Evidence suggests that the transition from an animal virus to a human pathogen is incremental and requires a considerable number of spillover events and considerable time before a pandemic variant emerges. This evolutionary view argues for the refocusing of public health resources on novel respiratory virus surveillance at human-animal interfaces in geographical hotspots for emerging infectious diseases. Where human-animal interface surveillance is not possible, a secondary high-yield, cost-efficient strategy is to conduct novel respiratory virus surveillance among pneumonia patients in these same hotspots. When novel pathogens are discovered, they must be quickly assessed for their human risk and, if indicated, mitigation strategies initiated. In this review, we discuss the most common respiratory virus threats, current efforts at early emerging pathogen detection, and propose and defend new molecular pathogen discovery strategies with the goal of preempting future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C. Gray
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (E.R.R.); (C.J.S.)
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA;
- Emerging Infectious Disease Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169856, Singapore
- Global Health Center, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan 215316, China
| | - Emily R. Robie
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (E.R.R.); (C.J.S.)
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA;
| | - Caleb J. Studstill
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA; (E.R.R.); (C.J.S.)
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA;
| | - Charles L. Nunn
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA;
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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Lipkin WI, Mishra N, Briese T. Screening for Viral Infections. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF VIROLOGY 2021. [PMCID: PMC7836304 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-814515-9.00052-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This article reviews methods for diagnosis of viral infections including histopathology, culture, nucleic acid tests, and serology. We discuss the principles that underlie individual assays as well as their strengths and limitations. Our intent is to provide insights into selecting strategies for viral diagnosis and discovery that can be pursued by accessing more detailed and granular protocols.
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Yuan S, Fan K, Chen Z, Sun Y, Hou H, Zhu L. Structure of the HRV-C 3C-Rupintrivir Complex Provides New Insights for Inhibitor Design. Virol Sin 2020; 35:445-454. [PMID: 32103448 PMCID: PMC7462945 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-020-00196-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/25/2019] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are the predominant infectious agents for the common cold worldwide. The HRV-C species cause severe illnesses in children and are closely related to acute exacerbations of asthma. 3C protease, a highly conserved enzyme, cleaves the viral polyprotein during replication and assists the virus in escaping the host immune system. These key roles make 3C protease an important drug target. A few structures of 3Cs complexed with an irreversible inhibitor rupintrivir have been determined. These structures shed light on the determinants of drug specificity. Here we describe the structures of HRV-C15 3C in free and inhibitor-bound forms. The volume-decreased S1' subsite and half-closed S2 subsite, which were thought to be unique features of enterovirus A 3C proteases, appear in the HRV-C 3C protease. Rupintrivir assumes an "intermediate" conformation in the complex, which might open up additional avenues for the design of potent antiviral inhibitors. Analysis of the features of the three-dimensional structures and the amino acid sequences of 3C proteases suggest new applications for existing drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Yuan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Kaiyue Fan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Beijing Forestry University, No. 35 Tsinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zhonghao Chen
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China
- Institute of Medical Research, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China
| | - Yao Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Hai Hou
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Space Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China.
- Institute of Medical Research, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, 710072, China.
| | - Ling Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, CAS Center for Excellence in Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
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Cryo-EM structure of rhinovirus C15a bound to its cadherin-related protein 3 receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:6784-6791. [PMID: 32152109 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1921640117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection by Rhinovirus-C (RV-C), a species of Picornaviridae Enterovirus, is strongly associated with childhood asthma exacerbations. Cellular binding and entry by all RV-C, which trigger these episodes, is mediated by the first extracellular domain (EC1) of cadherin-related protein 3 (CDHR3), a surface cadherin-like protein expressed primarily on the apical surfaces of ciliated airway epithelial cells. Although recombinant EC1 is a potent inhibitor of viral infection, there is no molecular description of this protein or its binding site on RV-C. Here we present cryo-electron microscopy (EM) data resolving the EC1 and EC1+2 domains of human CDHR3 complexed with viral isolate C15a. Structure-suggested residues contributing to required interfaces on both EC1 and C15a were probed and identified by mutagenesis studies with four different RV-C genotypes. In contrast to most other rhinoviruses, which bind intercellular adhesion molecule 1 receptors via a capsid protein VP1-specific fivefold canyon feature, the CDHR3 EC1 contacts C15a, and presumably all RV-Cs, in a unique cohesive footprint near the threefold vertex, encompassing residues primarily from viral protein VP3, but also from VP1 and VP2. The EC1+2 footprint on C15a is similar to that of EC1 alone but shows that steric hindrance imposed by EC2 would likely prevent multiprotein binding by the native receptor at any singular threefold vertex. Definition of the molecular interface between the RV-Cs and their receptors provides new avenues that can be explored for potential antiviral therapies.
