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Pang QM, Chen SY, Xu QJ, Zhang M, Liang DF, Fu SP, Yu J, Liu ZL, Zhang Q, Zhang T. Effects of astrocytes and microglia on neuroinflammation after spinal cord injury and related immunomodulatory strategies. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 108:108754. [PMID: 35397392 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a catastrophic event which is still without adequate therapies. Neuroinflammation is the main pathogenesis of secondary damage post-SCI, leading to tissue loss and neurological dysfunction. Previous studies have shown that microglia and astrocytes are the major immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and play a crucial role in modulating neuroinflammatory responses. In this study, we mainly review the effects of neuroinflammation in SCI, focusing on the contributions of microglia and astrocytes and their cross-talk. Furthermore, we will also discuss therapeutic strategies on how to regulate their immunophenotype to suppress robust inflammation and facilitate injury prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Ming Pang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China; Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Si-Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Qi-Jing Xu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Da-Fei Liang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Sheng-Ping Fu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China; Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Jiang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Zu-Lin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China.
| | - Tao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China; Department of Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China.
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Manangeeswaran M, Lewkowicz AP, Israely T, Ireland DDC, Verthelyi D. CpG Oligonucleotides Protect Mice From Alphavirus Encephalitis: Role of NK Cells, Interferons, and TNF. Front Immunol 2020; 11:237. [PMID: 32133008 PMCID: PMC7040238 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses including alphavirus are responsible for most emerging infectious diseases worldwide. Recent outbreaks of chikungunya virus serve as a stark reminder to their pathogenic potential. There are no vaccines or therapeutics currently available to contain alphavirus outbreaks. In this study we evaluated the effect of immunomodulatory CpG ODN on the clinical progression of neurotropic Sindbis virus infection. Neonatal C57Bl-6 mice challenged with Sindbis virus AR339 (25 PFU Subcutaneous) infect neurons in the CNS leading to the development of ataxia, seizures, paralysis, and death. We show that systemic administration of CpG ODN modulates the cytokine and chemokine gene expression levels in the CNS and ultimately protects neonatal mice from lethal neurotropic infection. The protection conferred by CpG ODN is controlled by innate immune response and T and B cells were dispensable. Further, protection required Type I, Type II interferons, and TNF as well as functional NK cells, but did not involve iNOS. This study confirms that administration of innate immune modulators can be used as a strategy to boost host innate immune responses and protect against neurotropic viruses reducing their pathogenic footprint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohanraj Manangeeswaran
- Division of Biotechnology Review and Research-III, Office of Biotechnology Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Aaron P Lewkowicz
- Division of Biotechnology Review and Research-III, Office of Biotechnology Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Tomer Israely
- Division of Biotechnology Review and Research-III, Office of Biotechnology Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Derek D C Ireland
- Division of Biotechnology Review and Research-III, Office of Biotechnology Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Daniela Verthelyi
- Division of Biotechnology Review and Research-III, Office of Biotechnology Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
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Benbenishty A, Gadrich M, Cottarelli A, Lubart A, Kain D, Amer M, Shaashua L, Glasner A, Erez N, Agalliu D, Mayo L, Ben-Eliyahu S, Blinder P. Prophylactic TLR9 stimulation reduces brain metastasis through microglia activation. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e2006859. [PMID: 30921319 PMCID: PMC6469801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2006859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain metastases are prevalent in various types of cancer and are often terminal, given the low efficacy of available therapies. Therefore, preventing them is of utmost clinical relevance, and prophylactic treatments are perhaps the most efficient strategy. Here, we show that systemic prophylactic administration of a toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 agonist, CpG-C, is effective against brain metastases. Acute and chronic systemic administration of CpG-C reduced tumor cell seeding and growth in the brain in three tumor models in mice, including metastasis of human and mouse lung cancer, and spontaneous melanoma-derived brain metastasis. Studying mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of CpG-C, we found that in the brain, unlike in the periphery, natural killer (NK) cells and monocytes are not involved in controlling metastasis. Next, we demonstrated that the systemically administered CpG-C is taken up by endothelial cells, astrocytes, and microglia, without affecting blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity and tumor brain extravasation. In vitro assays pointed to microglia, but not astrocytes, as mediators of CpG- C effects through increased tumor killing and phagocytosis, mediated by direct microglia-tumor contact. In vivo, CpG-C-activated microglia displayed elevated mRNA expression levels of apoptosis-inducing and phagocytosis-related genes. Intravital imaging showed that CpG-C-activated microglia cells contact, kill, and phagocytize tumor cells in the early stages of tumor brain invasion more than nonactivated microglia. Blocking in vivo activation of microglia with minocycline, and depletion of microglia with a colony-stimulating factor 1 inhibitor, indicated that microglia mediate the antitumor effects of CpG-C. Overall, the results suggest prophylactic CpG-C treatment as a new intervention against brain metastasis, through an essential activation of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Benbenishty
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Neurobiology Department, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Meital Gadrich
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- School for Molecular Cell Biology & Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Azzurra Cottarelli
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Alisa Lubart
- Neurobiology Department, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - David Kain
- Neurobiology Department, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Malak Amer
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Lee Shaashua
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ariella Glasner
- The Lautenberg Centre for General and Tumor Immunology, The Hebrew University Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Neta Erez
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Dritan Agalliu
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Lior Mayo
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- School for Molecular Cell Biology & Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Shamgar Ben-Eliyahu
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Pablo Blinder
- Neurobiology Department, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Ursu R, Carpentier A, Metellus P, Lubrano V, Laigle-Donadey F, Capelle L, Guyotat J, Langlois O, Bauchet L, Desseaux K, Tibi A, Chinot O, Lambert J, Carpentier AF. Intracerebral injection of CpG oligonucleotide for patients with de novo glioblastoma-A phase II multicentric, randomised study. Eur J Cancer 2017; 73:30-37. [PMID: 28142059 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immunostimulating oligodeoxynucleotides containing unmethylated cytosine-guanosine motifs (CpG-ODN) have shown a promising efficacy in several cancer models when injected locally. A previous phase II study of CpG-ODN in patients with recurrent glioblastoma (GBM) has suggested some activity and has shown a limited toxicity. This multicentre single-blinded randomised phase II trial was designed to study the efficacy of a local treatment by CpG-ODN in patients with de novo glioblastomas. PATIENTS AND METHODS Patients with a newly diagnosed glioblastoma underwent large surgical resection and CpG-ODN was randomly administrated locally around the surgical cavity. The patients were then treated according to standard of care (SOC) with radiotherapy and temozolomide. The primary objective was 2-year survival. Secondary outcomes were progression free survival (PFS), and tolerance. RESULTS Eighty-one (81) patients were randomly assigned to receive CpG-ODN plus SOC (39 patients) or SOC (42 patients). The 2-year overall survival was 31% (19%; 49%) in the CpG-ODN arm and 26% (16%; 44%) in the SOC arm. The median PFS was 9 months in the CpG-ODN arm and 8.5 months in the SOC arm. The incidence of adverse events was similar in both arms; although fever and post-operative haematoma were more frequent in the CpG-ODN arm. CONCLUSIONS Local immunotherapy with CpG-ODN injected into the surgical cavity after tumour removal and followed by SOC, although well tolerated, does not improve survival of patients with newly diagnosed GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Ursu
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Avicenne, Service de Neurologie, Bobigny, France.