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Ljubin-Sternak S, Meštrović T, Ivković-Jureković I, Kolarić B, Slović A, Forčić D, Tot T, Mijač M, Vraneš J. The Emerging Role of Rhinoviruses in Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Children - Clinical and Molecular Epidemiological Study From Croatia, 2017-2019. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2737. [PMID: 31849887 PMCID: PMC6901631 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhinoviruses (RVs) are increasingly implicated not only in mild upper respiratory tract infections, but also in more severe lower respiratory tract infections; however, little is known about species diversity and viral epidemiology of RVs among the infected children. Therefore, we investigated the rhinovirus (RV) infection prevalence over a 2-year period, compared it with prevalence patterns of other common respiratory viruses, and explored clinical and molecular epidemiology of RV infections among 590 children hospitalized with acute respiratory infection in north-western and central parts of Croatia. For respiratory virus detection, nasopharyngeal and pharyngeal flocked swabs were taken from each patient and subsequently analyzed with multiplex RT-PCR. To determine the RV species in a subset of positive children, 5'UTR in RV-positive samples has been sequenced. Nucleotide sequences of referent RV strains were retrieved by searching the database with Basic Local Alignment Tool, and used to construct alignments and phylogenetic trees using MAFFT multiple sequence alignment tool and the maximum likelihood method, respectively. In our study population RV was the most frequently detected virus, diagnosed in 197 patients (33.4%), of which 60.4% was detected as a monoinfection. Median age of RV-infected children was 2.25 years, and more than half of children infected with RV (55.8%) presented with lower respiratory tract infections. Most RV cases were detected from September to December, and all three species co-circulated during the analyzed period (2017-2019). Sequence analysis based on 5'UTR region yielded 69 distinct strains; the most prevalent was RV-C (47.4%) followed by RV-A (44.7%) and RV-B (7.9%). Most of RV-A sequences formed a distinct phylogenetic group; only strains RI/HR409-18 (along with a reference strain MF978777) clustered with RV-C strains. Strains belonging to the group C were the most diverse (41.6% identity among strains), while group B was the most conserved (71.5% identity among strains). Despite such differences in strain groups (hitherto undescribed in Croatia), clinical presentation of infected children was rather similar. Our results are consistent with newer studies that investigated the etiology of acute respiratory infections, especially those focused on children with lower respiratory tract infections, where RVs should always be considered as potentially serious pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunčanica Ljubin-Sternak
- Molecular Microbiology Department, Dr. Andrija Štampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
- Medical Microbiology Department, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tomislav Meštrović
- Clinical Microbiology and Parasitology Unit, Polyclinic “Dr. Zora Profozić”, Zagreb, Croatia
- University Centre Varaždin, University North, Varaždin, Croatia
| | - Irena Ivković-Jureković
- Department of Pulmonology, Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Children’s Hospital Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Faculty for Dental Medicine and Healthcare/School of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
| | - Branko Kolarić
- Department of Epidemiology, Dr. Andrija Štampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Anamarija Slović
- Center of Excellence for Virus Immunology and Vaccines, Center for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dubravko Forčić
- Center of Excellence for Virus Immunology and Vaccines, Center for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tatjana Tot
- Department of Microbiology, General Hospital Karlovac, Karlovac, Croatia
| | - Maja Mijač
- Molecular Microbiology Department, Dr. Andrija Štampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
- Medical Microbiology Department, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jasmina Vraneš
- Molecular Microbiology Department, Dr. Andrija Štampar Teaching Institute of Public Health, Zagreb, Croatia
- Medical Microbiology Department, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
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Carrión D, Kaali S, Kinney PL, Owusu-Agyei S, Chillrud S, Yawson AK, Quinn A, Wylie B, Ae-Ngibise K, Lee AG, Tokarz R, Iddrisu L, Jack DW, Asante KP. Examining the relationship between household air pollution and infant microbial nasal carriage in a Ghanaian cohort. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 133:105150. [PMID: 31518936 PMCID: PMC6868532 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pneumonia, a leading cause of childhood mortality, is associated with household air pollution (HAP) exposure. Mechanisms between HAP and pneumonia are poorly understood, but studies suggest that HAP may increase the likelihood of bacterial, instead of viral, pneumonia. We assessed the relationship between HAP and infant microbial nasal carriage among 260 infants participating in the Ghana Randomized Air Pollution and Health Study (GRAPHS). METHODS Data are from GRAPHS, a cluster-randomized controlled trial of cookstove interventions (improved biomass or LPG) versus the 3-stone (baseline) cookstove. Infants were surveyed for pneumonia during the first year of life and had routine personal exposure assessments. Nasopharyngeal swabs collected from pneumonia cases (n = 130) and healthy controls (n = 130) were analyzed for presence of 22 common respiratory microbes by MassTag polymerase chain reaction. Data analyses included intention-to-treat (ITT) comparisons of microbial species presence by study arm, and exposure-response relationships. RESULTS In ITT analyses, 3-stone arm participants had a higher mean number of microbial species than the LPG (LPG: 2.71, 3-stone: 3.34, p < 0.0001, n = 260). This difference was driven by increased bacterial (p < 0.0001) rather than viral species presence (non-significant). Results were pronounced in pneumonia cases and attenuated in healthy controls. Higher prevalence bacterial species were Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. Exposure-response relationships did not yield significant associations between measured CO and nasal microbial carriage. CONCLUSIONS Our intention-to-treat findings are consistent with a link between HAP and bacterial nasal carriage. No relationships were found for viral carriage. Given the null results in exposure-response analysis, it is likely that a pollutant besides CO is driving these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Seyram Kaali
- Kintampo Health Research Centre, Kintampo, Ghana
| | - Patrick L Kinney
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University, Boston, USA
| | | | - Steven Chillrud
- Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | | | - Ashlinn Quinn
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Blair Wylie
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, USA
| | | | - Alison G Lee
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
| | - Rafal Tokarz
- Center for Infection and Immunity, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | | | - Darby W Jack
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University, New York, USA.
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Noyola DE, Hunsberger S, Valdés Salgado R, Powers JH, Galindo-Fraga A, Ortiz-Hernández AA, Ramirez-Venegas A, Moreno-Espinosa S, Llamosas-Gallardo B, Guerrero ML, Beigel JH, Ruiz-Palacios G, Perez-Patrigeon S. Comparison of Rates of Hospitalization Between Single and Dual Virus Detection in a Mexican Cohort of Children and Adults With Influenza-Like Illness. Open Forum Infect Dis 2019; 6:ofz424. [PMID: 31696140 PMCID: PMC6824528 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofz424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Molecular detection methods allow for the simultaneous detection of several infectious agents. This study assesses whether co-infection with 2 viruses as compared with 1 is associated with increased hospitalization in those with acute respiratory infections. METHODS We prospectively enrolled a cohort of pediatric and adult participants with influenza-like illness during 2010-2014 in Mexico. Clinical information and respiratory samples were collected at enrollment. Respiratory viruses were detected with multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and influenza-specific reverse transcription PCR assays. Participants were followed for 14 and 28 days after inclusion. Severity of disease, as measured by hospitalization with acute respiratory infections, was compared between single and dual viral infections. RESULTS Among 5662 participants in the study, either 1 (n = 3285) or 2 (n = 641) viruses were detected in 3926 participants. Rhinovirus (n = 1433), influenza (n = 888), and coronaviruses (n = 703) were the most frequently detected viruses (either alone or in co-infection). Bocavirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), metapneumovirus, and rhinovirus cases were hospitalized more often than other viruses. Bocavirus+rhinovirus cases were hospitalized more often than those with rhinovirus alone (but not bocavirus alone). RSV cases were more likely to be hospitalized than cases with co-infections of RSV and parainfluenza virus or coronavirus. Metapneumovirus cases were hospitalized more often than those co-infected with metapneumovirus+coronavirus. CONCLUSIONS In this study, detection of 2 viruses did not significantly increase hospitalizations compared with single virus infections. Larger studies will allow for distinguishing between sequential and simultaneous infection and for a better understanding of the role of each virus during the evolution of acute respiratory episodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Noyola
- Microbiology Department, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, México
| | - Sally Hunsberger
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - John H Powers
- Clinical Research Directorate, FrederickNational Laboratory for Cancer Research sponsored by the National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Arturo Galindo-Fraga
- Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico city, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | - M Lourdes Guerrero
- Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico city, Mexico
| | - John H Beigel
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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van Rijn AL, van Boheemen S, Sidorov I, Carbo EC, Pappas N, Mei H, Feltkamp M, Aanerud M, Bakke P, Claas ECJ, Eagan TM, Hiemstra PS, Kroes ACM, de Vries JJC. The respiratory virome and exacerbations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223952. [PMID: 31647831 PMCID: PMC6812800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Exacerbations are major contributors to morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and respiratory bacterial and viral infections are an important trigger. However, using conventional diagnostic techniques, a causative agent is not always found. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) allows analysis of the complete virome, but has not yet been applied in COPD exacerbations. OBJECTIVES To study the respiratory virome in nasopharyngeal samples during COPD exacerbations using mNGS. STUDY DESIGN 88 nasopharyngeal swabs from 63 patients from the Bergen COPD Exacerbation Study (2006-2010) were analysed by mNGS and in-house qPCR for respiratory viruses. Both DNA and RNA were sequenced simultaneously using an Illumina library preparation protocol with in-house adaptations. RESULTS By mNGS, 24/88 samples tested positive. Sensitivity and specificity, as compared with PCR, were 96% and 98% for diagnostic targets (23/24 and 1093/1120, respectively). Additional viral pathogens detected by mNGS were herpes simplex virus type 1 and coronavirus OC43. A positive correlation was found between Cq value and mNGS viral normalized species reads (log value) (p = 0.002). Patients with viral pathogens had lower percentages of bacteriophages (p<0.001). No correlation was found between viral reads and clinical markers. CONCLUSIONS The mNGS protocol used was highly sensitive and specific for semi-quantitative detection of respiratory viruses. Excellent negative predictive value implicates the power of mNGS to exclude any pathogenic respiratory viral infectious cause in one test, with consequences for clinical decision making. Reduced abundance of bacteriophages in COPD patients with viral pathogens implicates skewing of the virome during infection, with potential consequences for the bacterial populations, during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneloes L. van Rijn
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Sander van Boheemen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Igor Sidorov
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Ellen C. Carbo
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Nikos Pappas
- Sequencing Analysis Support Core, Department of Medical Data Sciences, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Hailiang Mei
- Sequencing Analysis Support Core, Department of Medical Data Sciences, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Mariet Feltkamp
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Marianne Aanerud
- Department of Thoracic Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Per Bakke
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Eric C. J. Claas
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Tomas M. Eagan
- Department of Thoracic Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Pieter S. Hiemstra
- Department of Pulmonology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Aloys C. M. Kroes
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Jutte J. C. de Vries
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