| | - Alexandre Carpentier
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Pitie Salpetriere Hospital, Department of Neurosurgery, Paris, France
| | | | - Vincent Lubrano
- Department of Neurosurgery, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Florence Laigle-Donadey
- Assistance Publique-Hopitaux de Paris, Department of Neurology Mazarin, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Laurent Capelle
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Pitie Salpetriere Hospital, Department of Neurosurgery, Paris, France
| | - Jacques Guyotat
- Neurosurgical Department D, Neurological Hospital, Lyon, France
| | | | - Luc Bauchet
- Department of Neurosurgery, CHU Gui de Chauliac, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Annick Tibi
- Agence Générale des Equipements et Produits de Santé (AGEPS), Paris, France
| | - Olivier Chinot
- Aix-Marseille Université, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, Department of Neuro-Oncology, CHU Timone, Marseille, France
| | - Jérôme Lambert
- Department of Biostatistics, Hospital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Antoine F Carpentier
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Avicenne, Service de Neurologie, Bobigny, France; Université Paris 13, UFR de Santé, Médecine et Biologie Humaine, Bobigny, France
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Peña-Ortega F. Pharmacological Tools to Activate Microglia and their Possible use to Study Neural Network Patho-physiology. Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:595-619. [PMID: 27697040 PMCID: PMC5543677 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x14666160928151546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microglia are the resident immunocompetent cells of the CNS and also constitute a unique cell type that contributes to neural network homeostasis and function. Understanding microglia cell-signaling not only will reveal their diverse functions but also will help to identify pharmacological and non-pharmacological tools to modulate the activity of these cells. METHODS We undertook a search of bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research literature to identify microglial activators and their cell-specificity. We also looked for their effects on neural network function and dysfunction. RESULTS We identified several pharmacological targets to modulate microglial function, which are more or less specific (with the proper control experiments). We also identified pharmacological targets that would require the development of new potent and specific modulators. We identified a wealth of evidence about the participation of microglia in neural network function and their alterations in pathological conditions. CONCLUSION The identification of specific microglia-activating signals provides experimental tools to modulate the activity of this heterogeneous cell type in order to evaluate its impact on other components of the nervous system, and it also helps to identify therapeutic approaches to ease some pathological conditions related to microglial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Peña-Ortega
- Departamento de Neurobiología del Desarrollo y Neurofisiología, Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM-Campus Juriquilla, México
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Cao Y, Wang Q, Du Y, Liu F, Zhang Y, Feng Y, Jin F. l-arginine and docetaxel synergistically enhance anti-tumor immunity by modifying the immune status of tumor-bearing mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2016; 35:7-14. [PMID: 27003114 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2016.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
l-arginine (l-Arg) supplementation has been reported to enhance the function of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs) and T lymphocytes, in cancer models thereby countering the suppressive effects of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). The balance of the active immune cells is one factor that determines the progression of cancers in vivo. Docetaxel (DTX), an immunomodulatory chemotherapeutic agent, is now widely used in several types of malignancies including breast cancer. We hypothesized that the combination of DTX and l-Arg would elicit a more robust antitumor response than either molecule alone. To test this hypothesis we utilized BALB/c mice inoculated with 4T1 mammary carcinoma cells. DTX and l-Arg synergistically limited tumor growth in vivo and moderately increased the life span of tumor bearing mice. The anti-tumor effects were associated with the proliferation of splenic CD8(+) CTL and CD4(+) Th1 effector cells, as well as increased serum levels of interferon gamma. More importantly, DTX+l-Arg effectively increased anti-tumor immunity within the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, the combined therapy increased the number of myeloid (mDCs) and plasmacytoid (pDCs) dendritic cells, potent activators of the T cell response, and enhanced expression of the maturation markers CD86 and MHC II (required for antigen presentation). The combination therapy also reduced the proliferation of MDSCs. These data suggest that DTX+l-Arg may be a novel therapeutic strategy for breast cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Cao
- Department of Surgical Oncology and Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Qinghui Wang
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Yunting Du
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110122, China
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Department of Medical Examination Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Yonghui Feng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Feng Jin
- Department of Surgical Oncology and Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China.
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Ursu R, Taillibert S, Banissi C, Vicaut E, Bailon O, Le Rhun E, Guillamo JS, Psimaras D, Tibi A, Sacko A, Marantidou A, Belin C, Carpentier AF. Immunotherapy with CpG-ODN in neoplastic meningitis: A phase I trial. Cancer Sci 2015; 106:1212-8. [PMID: 26094710 PMCID: PMC4582991 DOI: 10.1111/cas.12724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
TLR-9 agonists are immunostimulating agents that have antitumor effects in animal models. A phase I trial was conducted to define the safety profile of subcutaneous injections, combined with intrathecally administration of CpG-28, a TRL 9 agonist, in patients with neoplastic meningitis (NM). Cohorts of 3–6 patients with NM were treated for 5 weeks with escalating doses of CpG-28. The primary endpoint was tolerance. Secondary endpoints were progression free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). Twenty-nine patients were treated with CpG-28. The primary cancers were malignant glioma, lung carcinoma, breast cancer, melanoma or melanocytoma, ependymoma, and colorectal cancer. The median age was 56 years and median Karnovsky Performance status (KPS) was 70%. The treatment was well tolerated. Adverse effects that were possibly or probably related to the studied drug were grade 2 lymphopenia, anemia and neutropenia, local erythema at injection sites, fever and seizure. There were five serious adverse events: two confusions, two infections of ventricular devices and one grade 4 thrombopenia and neutropenia. The median PFS was 7 weeks and median OS was 15 weeks. Interestingly, the median survival was slightly (but not significantly) higher in the eight patients who were concomitantly treated with bevacizumab (19 weeks vs 15 weeks; P = 0.11). CpG-28 was well tolerated at doses up to 0.3 mg/kg subcutaneously and 18 mg intrathecally. Additional trials are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Ursu
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France
| | - Sophie Taillibert
- Department of Neurology Mazarin, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, University Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | - Claire Banissi
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France
| | - Eric Vicaut
- Methodology and Statistical Unit, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Lariboisière, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Bailon
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France
| | - Emilie Le Rhun
- Breast Unit, Department of Medical Oncology, Oscar Lambert Center, Lille, France
| | | | - Dimitri Psimaras
- Department of Neurology Mazarin, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, University Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | - Annick Tibi
- Agence Générale des Equipements et Produits de Santé (AGEPS), Paris, France
| | - Adama Sacko
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France.,UFR de Santé, Médecine et Biologie Humaine de Bobigny - Université Paris 13, Paris, France
| | - Athina Marantidou
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France.,UFR de Santé, Médecine et Biologie Humaine de Bobigny - Université Paris 13, Paris, France
| | | | - Antoine F Carpentier
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France.,UFR de Santé, Médecine et Biologie Humaine de Bobigny - Université Paris 13, Paris, France
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David BT, Ratnayake A, Amarante MA, Reddy NP, Dong W, Sampath S, Heary RF, Elkabes S. A toll-like receptor 9 antagonist reduces pain hypersensitivity and the inflammatory response in spinal cord injury. Neurobiol Dis 2013; 54:194-205. [PMID: 23313320 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Revised: 11/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are mediators of the innate immune response to exogenous pathogens. They have also been implicated in sterile inflammation associated with systemic injury and non-infectious diseases via binding of endogenous ligands, possibly released by damaged cells. Emerging evidence indicates that some TLRs play a role in nervous system injury and especially in injury-elicited pain and sterile inflammation. However, no information is available about the contribution of TLR9, a member of the TLR family, to traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Moreover, the therapeutic potential of TLR9 ligands in the functional outcomes of SCI, including pain, has not been explored. We report, for the first time, that the intrathecal administration of a TLR9 antagonist, cytidine-phosphate-guanosine oligodeoxynucleotide 2088 (CpG ODN 2088), to mice sustaining a severe contusion SCI, diminishes injury-induced heat hypersensitivity. Investigations on the potential mechanisms underlying the reduction in pain sensitivity indicated an attenuation of the inflammatory reaction manifested by a decrease in the number of CD11b-, CD45- and CD3-immunoreactive cells and a reduction in tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) expression at the epicenter. Conversely, intrathecal delivery of a TLR9 agonist, CpG ODN 1826, increased inflammatory cell numbers and TNF-α expression in the epicenter. The CpG ODN 2088 treatment did not appear to induce systemic adverse effects as shown by spleen histology and serum cytokine levels. We propose that CpG ODN 2088 dampens injury-induced heat hypersensitivity by suppressing the inflammatory response and TNF-α expression. This investigation defines a previously unreported therapeutic role for CpG ODN 2088 in SCI-induced pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian T David
- Department of Neurological Surgery, New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