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Yuan XH, Li YM, Shen YY, Yang J, Jin Y. Clinical and Th1/Th2 immune response features of hospitalized children with human rhinovirus infection. J Med Virol 2019; 92:26-33. [PMID: 31475732 PMCID: PMC7166431 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the clinical characteristics and T-helper 1 (Th1)/Th2 profile of human rhinovirus (HRV) infection in children with bronchiolitis and pneumonia, compared with the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). In September 2013 to August 2014, 335 nasopharyngeal aspirates from children below 14 with bronchiolitis and pneumonia were screened for HRV and 13 other respiratory viruses by PCR or reverse transcription PCR. Interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were detected by multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. HRVs were found in 66 cases (19.7%), including 35 bronchiolitis and 31 pneumonia cases. Compared with the RSV alone group, children with pneumonia had more frequent wheezing episodes in HRV (Pa = .001) and HRV + non-RSV (Pb = .002) groups, and fever in the HRV (Pf = .004) and HRV + RSV (Pg = .005) groups. Among patients with bronchiolitis, cases with HRV alone were more likely to present in winter than those with RSV alone (Pi = .010) and HRV + non-RSV (Pj = .014), and less numerous in summer compared with HRV + non-RSV (Ph = .005). Children with HRV alone were more susceptible to have a history of eczema than RSV alone among bronchiolitis (Pc < .001) and pneumonia (Pe = .033) cases. HRV bronchiolitis cases had increased IL-4/IFN-γ and decreased TNF-α/IL-10 ratios, compared with HRV pneumonia counterparts. HRV is a major non-RSV pathogen causing hospitalization in children with bronchiolitis and pneumonia and induces an imbalanced Th1/Th2 response in bronchiolitis. Compared with RSV infection, HRV bronchiolitis and pneumonia differ significantly regarding wheezing episodes, susceptibility to eczema, fever occurrence, and seasonal prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Hui Yuan
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China.,Digestive Department, Nanjing Children's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.,Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yu-Mei Li
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yi-Yi Shen
- Digestive Department, Nanjing Children's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jin Yang
- Digestive Department, Nanjing Children's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yu Jin
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China.,Digestive Department, Nanjing Children's Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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Abstract
The genus Enterovirus (EV) of the family Picornaviridae includes poliovirus, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, numbered enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. These diverse viruses cause a variety of diseases, including non-specific febrile illness, hand-foot-and-mouth disease, neonatal sepsis-like disease, encephalitis, paralysis and respiratory diseases. In recent years, several non-polio enteroviruses (NPEVs) have emerged as serious public health concerns. These include EV-A71, which has caused epidemics of hand-foot-and-mouth disease in Southeast Asia, and EV-D68, which recently caused a large outbreak of severe lower respiratory tract disease in North America. Infections with these viruses are associated with severe neurological complications. For decades, most research has focused on poliovirus, but in recent years, our knowledge of NPEVs has increased considerably. In this Review, we summarize recent insights from enterovirus research with a special emphasis on NPEVs. We discuss virion structures, host-receptor interactions, viral uncoating and the recent discovery of a universal enterovirus host factor that is involved in viral genome release. Moreover, we briefly explain the mechanisms of viral genome replication, virion assembly and virion release, and describe potential targets for antiviral therapy. We reflect on how these recent discoveries may help the development of antiviral therapies and vaccines.
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Molecular Subtyping of Human Rhinovirus in Children from Three Sub-Saharan African Countries. J Clin Microbiol 2019; 57:JCM.00723-19. [PMID: 31270180 PMCID: PMC6711929 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00723-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of human rhinovirus (HRV) during severe respiratory disease remains undefined; thus, we aimed to explore the relationship between the HRV molecular subtyping results obtained during severe and asymptomatic childhood infections. Nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal swabs from children (1 to 59 months of age) hospitalized with pneumonia and from age-frequency-matched controls were collected between August 2011 and August 2013. The pathogenesis of human rhinovirus (HRV) during severe respiratory disease remains undefined; thus, we aimed to explore the relationship between the HRV molecular subtyping results obtained during severe and asymptomatic childhood infections. Nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal swabs from children (1 to 59 months of age) hospitalized with pneumonia and from age-frequency-matched controls were collected between August 2011 and August 2013. Swabs were tested for respiratory pathogens, including HRV, using quantitative real-time PCR assays. HRV-positive samples were sequenced for phylogenetic analysis by targeting the 5′ noncoding region (5′NCR). Our data showed that there were no differences in the prevalence of HRV detection among cases and controls (21% versus 20%, P = 0.693); however, among children 13 to 59 months old, HRV detection was more often case associated (21% versus 16%; P = 0.009), with the results mainly driven by HRV-C (12% versus 7%; P = 0.001). Overall, there were no differences in the results of molecular subtyping of the HRV species prevalence among cases (for HRV-A, 48%; for HRV-B, 7%; for HRV-C, 45%) and controls (for HRV-A, 45%; for HRV-B, 10%; for HRV-C, 45% [P = 0.496]). Those with pneumonia and HRV-C were older (12.1 versus 9.4 months, P = 0.033) and more likely to present with wheeze (35% versus 25%, P = 0.031) than those with HRV-A cases. Thus, the rate of HRV detection was high, with similar degrees of genetic diversity among cases and controls, confounding the interpretation of the presence of HRV in nasopharyngeal samples for attribution of a causal role in the pathogenesis of severe pneumonia in infants. However, among children 13 to 59 months of age, HRV detection, in particular, HRV-C detection, was associated with case status, especially among children with wheezing disease.