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Bahjat FR, Gesuete R, Stenzel-Poore MP. Steps to translate preconditioning from basic research to the clinic. Transl Stroke Res 2012; 4:89-103. [PMID: 23504609 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-012-0223-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Efforts to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases often focus on the mitigation of ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Many treatments or "preconditioners" are known to provide substantial protection against the I/R injury when administered prior to the event. Brief periods of ischemia itself have been validated as a means to achieve neuroprotection in many experimental disease settings, in multiple organ systems, and in multiple species suggesting a common pathway leading to tolerance. In addition, pharmacological agents that act as potent preconditioners have been described. Experimental induction of neuroprotection using these various preconditioning paradigms has provided a unique window into the brain's endogenous protective mechanisms. Moreover, preconditioning agents themselves hold significant promise as clinical-stage therapies for prevention of I/R injury. The aim of this article is to explore several key steps involved in the preclinical validation of preconditioning agents prior to the conduct of clinical studies in humans. Drug development is difficult, expensive and relies on multi-factorial analysis of data from diverse disciplines. Importantly, there is no single path for the preclinical development of a novel therapeutic and no proven strategy to ensure success in clinical translation. Rather, the conduct of a diverse array of robust preclinical studies reduces the risk of clinical failure by varying degrees depending upon the relevance of preclinical models and drug pharmacology to humans. A strong sense of urgency and high tolerance of failure are often required to achieve success in the development of novel treatment paradigms for complex human conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances R Bahjat
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon
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Ursu R, Carpentier AF. Immunotherapeutic approach with oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs (CpG-ODN) in malignant glioma. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 746:95-108. [PMID: 22639162 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3146-6_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial DNA and synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs (CpG-ODNs) are strong activators of both innate and specific immunity, driving the immune response towards the Th1 phenotype. In cancer patients, CpG-ODNs can be used to activate the innate immunity and trigger a tumor-specific immune response. Several clinical trials are on-going worldwide in various cancers. In this chapter, we will focus on the potential applications of CpG-ODNs in glioma. So far, CpG-ODN has mainly been used by intratumoral injections. Indeed, human gliomas display a locally invasive pattern of growth and rarely metastasize, making local treatment clinically relevant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Ursu
- Service de Neurologie, Hôpital Avicenne, Bobigny, France
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11
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Hanke ML, Kielian T. Toll-like receptors in health and disease in the brain: mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Clin Sci (Lond) 2011; 121:367-87. [PMID: 21745188 PMCID: PMC4231819 DOI: 10.1042/cs20110164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 370] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of mammalian TLRs (Toll-like receptors), first identified in 1997 based on their homology with Drosophila Toll, greatly altered our understanding of how the innate immune system recognizes and responds to diverse microbial pathogens. TLRs are evolutionarily conserved type I transmembrane proteins expressed in both immune and non-immune cells, and are typified by N-terminal leucine-rich repeats and a highly conserved C-terminal domain termed the TIR [Toll/interleukin (IL)-1 receptor] domain. Upon stimulation with their cognate ligands, TLR signalling elicits the production of cytokines, enzymes and other inflammatory mediators that can have an impact on several aspects of CNS (central nervous system) homoeostasis and pathology. For example, TLR signalling plays a crucial role in initiating host defence responses during CNS microbial infection. Furthermore, TLRs are targets for many adjuvants which help shape pathogen-specific adaptive immune responses in addition to triggering innate immunity. Our knowledge of TLR expression and function in the CNS has greatly expanded over the last decade, with new data revealing that TLRs also have an impact on non-infectious CNS diseases/injury. In particular, TLRs recognize a number of endogenous molecules liberated from damaged tissues and, as such, influence inflammatory responses during tissue injury and autoimmunity. In addition, recent studies have implicated TLR involvement during neurogenesis, and learning and memory in the absence of any underlying infectious aetiology. Owing to their presence and immune-regulatory role within the brain, TLRs represent an attractive therapeutic target for numerous CNS disorders and infectious diseases. However, it is clear that TLRs can exert either beneficial or detrimental effects in the CNS, which probably depend on the context of tissue homoeostasis or pathology. Therefore any potential therapeutic manipulation of TLRs will require an understanding of the signals governing specific CNS disorders to achieve tailored therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark L. Hanke
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
| | - Tammy Kielian
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198
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Chastain EML, Duncan DS, Rodgers JM, Miller SD. The role of antigen presenting cells in multiple sclerosis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2011; 1812:265-74. [PMID: 20637861 PMCID: PMC2970677 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2010] [Revised: 07/06/2010] [Accepted: 07/07/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating T cell mediated autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Animal models of MS, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) have given light to cellular mechanisms involved in the initiation and progression of this organ-specific autoimmune disease. Within the CNS, antigen presenting cells (APC) such as microglia and astrocytes participate as first line defenders against infections or inflammation. However, during chronic inflammation they can participate in perpetuating the self-destructive environment by secretion of inflammatory factors and/or presentation of myelin epitopes to autoreactive T cells. Dendritic cells (DC) are also participants in the presentation of antigen to T cells, even within the CNS. While the APCs alone are not solely responsible for mediating the destruction to the myelin sheath, they are critical players in perpetuating the inflammatory milieu. This review will highlight relevant studies which have provided insight to the roles played by microglia, DCs and astrocytes in the context of CNS autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily M L Chastain
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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13
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Liu X, Chauhan VS, Young AB, Marriott I. NOD2 mediates inflammatory responses of primary murine glia to Streptococcus pneumoniae. Glia 2010; 58:839-47. [PMID: 20091781 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
It is now widely accepted that resident central nervous system (CNS) cells such as microglia and astrocytes initiate and/or augment inflammation following trauma or infection. However, the mechanisms by which glial cells perceive microbial challenges are only now becoming apparent. We have recently demonstrated that microglia and astrocytes constitutively express nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 (NOD2), a member of the novel nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat region-containing family of proteins (NLR) that functions as an intracellular receptor for a minimal motif present in all bacterial peptidoglycans. Furthermore, we have shown that this NLR is essential for glial responses to gram-negative pathogens and in vivo CNS inflammation elicited by these organisms. In the present study, we have established that intact Streptococcus pneumoniae, the major causative agent for gram-positive bacterial meningitis in adults, is a potent stimulus for the activation of the pivotal inflammatory transcription factor NF-kB and production of inflammatory cytokines in primary murine microglia and astrocytes. We demonstrate that NOD2 is essential for the maximal responses of these cells to intact S. pneumoniae but not cellular lysates. Finally, we have shown that this cytosolic pattern recognition receptor is required for the elevated inflammatory mediator levels, astrogliosis, and demyelination, following in vivo administration of this gram-positive CNS pathogen. As such, we suggest that NOD2 plays a critical role in the establishment of the lethal inflammation associated with streptococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinjie Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
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14
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Liu X, Chauhan VS, Marriott I. NOD2 contributes to the inflammatory responses of primary murine microglia and astrocytes to Staphylococcus aureus. Neurosci Lett 2010; 474:93-8. [PMID: 20226841 PMCID: PMC2859426 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2009] [Revised: 02/04/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We have recently demonstrated that microglia and astrocytes express nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 (NOD2), a novel cytosolic pattern recognition receptor for bacterial motifs, and we have shown that this intracellular receptor is essential for glial responses to Gram-negative pathogens. Here, we demonstrate that intact Staphylococcus aureus, a major Gram-positive causative agent of brain abscesses, activates the transcription factor NF-kappaB and is a potent stimulus for inflammatory cytokine production in primary murine microglia and astrocytes. Interestingly, we demonstrate that NOD2 is essential for maximal glial responses to intact S. aureus, but not cellular lysates. As such, this data indicates that NOD2 plays an important role in initiating inflammatory mediator production by resident brain cells following S. aureus infection and we suggest that this cytosolic receptor acts in conjunction with cell surface pattern recognition receptors to elicit maximal glial responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinjie Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, 107#, Wen Hua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong, 250012 P.R. China
| | - Vinita S. Chauhan
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
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15
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CpG-ODNs induces up-regulated expression of chemokine CCL9 in mouse macrophages and microglia. Cell Immunol 2010; 260:113-8. [PMID: 19883904 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2009.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Unmethylated CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODNs) interact with Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 to activate macrophage/microglia in central nervous system (CNS). Here, we investigated the potential involvement of the chemokine CCL9 and its receptor CCR1 in the effects of CpG-ODNs on macrophage/microglial cells. CpG-ODNs enhanced the expression of TLR9 mRNA of RAW264.7 macrophage and BV2 microglia cells time dependently. The expression of CCL9 of macrophages/microglia showed different responsiveness upon stimulation with a variety of CpG-ODN sequences. The CpG-ODNs-mediated induction of CCL9 was TLR9/MyD88 dependent and associated with activation of stress kinases, particularly ERK, p38 MAPK and PI3K. The expression of CCR1 was also significantly increased by CpG-ODNs that increased CCL9 expression. These results reveal the potential involvement of CCL9 and CCR1 in regulation of macrophage and microglial cells by CpG-ODNs and may help improving our understanding about the role of the chemokine/chemokine receptor pairs in macrophage/microglia under physiologic and pathologic conditions.
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16
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McCandless EE, Budde M, Lees JR, Dorsey D, Lyng E, Klein RS. IL-1R signaling within the central nervous system regulates CXCL12 expression at the blood-brain barrier and disease severity during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2009; 183:613-20. [PMID: 19535637 PMCID: PMC2892701 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the CNS characterized by disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This breach in CNS immune privilege allows undeterred trafficking of myelin-specific lymphocytes into the CNS where they induce demyelination. Although the mechanism of BBB compromise is not known, the chemokine CXCL12 has been implicated as a molecular component of the BBB whose pattern of expression is specifically altered during MS and which correlates with disease severity. The inflammatory cytokine IL-1beta has recently been shown to contribute not only to BBB permeability but also to the development of IL-17-driven autoimmune responses. Using experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, the rodent model of MS, we demonstrate that IL-1beta mediates pathologic relocation of CXCL12 during the induction phase of the disease, before the development of BBB disruption. We also show that CD4, CD8, and, surprisingly gammadelta T cells are all sources of IL-1beta. In addition, gammadelta T cells are also targets of this cytokine, contributing to IL-1beta-mediated production of IL-17. Finally, we show that the level of CNS IL-1R determines the clinical severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. These data suggest that T cell-derived IL-1beta contributes to loss of immune privilege during CNS autoimmunity via pathologic alteration in the expression of CXCL12 at the BBB.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blood-Brain Barrier/immunology
- Chemokine CXCL12/biosynthesis
- Chemokine CXCL12/genetics
- Chemokine CXCL12/metabolism
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/metabolism
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Protein Transport/genetics
- Protein Transport/immunology
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/deficiency
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/physiology
- Severity of Illness Index
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Spinal Cord/immunology
- Spinal Cord/metabolism
- Spinal Cord/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E. McCandless
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
| | - Matthew Budde
- Department of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
| | - Jason R. Lees
- Department of Molecular Biology and Pharmacology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
| | - Denise Dorsey
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
| | - Eric Lyng
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
| | - Robyn S. Klein
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis MO 63110
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17
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Chauhan VS, Sterka DG, Furr SR, Young AB, Marriott I. NOD2 plays an important role in the inflammatory responses of microglia and astrocytes to bacterial CNS pathogens. Glia 2009; 57:414-23. [PMID: 18803303 PMCID: PMC2628967 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
While glial cells are recognized for their roles in maintaining neuronal function, there is growing appreciation that resident central nervous system (CNS) cells initiate and/or augment inflammation following trauma or infection. We have recently demonstrated that microglia and astrocytes constitutively express nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-2 (NOD2), a member of the novel nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat region containing a family of proteins (NLR) that functions as an intracellular receptor for a minimal motif present in all bacterial peptidoglycans. In this study, we have confirmed the functional nature of NOD2 expression in astrocytes and microglia and begun to determine the relative contribution that this NLR makes in inflammatory CNS responses to clinically relevant bacterial pathogens. We demonstrate the increased association of NOD2 with its downstream effector molecule, Rip2 kinase, in primary cultures of murine microglia and astrocytes following exposure to bacterial antigens. We show that this cytosolic receptor underlies the ability of muramyl dipeptide to augment the production of inflammatory cytokines by glia following exposure to specific ligands for disparate Toll-like receptor homologues. In addition, we demonstrate that NOD2 is an important component in the in vitro inflammatory responses of resident glia to N. meningitidis and B. burgdorferi antigens. Finally, we have established that NOD2 is required, at least in part, for the astrogliosis, demyelination, behavioral changes, and elevated inflammatory cytokine levels observed following in vivo infection with these pathogens. As such, we have identified NOD2 as an important component in the generation of damaging CNS inflammation following bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinita S. Chauhan
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
| | - David G. Sterka
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
| | - Samantha R. Furr
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
| | - Amy B. Young
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223
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18
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Perkins SD, Williams AJ, O'Brien LM, Laws TR, Phillpotts RJ. CpG used as an adjuvant for an adenovirus-based Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine increases the immune response to the vector, but not to the transgene product. Viral Immunol 2009; 21:451-7. [PMID: 19115934 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2008.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
An adenovirus-based (ad-based) vaccine delivering antigens from the Alphavirus Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a strategy that offers clinical potential. A vaccine against VEEV is desirable because of the re-emerging nature of this virus, and also the potential that it may be used as a biological weapon. This study was designed to investigate whether the co-administration of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) with an ad-based VEEV vaccine could enhance the protective efficacy of the vaccine. We report that the co-administration of CpG ODN was unable to increase VEEV-specific antibody responses in mice, and was unable to increase the protective efficacy of the vaccine against aerosol challenge with virulent VEEV. However, it was noted that antibody responses directed against the adenovirus vaccine vector were increased, which may be detrimental, particularly in the context of homologous boosting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart D Perkins
- Biomedical Sciences Department, Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK.
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19
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Abstract
Mammalian Toll-like receptors (TLRs) were first identified in 1997 based on their homology with Drosophila Toll, which mediates innate immunity in the fly. Over the past eight years, the number of manuscripts describing TLR expression and function in the central nervous system (CNS) has been increasing steadily and expanding beyond their traditional roles in infectious diseases to neurodegenerative disorders and injury. Interest in the field serves as the impetus for this volume in the Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology series entitled Toll-Like Receptors: Roles in Infection and Neuropathology. The first five chapters highlight more traditional roles for TLRs in infectious diseases of the CNS. The second half of the volume discusses recently emerging roles for TLRs in noninfectious neurodegenerative diseases and the challenges faced by these models in identifying endogenous ligands. Several conceptual theories are introduced in various chapters that deal with the dual nature of TLR engagement and whether these signals favor neuroprotective versus neurodegenerative outcomes.
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20
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Stevens NT, Sadovskaya I, Jabbouri S, Sattar T, O'Gara JP, Humphreys H, Greene CM. Staphylococcus epidermidis polysaccharide intercellular adhesin induces IL-8 expression in human astrocytes via a mechanism involving TLR2. Cell Microbiol 2008; 11:421-32. [PMID: 19016779 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01264.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is an opportunistic biofilm-forming pathogen associated with neurosurgical device-related meningitis. Expression of the polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) on its surface promotes S. epidermidis biofilm formation. Here we investigated the pro-inflammatory properties of PIA against primary and transformed human astrocytes. PIA induced IL-8 expression in a dose- and/or time-dependent manner from U373 MG cells and primary normal human astrocytes. This effect was inhibited by depletion of N-acetyl-beta-d-glucosamine polymer from the PIA preparation with Lycopersicon esculentum lectin or sodium meta-periodate. Expression of dominant-negative versions of the TLR2 and TLR4 adaptor proteins MyD88 and Mal in U373 MG cells inhibited PIA-induced IL-8 production. Blocking IL-1 had no effect. PIA failed to induce IL-8 production from HEK293 cells stably expressing TLR4. However, in U373 MG cells which express TLR2, neutralization of TLR2 impaired PIA-induced IL-8 production. In addition to IL-8, PIA also induced expression of other cytokines from U373 MG cells including IL-6 and MCP-1. These data implicate PIA as an important immunogenic component of the S. epidermidis biofilm that can regulate pro-inflammatory cytokine production from human astrocytes, in part, via TLR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niall T Stevens
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Education & Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland.