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Juarez D, Guevara C, Wiley M, Torre A, Palacios G, Halsey ES, Ampuero S, Leguia M. Isolation of Complete Equine Encephalitis Virus Genome from Human Swab Specimen, Peru. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 24:1578-1580. [PMID: 30016240 PMCID: PMC6056129 DOI: 10.3201/eid2408.171274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
While studying respiratory infections in Peru, we identified Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) in a nasopharyngeal swab, indicating that this alphavirus can be present in human respiratory secretions. Because VEEV may be infectious when aerosolized, our finding is relevant for the management of VEEV-infected patients and for VEEV transmission studies.
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Nakauchi M, Takayama I, Takahashi H, Semba S, Saito S, Kubo H, Kaida A, Oba K, Nagata S, Odagiri T, Kageyama T. Development of real-time fluorescent reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assays for rhinovirus detection. J Med Virol 2019; 91:1232-1238. [PMID: 30735248 PMCID: PMC7166982 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Human rhinoviruses (RVs) belong to the genus Enterovirus of the family Picornaviridae, and are classified into RV-A, -B, and -C species. Two assays were developed to detect RVs by a real-time fluorescent reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification method: one was designed based on the 5'-untranslated regions (UTRs) of RV-A and -B, and the other was designed based on the 5'-UTR of RV-C. The competence of both assays for the diagnosis of RV infection was tested using isolated viruses and compared with real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays on clinical specimens. Neither assay demonstrated cross-reactivity with other tested enteroviruses, and they detected 19 out of 21 tested RV-As and seven out of eight tested RV-Cs. The specificity of the assays was 100% for the detection of RVs and their sensitivity for RV-A and RV-C was 86.3% and 77.3%, respectively, on clinical specimens by the combined use of both assays. Considering that both developed assays were highly specific and detected the majority of recently circulating RVs, they are helpful for the diagnosis of RV infection. Consequently, the results generated by these assays will enhance the surveillance of respiratory illness and the study of the roles of RVs associated with clinical features and disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Nakauchi
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ikuyo Takayama
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Takahashi
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shohei Semba
- Eiken Chemical Co, Ltd, Taito, Taito-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shinji Saito
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Kubo
- Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health, Tojo-cho, Tennoji-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kaida
- Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health, Tojo-cho, Tennoji-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kunihiro Oba
- Department of Pediatrics, Showa General Hospital, Hanakoganei, Kodaira-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shiho Nagata
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takato Odagiri
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Kageyama
- Influenza Virus Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Gakuen, Musashimuyayama-shi, Tokyo, Japan
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Schuster
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Mercy Kansas City, 2401 Gillham Road, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA.
| | - John V Williams
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 9122 Rangos Research Building, 4401 Penn Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15224, USA
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Abstract
Human rhinovirus is responsible for causing 50% of common cold infections in infants and adults. It belongs to the picornavirus family of nonenveloped positive-strand RNA viruses. The RNA synthesis of rhinovirus is carried out by RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, also known as 3DPol. It catalyzes the synthesis of negative-strand RNA using a positive-strand template. The structure of the enzyme consists of three domains: palm, fingers, and thumb domains and Mg2+ in the active site. These conserved structural features of the enzyme help in catalyzing phosphodiester bond formation between the two consecutive nucleotide units complimentary to the template RNA using a VPg primer. Owing to the presence of over 100 serotypes of the enzyme, designing specific inhibitors targeting the polymerase is a challenging task and until now no clinically approved antirhino viral drug is reported. In this review, we have given detailed information about the structure and function of the enzyme and also discussed some of the inhibitors and their in vivo activity against 3DPol.
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Abstract
Rhinoviruses are the most common cause of upper respiratory tract infections. However, they can induce exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma, bronchiolitis in infants, and significant lower respiratory tract infections in children, the immunosuppressed, and the elderly. The large number of rhinovirus strains (currently about 160) and their antigenic diversity are significant obstacles in vaccine development. The phenotype of immune responses induced during rhinovirus infection can affect disease severity. Recognition of rhinovirus and a balance of innate responses are important factors in rhinovirus-induced morbidity. Immune responses to rhinovirus infections in healthy individuals are typically of the T helper type 1 (Th1) phenotype. However, rhinovirus-driven asthma exacerbations are additionally characterised by an amplified Th2 immune response and airway neutrophilia. This commentary focuses on recent advances in understanding immunity toward rhinovirus infection and how innate and adaptive immune responses drive rhinovirus-induced asthma exacerbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridon Makris
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sebastian Johnston