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21
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van Heteren JT, Rozenberg F, Aronica E, Troost D, Lebon P, Kuijpers TW. Astrocytes produce interferon-alpha and CXCL10, but not IL-6 or CXCL8, in Aicardi-Goutières syndrome. Glia 2008; 56:568-78. [PMID: 18240301 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) presents as a severe autosomal recessively inherited neurological brain disease. Clinical and neurological manifestations closely resemble those of congenital viral infection and are generally attributed to a perturbation of innate immunity including a long lasting lymphocytosis and production of interferon-alpha (IFNalpha) in the central nervous system. To clarify the innate immune response evoked in these diseases, we used a 30-mer multiplexed luminex system to measure multiple cytokines and growth factors in the cerebrospinal fluid and serum of patients with AGS and viral meningitis or encephalitis, and febrile controls in whom infection could not be substantiated. In addition to the previously described IFNalpha, both AGS and viral diseases were characterized by expression of CXCL10 and CCL2. In contrast to AGS, viral infection resulted in high levels of IL-6 and CXCL8 in the CNS. Postmortem immunohistochemical staining of brain sections showed that in both AGS and viral CNS infection, astrocytes were responsible for the production of cytokines and not the infiltrating leukocytes. In summary, our data indicate that astrocytes are the predominant cell type responsible for the production of IFNalpha and CXCL10 in AGS. Whereas IFNalpha is assumed to be involved in the neurodegeneration, calcifications and seizures in AGS, CXCL10 may act as the chemoattractant responsible for the influx of activated lymphocytes into the brain. The lack of the inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and CXCL8 in AGS suggest that the neuroinflammatory reaction in this disease is distinct from viral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane T van Heteren
- Emma Children's Hospital, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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22
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Wagner I, Sethi S, Xiang W, Giese A, Ebner S, Kretzschmar H. Repeated peripheral administrations of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides lead to sustained CNS immune activation. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2008; 29:413-24. [PMID: 18075854 DOI: 10.1080/08923970701675028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial DNA containing CpG motifs activates cells of the innate immune system. In this study, we examined the effects of multiple peripheral bacterial DNA-mediated CNS innate immune stimulation. To study this issue, we repeatedly peripherally administered synthetic CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODN) and assayed effects on CNS-associated TNF-alpha (TNFalpha) and C1q mRNA levels. We for the first time accounted for frequency of CpG-ODN administration and time kinetics of mRNA expression. We were able show that multiple intraperitoneal CpG-ODN administrations have a sustainable effect on immune effectors of the brain and stimulate TNFalpha mRNA secretion even up to 7 days after the last CpG-ODN application. This could on the one hand indicate a depot effect after multiple peripheral CpG-ODN administrations, however, it could also indicate that the cell producing TNFalpha mRNA remains activated for the indicated time period. Furthermore, elevated mRNA levels of C1q were observed, possibly indicating microglial activation after multiple peripheral bacterial DNA administrations. In this study, we have correlated frequency of CpG-ODN administrations with CNS-associated TNFalpha mRNA levels and show that multiple peripheral administrations of CpG-ODN lead to a sustained level of a Th1-associated cytokine in the brain. These findings indicate that the repeated peripherial administration of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides offer a therapeutical possibility for CNS-associated infections and tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Wagner
- Center for Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
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23
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Jurk M, Vollmer J. Therapeutic applications of synthetic CpG oligodeoxynucleotides as TLR9 agonists for immune modulation. BioDrugs 2008; 21:387-401. [PMID: 18020622 DOI: 10.2165/00063030-200721060-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate toll-like receptors (TLRs) sense invading pathogens by recognizing bacterial and viral structures and, as a result, activate innate and adaptive immune responses. Ten human functional TLRs have been reported so far; three of these (TLR7, 8, and 9) are expressed in intracellular compartments and respond to single-stranded nucleic acids as natural ligands. The pathogen structure selectively recognized by TLR9 in bacterial or viral DNA was identified to be CpG dinucleotides in specific sequence contexts (CpG motifs). Short phosphorothioate-stabilized oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing such motifs are used as synthetic TLR9 agonists, and different classes of ODN TLR9 agonists have been identified with distinct immune modulatory profiles. The TLR9-mediated activation of the vertebrate immune system suggests using such TLR9 agonists as effective vaccine adjuvants for infectious disease, and for the treatment of cancer and asthma/allergy. Immune activation by CpG ODNs has been demonstrated to be beneficial in animal models as a vaccine adjuvant and for the treatment of a variety of viral, bacterial, and parasitic diseases. Antitumor activity of CpG ODNs has also been established in numerous mouse models. In clinical vaccine trials in healthy human volunteers or in immunocompromised HIV-infected patients, CpG ODNs strongly enhanced vaccination efficiency. Most encouraging results in the treatment of cancers have come from human phase I and II clinical trials using CpG ODNs as a tumor vaccine adjuvant, monotherapy, or in combination with chemotherapy. Therefore, CpG ODNs represent targeted immune modulatory drugs with a broad range of potential applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Jurk
- Coley Pharmaceutical GmbH, Dusseldorf, Germany
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24
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Crack PJ, Bray PJ. Toll-like receptors in the brain and their potential roles in neuropathology. Immunol Cell Biol 2007; 85:476-80. [PMID: 17667932 DOI: 10.1038/sj.icb.7100103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The explosion of the toll-like receptors (TLRs) over the past decade has touched almost every field of mammalian biology and neuroscience is not an exception. The current advent of research papers examining the TLRs in the central nervous system (CNS) signifies that these receptors are not only involved in peripheral innate immunity but may also play a role in the development and regulation of CNS inflammation, neurodegeneration and brain trauma. This review addresses the potential role of TLRs in the brain and how they may be involved in various neuropathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Crack
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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25
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Aravalli RN, Peterson PK, Lokensgard JR. Toll-like Receptors in Defense and Damage of the Central Nervous System. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2007; 2:297-312. [DOI: 10.1007/s11481-007-9071-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2007] [Accepted: 03/01/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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26
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Ponomarev ED, Shriver LP, Maresz K, Pedras-Vasconcelos J, Verthelyi D, Dittel BN. GM-CSF production by autoreactive T cells is required for the activation of microglial cells and the onset of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:39-48. [PMID: 17182538 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.1.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a CNS autoimmune disease believed to be triggered by T cells secreting Th1-specific proinflammatory cytokines, such as GM-CSF. In the animal model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), Th1 but not Th2 cells have been shown to induce disease; however, to date, no single encephalitogenic T cell-derived cytokine has been shown to be required for EAE onset. Because GM-CSF-deficient mice have been shown to be resistant to EAE following immunization with myelin self-Ag, we investigated the cellular source of the required GM-CSF and found that GM-CSF production by encephalitogenic T cells, but not CNS resident or other peripheral cells, was required for EAE induction. Furthermore, we showed that microglial cell activation, but not peripheral macrophage activation, was a GM-CSF-dependent process. Activation of microglial cells by the injection of LPS abrogated the GM-CSF requirement for EAE induction, suggesting that microglial cell activation is required for EAE onset. These data also demonstrate that GM-CSF is a critical Th1 cell-derived cytokine required for the initiation of CNS inflammation associated with EAE, and likely MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene D Ponomarev
- Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
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27
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Boelen E, Steinbusch HWM, Pronk I, Grauls G, Rennert P, Bailly V, Bruggeman CA, Stassen FRM. Inflammatory responses following Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of glial cells. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:753-60. [PMID: 17313571 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05339.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recently, infections have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Apart from the direct effects of pathogens, it can be hypothesized that inflammatory mechanisms, such as the production of pro-inflammatory mediators by resident glia, may result in neurotoxicity. Here, we examined the inflammatory responses in murine microglial cell (MMC) and murine astrocyte cell (MAC) lines following infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae (Cpn), a pathogen that has recently been associated with Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, we determined whether these inflammatory responses are sufficient to cause neuronal cell death in vitro. MMCs and MACs were infected with Cpn. Subsequently, various chemo- and cytokines were determined in the culture supernatant fluid of infected/control cells at different time points post-infection. Significantly higher levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, interleukin (IL)-6, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and IL-1beta were found in supernatant fluids of infected MMCs compared with controls. In contrast, in the supernatant fluid of infected MACs, only monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and IL-6 displayed significantly higher levels compared with controls. Moreover, neurotoxicity was examined up to 72 h after transferring the conditioned supernatant fluid to a neuronal cell layer. No neuronal cell death was observed when supernatant fluids from infected/mock-treated MACs were transferred. However, when neurones were exposed to conditioned supernatant fluid from infected MMCs, a significant increase in cell death was observed compared with mock. Furthermore, adding neutralizing antibodies against IL-6 and TNF-alpha to that conditioned supernatant fluid prevented neuronal cell death by approximately 50%. In conclusion, these data suggest that Cpn infection results in a pro-inflammatory milieu, particularly by activating MMCs, that ultimately results in neurodegeneration with prominent roles for both IL-6 and TNF-alpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Boelen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
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28
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El Andaloussi A, Sonabend AM, Han Y, Lesniak MS. Stimulation of TLR9 with CpG ODN enhances apoptosis of glioma and prolongs the survival of mice with experimental brain tumors. Glia 2006; 54:526-35. [PMID: 16906541 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize a set of conserved molecular structures, so called pathogen-associated molecular patterns, which allow them to sense and initiate innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, we examined the expression of TLRs in both human and murine glioma. We then analyzed the change in TLR expression after treatment with synthetic phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing unmethylated CpG dinucleotides (CpG ODNs), strong activators of both innate and adaptive immunity. In addition, we investigated the in vivo effect of CpG injection into C57BL/6 mice implanted with syngeneic GL261 glioma. Our results indicate that TLR9 is overexpressed in human and murine glioma cell lines and CpG stimulation prolongs the survival of mice with experimental brain tumors. CpGs induce TLR9 down-regulation, followed by apoptosis of GL261 cells in vitro as well as in vivo. Furthermore, the effects of CpG stimulation appear to enhance the antigen presenting capacity of microglia, shift the immune response toward CD8(+) T cells, and decrease the number of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells. Taken together, our data support the role of CpG in glioma immunotherapy and provide a rationale for further clinical development of CpG therapy in patients with malignant glioma.
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Abstract
The recent discovery of the family of Toll-like receptors has vastly expanded our understanding of the mechanisms by which the innate immune system recognizes and responds to a wide variety of microbial and endogenous pathogens. Toll-like receptors are transmembrane proteins that upon ligation with their cognate ligands trigger the production of cytokines, enzymes and other inflammatory agents. In the CNS Toll-like receptors are expressed predominantly by glial cells. In particular, the vastly abundant astrocytes are likely to be the major contributors to inflammatory responses within the CNS. Studies of the murine brain abscess model revealed that Toll-like receptor 2 plays a pivotal role in the generation of immune responses to Staphylococcus aureus. Although Toll-like receptor signaling is essential in antimicrobial defense, it may also lead to bystander injury of CNS tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory W Konat
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-9128, USA.
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30
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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of pattern-recognition receptors expressed on cells of the innate immune system that allow for the recognition of conserved structural motifs on a wide array of pathogens, referred to as pathogen-associated molecular patterns, as well as some endogenous molecules. The recent emergence of studies examining TLRs in the central nervous system (CNS) indicates that these receptors not only play a role in innate immunity in response to infectious diseases but may also participate in CNS autoimmunity, neurodegeneration, and tissue injury. This review summarizes the experimental evidence demonstrating a role for TLRs in the context of CNS inflammation in both infectious and noninfectious conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tammy Kielian
- Department of Neurobiology and Developmental Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205, USA.
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31
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Scumpia PO, Kelly KM, Reeves WH, Stevens BR. Double-stranded RNA signals antiviral and inflammatory programs and dysfunctional glutamate transport in TLR3-expressing astrocytes. Glia 2005; 52:153-62. [PMID: 15920723 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Astrocyte inflammation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, and dysfunction form a common denominator shared by all the major neurodegenerative disorders. Viral infections are emerging as important events in the etiology of CNS damage involving astrocytes, but molecular understanding is incomplete. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is a byproduct of viral replication and serves as the signature molecule for viral infection via Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) largely restricted to circulating peripheral dendritic cells. However, astrocytes are strategically located at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and throughout brain tissues, making these cells ideal candidates as innate immunity sentinels within the CNS. We hypothesized that extracellular dsRNA, mimicked by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly(I:C); PIC), initiates signaling of the double-edged sword of antiviral plus pathophysiological events in astrocytes. Using Western blot analysis and real-time qPCR, we determined that neonatal rat astrocyte cultures constitutively express TLR3 mRNA and protein, and that PIC dsRNA induced phosphorylation of eIF2alpha, as well as mRNA type I interferon (alpha/beta IFN)-response genes Mx1, PKR, and TLR3. Astrocyte TLR3 protein was downregulated after PIC treatment, however. PIC signaled degradation of IkappaBalpha with the consequence of upregulating iNOS, TNF-alpha, and IL-1beta mRNAs and proteins. In addition to antiviral protection events, dsRNA induced astrocyte dysfunction, evidenced by inhibiting EAAT1/GLAST transporter gene expression and attenuating L-glutamate uptake via sodium-dependent transport system X(AG)-, as well as inducing cytotoxicity. Anti-TLR3 blocking antibody attenuated PIC upregulation of TNF-alpha mRNA and iNOS activity. Extracellular PIC-induced events were prevented by 2-aminopurine, implicating PKR as an important downstream player in astrocyte dsRNA sensing pathways. The effects of plasma membrane impermeable poly(I:C) were dose-dependent (0-50 microM). In concert, these data provide evidence that dsRNA/TLR3-activated astrocytes initiate a battery of rapid innate pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) immune responses that are important for mounting antiviral defense in the CNS, yet also lead to pathophysiological events associated with the glutamate neurotoxicity of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip O Scumpia
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida 32610-0274, USA
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32
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Tonelli LH, Postolache TT. Tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6 and major histocompatibility complex molecules in the normal brain and after peripheral immune challenge. Neurol Res 2005; 27:679-84. [PMID: 16197804 DOI: 10.1179/016164105x49463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The capacity of the brain to activate an inflammatory reaction involving the production of cytokines in response to an immune challenge in the periphery has been well established. Interleukin-1 beta is a cytokine that responds with the most widespread pattern of expression followed by tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6. In addition, our laboratory has shown that class I major histocompatibility complex molecules are upregulated in the brain in response to peripheral administration of bacterial products. Remarkably, during recent years, all these immune genes have been shown to participate in activity-dependent structural synaptic changes in specific neurochemical circuitries in the normal brain. These processes range from the refinement of synaptic connections in sensory systems to learning and memory storage functions of the hippocampus. Therefore, the mechanisms of defense against pathogens can dramatically affect brain structure and function-inducing changes in cognition, mood and behavior. The immune reactions initiated by viruses, bacteria and parasites may result in latent vulnerabilities which could become manifest with future stressors or challenges. Other inflammatory challenges may function as triggers for uncovering pre-existing vulnerabilities or exacerbation of previous functional deficits, or clinical symptoms of neurological or psychiatric conditions. This review will discuss the importance of infections on basic neuronal processes owing to the alteration in the brain of the balance of cytokines involved in higher brain functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo H Tonelli
- Mood and Anxiety Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201-1549, USA.
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33
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Lee J, Shin S, Teng CH, Hong SJ, Kim KS. FimH adhesin of Escherichia coli K1 type 1 fimbriae activates BV-2 microglia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 334:917-23. [PMID: 16036224 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.06.180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2005] [Accepted: 06/27/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The generation of intense inflammation in the subarachnoid space in response to meningitis-causing bacteria contributes to brain dysfunction and neuronal injury in bacterial meningitis. Microglia, the major immune effector cells in the central nervous system (CNS), become activated by bacterial components to produce proinflammatory immune mediators. In this study, we showed that FimH adhesin, a tip component of type 1 fimbriae of meningitis-causing Escherichia coli K1, activated the murine microglial cell line, BV-2, which resulted in the production of nitric oxide and the release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Mitogen-activated protein kinases, ERK and p-38, and nuclear factor-kappaB were involved in FimH adhesin-mediated microglial activation. These findings suggest that FimH adhesin contributes to the CNS inflammatory response by virtue of activating microglia in E. coli meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongseok Lee
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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34
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Zhang Z, Guo K, Schluesener HJ. The immunostimulatory activity of CpG oligonucleotides on microglial N9 cells is affected by a polyguanosine motif. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 161:68-77. [PMID: 15748945 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2004] [Revised: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 12/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Oligonucleotides (ODN) with hexameric motifs containing central unmethylated CpG dinucleotides are immunostimulatory. Also ODN with continuous guanosines (polyG motif) show a wide range of immunological activity. Depending on the position, the chemical property of the ODN backbone and the cell type, polyG motifs have either an enhancing or a suppressing effect on the immunostimulatory activity of the CpG-ODN. Microglial cells are central components of the innate immune system of the brain and are activated by CpG-ODN in vitro and in vivo. Here we present the analysis of the immunomodulatory effects of CpG-ODN carrying a polyG motif on the microglial cell line N9. Our data show that N9 cells express Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) and are activated by CpG-ODN, which leads to expression of interleukin-12p40 (IL12p40), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). A 3'-end polyG motif inhibits phosphothioate (PS) CpG-ODN immunostimulatory activity but enhances the immunostimulatory activity of phosphodiester (PE) CpG-ODN. Correspondingly, a 3'-end polyG motif improves the cellular uptake of PE CpG-ODN but does not change their cellular distribution pattern. Furthermore, PE CpG-ODN with a 3'-end polyG motif interact with a much higher number of cellular proteins than PE CpG-ODN. These data indicate that the 3'-end polyG motif could enhance the immunostimulatory activity of PE CpG-ODN in microglial N9 cells through increasing interaction with cellular proteins. Therefore PE CpG-ODN containing a 3'-end polyG motif resulting in increased immunostimulatory activity might be promising alternate analogues for studies in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiren Zhang
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Calwer Str. 3, D-72076 Tuebingen, Germany.