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Medical Research Council and Asthma UK Centre in Allergic Mechanisms of Asthma, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Han M, Rajput C, Hinde JL, Wu Q, Lei J, Ishikawa T, Bentley JK, Hershenson MB. Construction of a recombinant rhinovirus accommodating fluorescent marker expression. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2018; 12:717-727. [PMID: 30120824 PMCID: PMC6185886 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rhinovirus (RV) causes the common cold and asthma exacerbations. The RV genome is a 7.3 kb single‐strand positive‐sense RNA. Objective Using minor group RV1A as a backbone, we sought to design and generate a recombinant RV1A accommodating fluorescent marker expression, thereby allowing tracking of viral infection. Method Recombinant RV1A infectious cDNA clones harboring the coding sequence of green fluorescent protein (GFP), Renilla luciferase, or iLOV (for light, oxygen, or voltage sensing) were engineered and constructed. RV‐infected cells were determined by flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence microscopy. Results RV1A‐GFP showed a cytopathic effect in HeLa cells but failed to express GFP or Renilla luciferase due to deletion. The smaller fluorescent protein construct, RV1A‐iLOV, was stably expressed in infected cells. RV1A‐iLOV expression was used to examine the antiviral effect of bafilomycin in HeLa cells. Compared to parental virus, RV1A‐iLOV infection of BALB/c mice yielded a similar viral load and level of cytokine mRNA expression. However, imaging of fixed lung tissue failed to reveal a fluorescent signal, likely due to the oxidation and bleaching of iLOV‐bound flavin mononucleotide. We therefore employed an anti‐iLOV antibody for immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence imaging. The iLOV signal was identified in airway epithelial cells and CD45+ CD11b+ lung macrophages. Conclusions These results suggest that RV1A‐iLOV is a useful molecular tool for studying RV pathogenesis. The construction strategy for RV1A‐iLOV could be applied to other RV serotypes. However, the detection of iLOV‐expressing RV in fixed tissue required the use of an anti‐iLOV antibody, limiting the value of this construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyuan Han
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Charu Rajput
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Joanna L Hinde
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Qian Wu
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Jing Lei
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Tomoko Ishikawa
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - J Kelley Bentley
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Marc B Hershenson
- Department of Pediatrics & Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Genome Sequences of Rhinovirus Genotype C56 Detected in Three Patients with Acute Respiratory Illness, California, 2016 to 2017. Microbiol Resour Announc 2018; 7. [PMID: 30320303 PMCID: PMC6180327 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00982-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
We report here two genome sequences of a newly designated rhinovirus genotype, RV-C56, which were obtained from respiratory specimens of three patients with acute respiratory illness in 2016 and 2017. To our knowledge, these sequences represent the first near-complete genomes for RV-C56 strains.
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Zhao Y, Shen J, Wu B, Liu G, Lu R, Tan W. Genotypic Diversity and Epidemiology of Human Rhinovirus Among Children With Severe Acute Respiratory Tract Infection in Shanghai, 2013-2015. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1836. [PMID: 30131797 PMCID: PMC6090050 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human rhinovirus (HRV), and particularly HRV-C, is increasingly recognized as a cause of severe acute respiratory infections (SARIs). However, little is known about the genotypic diversity and epidemiology of HRV among children with SARI. Thus, we investigated the genotypic diversity and epidemiology of HRV in children with SARI in China over a 2-year period. In total 1,003, nasopharyngeal aspirates were collected from children hospitalized with SARI in Shanghai from 2013 to 2015. HRV was screened for by a PCR method targeting the viral 5' UTR and was genotyped by sequencing of the VP4-VP2 region of the HRV genome. We also screened for 15 other common respiratory viruses to assess the prevalence of co-infection with HRV. The patient demographic and clinical data were reviewed. HRV was detected in 280 (27.9%) of the 1,003 specimens: HRV-A in 140 (14.0%), HRV-B in 21 (2.1%), HRV-C in 56 (5.6%), and HRV-untyped in 63 (6.3%). A phylogenetic analysis identified 77 genotypes (43 HRV-A, 10 HRV-B, and 24 HRV-C), among which A78, A12, A89, B70, C2, C6, and C24 predominated. HRV-A was detected mainly in winter 2013 and autumn 2014, while HRV-C detection peaked in autumn 2013 and 2014. The detection frequency of HRV-A was highest in patients <5 years old. Most HRV co-infections involved adenovirus, human bocavirus, and/or human respiratory syncytial virus. In conclusion, HRV-A and -C predominate in children with SARI in Shanghai. Among the 77 genotypes detected, A78, A12, A89, B70, C2, C6, and C24 were the most frequent. The HRV species responsible for SARIs differs according to season and age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjie Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Virology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Shen
- Infectious Disease Department, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bingjie Wu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Virology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Gaoshan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Virology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Roujian Lu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Virology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
| | - Wenjie Tan
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medical Virology, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, China
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Review on Clinical and Molecular Epidemiology of Human Rhinovirus-Associated Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in African and Southeast Asian Children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2018; 37:e185-e194. [PMID: 29893746 DOI: 10.1097/inf.0000000000001897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The detection of human rhinoviruses (HRV) is highly prevalent in children with pneumonia, bronchiolitis, acute asthma and croup; however, there is also evidence that HRV is common in asymptomatic individuals. The majority of studies on the role of different HRV serotypes during acute respiratory tract infections episodes have limited sample size to fully characterize the epidemiology of HRV infection, including those from low-middle income countries, where the burden of childhood respiratory disease is greatest. METHODS We systematically reviewed HRV clinical and molecular epidemiology in low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Southeast Asia before November 2015. RESULTS We identified 31 studies, which included data from 13 African and 6 Southeast Asian countries, emphasizing the gaps in knowledge surrounding HRV infections. HRV was one of the most prevalent respiratory viruses detected during childhood respiratory disease (13%-59%); however, many studies could not determine the attributable role of HRV in the pathogenesis of acute respiratory infections due to high prevalence of detection among asymptomatic individuals (6%-50%). A meta-analysis showed no significant difference in the prevalence of HRV identification between children of different age groups; or between children with severe disease compared with asymptomatic children. CONCLUSIONS These data highlight the need for large-scale surveillance projects to determine the attributable etiologic role of HRV in respiratory disease.
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Restori KH, Srinivasa BT, Ward BJ, Fixman ED. Neonatal Immunity, Respiratory Virus Infections, and the Development of Asthma. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1249. [PMID: 29915592 PMCID: PMC5994399 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Infants are exposed to a wide range of potential pathogens in the first months of life. Although maternal antibodies acquired transplacentally protect full-term neonates from many systemic pathogens, infections at mucosal surfaces still occur with great frequency, causing significant morbidity and mortality. At least part of this elevated risk is attributable to the neonatal immune system that tends to favor T regulatory and Th2 type responses when microbes are first encountered. Early-life infection with respiratory viruses is of particular interest because such exposures can disrupt normal lung development and increase the risk of chronic respiratory conditions, such as asthma. The immunologic mechanisms that underlie neonatal host-virus interactions that contribute to the subsequent development of asthma have not yet been fully defined. The goals of this review are (1) to outline the differences between the neonatal and adult immune systems and (2) to present murine and human data that support the hypothesis that early-life interactions between the immune system and respiratory viruses can create a lung environment conducive to the development of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine H Restori
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Bharat T Srinivasa
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Brian J Ward
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Elizabeth D Fixman
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Meakins-Christie Laboratories, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada
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44
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Ling H, Yang P, Hou H, Sun Y. Structural view of the 2A protease from human rhinovirus C15. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2018; 74:255-261. [PMID: 29633974 PMCID: PMC5894110 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x18003382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of outbreaks of the common cold are caused by rhinoviruses. The 2A protease (2Apro) of human rhinoviruses (HRVs) is known to play important roles in the propagation of the virus and the modulation of host signal pathways to facilitate viral replication. The 2Apro from human rhinovirus C15 (HRV-C15) has been expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by affinity chromatography, ion-exchange chromatography and gel-filtration chromatography. The crystals diffracted to 2.6 Å resolution. The structure was solved by molecular replacement using the structure of 2Apro from coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) as the search model. The structure contains a conserved His-Asp-Cys catalytic triad and a Zn2+-binding site. Comparison with other 2Apro structures from enteroviruses reveals that the substrate-binding cleft of 2Apro from HRV-C15 exhibits a more open conformation, which presumably favours substrate binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ling
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pan Yang
- National Laboratory of Macromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hai Hou
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yao Sun
- National Laboratory of Macromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People’s Republic of China
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45
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Nikonov OS, Chernykh ES, Garber MB, Nikonova EY. Enteroviruses: Classification, Diseases They Cause, and Approaches to Development of Antiviral Drugs. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2018. [PMID: 29523062 PMCID: PMC7087576 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297917130041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The genus Enterovirus combines a portion of small (+)ssRNA-containing viruses and is divided into 10 species of true enteroviruses and three species of rhinoviruses. These viruses are causative agents of the widest spectrum of severe and deadly epidemic diseases of higher vertebrates, including humans. Their ubiquitous distribution and high pathogenici- ty motivate active search to counteract enterovirus infections. There are no sufficiently effective drugs targeted against enteroviral diseases, thus treatment is reduced to supportive and symptomatic measures. This makes it extremely urgent to develop drugs that directly affect enteroviruses and hinder their development and spread in infected organisms. In this review, we cover the classification of enteroviruses, mention the most common enterovirus infections and their clinical man- ifestations, and consider the current state of development of anti-enteroviral drugs. One of the most promising targets for such antiviral drugs is the viral Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES). The classification of these elements of the viral mRNA translation system is also examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- O S Nikonov
- Institute of Protein Research, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, 142290, Russia.
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46
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Stenberg Hammar K, Niespodziana K, van Hage M, Kere J, Valenta R, Hedlin G, Söderhäll C. Reduced CDHR3 expression in children wheezing with rhinovirus. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2018; 29:200-206. [PMID: 29314338 DOI: 10.1111/pai.12858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhinovirus-induced wheezing in young children has been associated with increased asthma risk at school age. Recently, the transmembrane protein cadherin-related family member 3 (CDHR3) was identified as the RV-C receptor and the genetic variant rs6967330 (p.Cys529Tyr) was reported to be associated with enhanced RV-C binding and increased replication in vitro. The aim of this study was to examine rs6967330 genotypes and mRNA expression of CDHR3 in relation to presence of rhinovirus and clinical symptoms in children with acute wheezing and compare to a group of age-matched healthy children. METHODS rs6967330;G>A was genotyped (n = 216), and CDHR3 mRNA expression was measured in peripheral blood leukocytes (n = 69) from a subgroup of children wheezing with RV infection acute and at a follow-up visit 2-3 months later, and in healthy controls. Standardized TaqMan assays were used. RESULTS The risk allele rs6967330-A was over-represented in the wheezing group (P < .001). Reduced mRNA levels of CDHR3 were found in children with acute wheezing as compared to the control group (P = .001). Children with the rs6967330 genotypes AA/AG showed the largest differences in CDHR3 expression between acute and follow-up visit (P < .04). CONCLUSIONS Preschool children with RV-induced wheezing were shown to have reduced CDHR3 mRNA levels, which might result in an increased permeability of the epithelial layers of the airways and thereby an increased vulnerability. Thus, measuring CDHR3 mRNA levels might help to identify a more severe phenotype of wheezing preschool children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Stenberg Hammar
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Centre of Allergy Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Katarzyna Niespodziana
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center of Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marianne van Hage
- Immunology and Allergy Unit, Department of Medicine, Solna, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Juha Kere