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35
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Sako K, Okuma Y, Hosoi T, Nomura Y. STAT3 activation and c-FOS expression in the brain following peripheral administration of bacterial DNA. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 158:40-9. [PMID: 15589036 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2004] [Revised: 08/02/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
To study the role of bacterial DNA in the brain function, we investigated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation and c-FOS expression in the brain by immunohistochemistry in response to peripheral administration of CpG-DNA. CpG-DNA induced phospho-STAT3-immunoreactive cells and c-FOS-positive cells in several brain regions in a different manner. Phospho-STAT3-immunoreactive cells were observed in the circumventricular organs where the blood-brain barrier is weak. On the other hand, CpG-DNA increased c-FOS-positive cells in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, and the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) and the area postrema. Unilateral cervical vagotomy did not modify CpG-DNA-induced c-FOS expression in the NTS, indicating that CpG-DNA-induced activation of the NTS is independent of the afferent vagus nerve input originating from the subdiaphragmatic organs. On the other hand, Toll-like receptor 9 mRNA was expressed in the nodose ganglion. Therefore, it is possible that CpG-DNA activates afferent vagus nerve through the nodose ganglion which subsequently activates the NTS. Present observations represented that peripheral CpG-DNA induced immune event in the brain, and that not only c-FOS but also phosphorylation of STAT3 can be a useful indicator for evaluation of neuro-immune interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Sako
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12, Nishi 6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
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36
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Carpentier PA, Begolka WS, Olson JK, Elhofy A, Karpus WJ, Miller SD. Differential activation of astrocytes by innate and adaptive immune stimuli. Glia 2005; 49:360-74. [PMID: 15538753 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The immunologic privilege of the central nervous system (CNS) makes it crucial that CNS resident cells be capable of responding rapidly to infection. Astrocytes have been reported to express Toll-like receptors (TLRs), hallmark pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system, and respond to their ligation with cytokine production. Astrocytes have also been reported to respond to cytokines of the adaptive immune system with the induction of antigen presentation functions. Here we have compared the ability of TLR stimuli and the adaptive immune cytokines interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) to induce a variety of immunologic functions of astrocytes. We show that innate signals LPS- and poly I:C lead to stronger upregulation of TLRs and production of the cytokines IL-6 and TNF-alpha as well as innate immune effector molecules IFN-alpha4, IFN-beta, and iNOS compared with cytokine-stimulated astrocytes. Both innate stimulation and adaptive stimulation induce similar expression of the chemokines CCL2, CCL3, and CCL5, as well as similar enhancement of adhesion molecule ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression by astrocytes. Stimulation with adaptive immune cytokines, however, was unique in its ability to induce upregulation of MHC II and the functional ability of astrocytes to activate CD4(+) T cells. These results indicate potentially important and changing roles for astrocytes during the progression of CNS infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela A Carpentier
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 303 E Chicago Avenue, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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37
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Zhang Z, Weinschenk T, Schluesener HJ. Uptake, intracellular distribution, and novel binding proteins of immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides in microglial cells. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 160:32-40. [PMID: 15710455 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2004] [Revised: 10/27/2004] [Accepted: 10/27/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells are central components of the innate immune system of the brain and contribute to inflammatory and degenerative processes. DNA with unmethylated CpG dinucleotides is a potent stimulant of microglial cells. We have analyzed uptake, intracellular distribution, and cellular binding proteins of CpG oligdeoxynucleotides (ODNs) by the microglial cell line N9. The uptake of CpG-ODN is concentration-, time-, and temperature-dependent, but, interestingly, independent of the CpG dinucleotides. After internalisation, CpG-ODN localized to the cytoplasm and showed a typical speckled distribution pattern. We further purified the cellular binding proteins of CpG-ODN and identified several binding proteins by tryptic digestion and mass spectrometry. Most of the CpG-ODN binding proteins are RNA processing enzymes, which are important for RNA splicing, export, and stability. Further, we identified a protein, pigpen, which has not been observed in microglial cells, so far. These proteins apparently bind CpG-ODN with low selectivity, as binding is independent of CpG dinucleotides. Interference of immunostimulatory and therapeutic oligonucleotides with proteins and enzymes of RNA transport and processing has not been described so far and might affect the physiological functions of these proteins and also might influence cellular localization of therapeutic ODN. These findings are helpful in understanding the cellular fate of ODN and the nonsequence-specific effects of ODN and for rational design and evaluation of ODN-based therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiren Zhang
- Institute of Brain Research, University of Tuebingen, Calwer Street 3, Tuebingen D-72076, Germany.
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38
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Sterka D, Rati DM, Marriott I. Functional expression of NOD2, a novel pattern recognition receptor for bacterial motifs, in primary murine astrocytes. Glia 2005; 53:322-30. [PMID: 16265673 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
There is growing appreciation that resident brain cells can initiate and/or regulate inflammation after trauma or infection in the central nervous system (CNS). Recent studies from our laboratory have begun to shed light on the mechanisms by which astrocytes perceive bacterial challenges by demonstrating the functional expression of Toll-like receptors (TLR) in this cell type. In the present study, we demonstrate that astrocytes also express members of the novel nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) family of proteins that can serve as cytosolic pattern recognition receptors. We show that isolated cultures of murine astrocytes constitutively express robust levels of NOD2, a molecule that can recognize a minimal peptidoglycan motif. Expression of NOD2 is significantly upregulated after exposure to two disparate and clinically relevant bacterial pathogens of the CNS, Borrelia burgdorferi and Neisseria meningitidis. Similarly, NOD2 protein expression is elevated after exposure to specific bacterial ligands for TLRs. Importantly, we show that astrocytes express Rip2 kinase, an essential downstream effector molecule for NOD-mediated cell responses, and demonstrate that this expression is upregulated after bacterial challenge. Furthermore, we confirm the functional nature of NOD2 in astrocytes by demonstrating that a specific ligand for this receptor induces significant inflammatory cytokine production and augments immune responses induced by TLR ligation. Taken together, the present demonstration that astrocytes express functional NOD2 proteins may represent a potentially important mechanism by which this glial cell type initiates either protective host responses within the brain or the progression of damaging CNS inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sterka
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina 28223, USA
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39
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Ono A, Okuma Y, Hosoi T, Nomura Y. Effect of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy on bacterial DNA-induced IL-1β expression in the mouse hypothalamus. Brain Res 2004; 1028:233-7. [PMID: 15527749 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether bacterial DNA (CpG-DNA)-induced IL-1beta expression in the mouse hypothalamus is mediated via afferent vagus nerve. Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy did not modify the CpG-DNA (i.p.)-induced IL-1beta expression in the hypothalamus, indicating that CpG-DNA-induced IL-1beta expression is independent of the afferent vagus nerve originating from the subdiaphragmatic organs. On the other hand, we observed the Toll-like receptor 9 mRNA expression in the hypothalamus, suggesting that circulating CpG-DNA acts directly in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Ono
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12, Nishi 6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
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40
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Ebert S, Gerber J, Bader S, Mühlhauser F, Brechtel K, Mitchell TJ, Nau R. Dose-dependent activation of microglial cells by Toll-like receptor agonists alone and in combination. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 159:87-96. [PMID: 15652406 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2004] [Revised: 10/03/2004] [Accepted: 10/04/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells express Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognising exogenous and endogenous ligands. Upon stimulation with agonists of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9, nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were released by primary mouse microglial cell cultures. Endotoxin was most potent in stimulating microglia followed by pneumolysin, cytosine-guanosine (CpG) oligodesoxynucleotide (ODN), and Tripalmitoyl-S-glyceryl-cysteine. Maximum stimulation of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 resulted in approximately equal amounts of nitric oxide release. Pneumolysin was a potent activator of microglial cells; at high concentrations, it reduced cell viability. No cytotoxicity was noted with the other TLR agonists. Costimulation with maximum concentrations of two TLR agonists did not further increase nitric oxide release. Costimulation with submaximum concentrations was additive or supraadditive, suggesting that even low concentrations of products of infectious agents can lead to microglial activation via TLRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Ebert
- Department of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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41