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Molecular Neurology Research Program, University of Helsinki and Folkhälsan Institute of Genetics, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rudolf Valenta
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center of Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gunilla Hedlin
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Centre of Allergy Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cilla Söderhäll
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Centre of Allergy Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Lethbridge R, Prastanti F, Robertson C, Oo S, Khoo SK, Le Souëf PN, Laing IA. Prospective Assessment of Rhinovirus Symptoms and Species Recurrence in Children With and Without an Acute Wheezing Exacerbation. Viral Immunol 2018; 31:299-305. [PMID: 29446705 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2017.0152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To assess if the difference in species-specific immune response to RV-C correlates with a higher frequency of reinfection, shorter time to reinfection, or different symptom severity than infections with RV-A or RV-B. Forty-three patients were enrolled of which 34 were successfully tracked longitudinally over 3 months, with nasal swabs and symptom questionnaires provided every 2 weeks to identify rhinovirus (RV) strains and the concurrent symptomatology. No difference was found in the time to reinfection with an RV species between RV-C and RV-A or RV-B (p = 0.866). There was a trend toward more rapid reinfection with the same species in RV-C than RV-A (55.1 days vs. 67.9 days), but this failed to reach statistical significance (p = 0.105). RV infections were generally associated with only minor symptoms, with rhinorrhea being the only significantly associated symptom (p = 0.01). RV-C was shown to have higher levels of lethargy and wheeze than other RV species. Time to reinfection with subsequent RV is not influenced by the species of the preceding RV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Lethbridge
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
| | - Franciska Prastanti
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
| | - Cassandra Robertson
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
| | - Stephen Oo
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
| | - Siew-Kim Khoo
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
| | - Peter N Le Souëf
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
| | - Ingrid A Laing
- School of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Western Australia , Perth, Australia
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48
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Jia Z, Sukker I, Müller M, Schönherr H. Selective Discrimination of Key Enzymes of Pathogenic and Nonpathogenic Bacteria on Autonomously Reporting Shape-Encoded Hydrogel Patterns. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:5175-5184. [PMID: 29345895 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b15147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This work reports on a new approach to rapidly and selectively detect and discriminate enzymes of pathogenic from those of nonpathogenic bacteria using a patterned autonomously reporting hydrogel on a transparent support, in which the selectivity has been encoded by the pattern shape to enable facile detection by a color change at one single wavelength. In particular, enzyme-responsive chitosan hydrogel layers that report the presence of the enzymes β-glucuronidase (β-Gus) and β-galactosidase (β-Gal), produced by the nonvirulent Escherichia coli K12 and the food-borne biosafety level 3 pathogen enterohemorrhagic E. coli, respectively, via the blue color of an indigo dye were patterned by two complementary strategies. The comparison of the functionalization of patterned chitosan patches on a solid support with two chromogenic substrates on one hand and the area-selective conjugation of the substrates on the other hand showed that the two characteristic enzymes could indeed be rapidly and selectively discriminated. The limits of detection of the highly stable sensing layers for an observation time of 60 min using a spectrophotometer correspond to enzyme concentrations of β-Gus and β-Gal of ≤5 and ≤3 nM, respectively, and to ≤62 and ≤33 nM for bare eye detection in nonoptimized sensor patches. These results confirm the applicability of this approach, which is compatible with the simple measurement of optical density at one single wavelength only as well as with parallel, multiplexed detection, to differentiate the enzymes secreted by a highly pathogenic E. coli from a nonpathogenic E. coli on the basis of specifically secreted enzymes. Hence, a general approach for the rapid and selective detection of enzymes of different bacterial species for potential applications in food safety as well as point-of-care microbiological diagnostics is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Jia
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen , Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany
| | - Issa Sukker
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen , Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany
| | - Mareike Müller
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen , Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany
| | - Holger Schönherr
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen , Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany
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Whole-Genome Sequence of Human Rhinovirus C47, Isolated from an Adult Respiratory Illness Outbreak in Butte County, California, 2017. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2018; 6:6/5/e01579-17. [PMID: 29437112 PMCID: PMC5794959 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.01579-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report the full coding sequence of rhinovirus C47 (RV-C47), obtained from a patient respiratory sample collected during an acute respiratory illness investigation in Butte County, California, in January 2017. This is the first whole-genome sequence of RV-C47 to be reported.
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Stobart CC, Nosek JM, Moore ML. Rhinovirus Biology, Antigenic Diversity, and Advancements in the Design of a Human Rhinovirus Vaccine. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:2412. [PMID: 29259600 PMCID: PMC5723287 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human rhinovirus (HRV) remains a leading cause of several human diseases including the common cold. Despite considerable research over the last 60 years, development of an effective vaccine to HRV has been viewed by many as unfeasible due, in part, to the antigenic diversity of circulating HRVs in nature. Over 150 antigenically distinct types of HRV are currently known which span three species: HRV A, HRV B, and HRV C. Early attempts to develop a rhinovirus vaccine have shown that inactivated HRV is capable of serving as a strong immunogen and inducing neutralizing antibodies. Yet, limitations to virus preparation and recovery, continued identification of antigenic variants of HRV, and logistical challenges pertaining to preparing a polyvalent preparation of the magnitude required for true efficacy against circulating rhinoviruses continue to prove a daunting challenge. In this review, we describe HRV biology, antigenic diversity, and past and present advances in HRV vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Stobart
- Department of Biological Sciences, Butler University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Jenna M Nosek
- Department of Biological Sciences, Butler University, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Martin L Moore
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, United States
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