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Lee S, Hong J, Choi SY, Oh SB, Park K, Kim JS, Karin M, Lee SJ. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides induce expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in astrocytes: the role of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in CpG ODN-mediated NF-kappaB activation. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 153:50-63. [PMID: 15265663 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2003] [Revised: 04/21/2004] [Accepted: 04/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial DNA and synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) containing unmethylated CpG motifs stimulate the cells of the innate immune system through a specific receptor called Toll-like receptor-9 (TLR9). It was reported that CpG ODN stimulation induces activation of astrocytes and microglia. However, the precise intracellular signaling pathways that lead to this glial cell activation have not been clearly elucidated. In this study, we found that CpG ODN induce mRNA expression of adhesion molecules and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), as well as proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, in mouse astrocytes. CpG ODN stimulation in astrocytes induces the activation of IkappaB kinase (IKK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), whereas it inhibits the constitutive ERK1/2 activation. The abrogation of JNK activity using a pharmacological inhibitor showed that JNK activation is essential for the induction of cytokine and chemokine gene expression. This effect of JNK does not require the phosphorylation of c-Jun; rather, it works via the potentiation of NF-kappaB signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soojin Lee
- LG Life Sciences Ltd., Daejon, South Korea
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42
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Hosoi T, Suzuki S, Nomura J, Ono A, Okuma Y, Akira S, Nomura Y. Bacterial DNA induced iNOS expression through MyD88-p38 MAP kinase in mouse primary cultured glial cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 124:159-64. [PMID: 15135224 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/19/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To study the role of bacterial DNA in the immune function of the brain, we examined the effect of CpG-DNA on the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in mouse primary cultured glial cells. The expression of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), the receptor of bacterial DNA, was detected by RT-PCR. We observed an increase in iNOS mRNA 6 h after CpG-DNA application. The expression of iNOS protein peaked at 12 h and declined thereafter. CpG-DNA increased p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation in primary cultured glial cells. SB203580, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase, inhibited the CpG-DNA-induced iNOS expression. Moreover, CpG-DNA failed to activate p38 MAP kinase and iNOS induction in the primary cultured glial cells prepared from myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) deficient mice. Therefore, it is suggested that functional receptor for bacterial DNA exists in primary cultured glial cells and CpG-DNA induces iNOS expression via the MyD88-p38 MAP kinase-dependent mechanisms. Thus, the present results point to the important role of bacterial DNA by acting on glial cells to operate brain immune function.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing
- Animals
- Antigens, Differentiation/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation/immunology
- Antigens, Differentiation/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- CpG Islands
- DNA, Bacterial/immunology
- DNA, Bacterial/pharmacology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/immunology
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88
- Neuroglia/enzymology
- Neuroglia/metabolism
- Nitric Oxide/biosynthesis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/immunology
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/metabolism
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- RNA, Messenger/drug effects
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/immunology
- Receptors, Immunologic/metabolism
- Toll-Like Receptor 9
- Up-Regulation/drug effects
- Up-Regulation/genetics
- p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases
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Affiliation(s)
- Toru Hosoi
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12, Nishi 6, Kitaku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
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43
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Stark JL, Lyons JA, Cross AH. Interferon-gamma produced by encephalitogenic cells induces suppressors of cytokine signaling in primary murine astrocytes. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 151:195-200. [PMID: 15145618 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2003] [Revised: 03/05/2004] [Accepted: 03/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) are proteins that modulate cytokine responses in lymphoid cells. In these studies, cultured primary mouse astrocytes expressed SOCS-3 mRNA constitutively. Treatment with interferon-gamma (IFN-g) induced SOCS-1 and enhanced SOCS-3 expression, and was associated with decreased tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) and increased leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) in culture supernatants. Treatment with conditioned medium from myelin basic protein-stimulated encephalitogenic lymphoid cells (MBP-CM) increased SOCS-3 and induced SOCS-1 expression. The effects were largely due to IFN-g in MBP-CM, as anti-IFN-g antibody diminished induction. These findings suggest a role for IFN-g-induced SOCS expression in regulation of CNS inflammatory responses by astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Stark
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 S. Euclid Ave., Campus P.O. Box 8111, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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44
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Iliev AI, Stringaris AK, Nau R, Neumann H. Neuronal injury mediated via stimulation of microglial toll-like receptor-9 (TLR9). FASEB J 2003; 18:412-4. [PMID: 14688201 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0670fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Innate immune cells express toll-like receptor-9 (TLR9) and respond to unmethylated, CG dinucleotide motif-rich DNA released from bacteria during infection or endogenous cells during autoimmune tissue injury. Oligonucleotides containing CG dinucleotide (CpG-DNA) mimic the effect of unmethylated DNA and stimulate TLR9. CpG-DNA was cytotoxic to neurons in organotypic brain cultures. Neurotoxicity of CpG-DNA was mediated via microglial cells and started primarily from neurites as determined by time-lapse imaging of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-transfected neurons. Cultured brain microglial cells expressed TLR9 and responded to CpG-DNA by production of the inflammatory mediators nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). Blockade of NO synthase and TNF-alpha prevented damage of neurites and neurotoxicity of CpG-DNA. The data suggest that stimulation of microglia via TLR9 and subsequent release of NO and TNF-alpha is a major source of neurotoxicity in bacterial and autoimmune brain tissue injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asparouh I Iliev
- Neuroimmunology Unit, European Neuroscience Institute Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Bowman CC, Rasley A, Tranguch SL, Marriott I. Cultured astrocytes express toll-like receptors for bacterial products. Glia 2003; 43:281-91. [PMID: 12898707 DOI: 10.1002/glia.10256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It has become apparent that astrocytes may be important contributors to inflammatory immune responses within the brain in response to microbial challenges. To date, the mechanisms that underlie activation of this major glial cell type by such challenges have not been investigated. In the present study, we present evidence for members of a recently discovered family of receptors for highly conserved microbial components, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), in isolated cultures of primary murine astrocytes. We describe the low-level constitutive expression of messenger RNA-encoding TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, and TLR9 in resting cultures of these cells. Importantly, the level of expression of messenger RNA for each of these receptors is markedly elevated following exposure to specific bacteria-derived ligands for these receptors. The functional expression of these receptor proteins is further supported by the ability of known ligands for each TLR to induce both message expression and protein secretion of the proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-6. In addition, the recent availability of antibodies to TLR2 and TLR4 has enabled us to demonstrate directly the presence of these receptors on astrocytes by Western blot and immunofluorescence analysis, respectively. Furthermore, we have confirmed the sensitivity of such receptor expression to ligand stimulation. The present demonstration of Toll-like microbial pattern-recognition receptors on primary astrocytes provides a mechanistic link between bacterial challenge and inflammatory immune responses that may be an important component of the pathologies of bacterially induced inflammatory CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christal C Bowman
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina 28223, USA
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Mölne L, Collins LV, Tarkowski A. Inflammatogenic properties of bacterial DNA following cutaneous exposure. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 121:294-9. [PMID: 12880421 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12352.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial DNA and oligodeoxynucleotides containing cytosine-phosphate-guanosine sequences and thereby mimicking prokaryotic DNA, have recently been shown to exert potent immunostimulatory properties. As skin normally harbors bacteria, and as the bacterial content and the levels of bacterial degradation products increase during skin infection, we analyzed the potential inflammatogenic role of bacterial DNA and oligodeoxynucleotides in a mouse model of cutaneous inflammation. Bacterial DNA from Staphylococcus aureus was injected intradermally into mice and its inflammatogenic properties were compared with synthetic phosphodiester and phosphorothioate cytosine-phosphate-guanosine- or GpC-containing oligodeoxynucleotides. A peak inflammatory infiltrate in the skin was seen already 2 d after injection with either bacterial DNA or the phosphodiester cytosine-phosphate-guanosine-oligodeoxynucleotides. In contrast, nuclease-resistant phosphorothioate cytosine-phosphate-guanosine-induced dermatitis peaked 7 d after intradermal injection. The inflammatory infiltrates consisted mainly of macrophages, and depletion of this cell population resulted in a significant (p=0.0001) decrease in the severity of inflammation, which suggests that macrophages play a central part in inflammatory responses in the skin following exposure to cytosine-phosphate-guanosine-containing oligodeoxynucleotides. A significant decrease in local inflammatory infiltrate was also seen in mice with deficiencies in neutrophil or lymphocyte populations, which indicates that these cell populations may also be involved in mediating inflammatory signals after the injection of immunostimulatory DNA sequences. In summary, our results suggest that bacterial DNA is an important virulence determinant and inflammatory stimulus during skin infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Mölne
- Department of Dermatology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, University of Göteborg, Sweden.
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Zeuner RA, Ishii KJ, Lizak MJ, Gursel I, Yamada H, Klinman DM, Verthelyi D. Reduction of CpG-induced arthritis by suppressive oligodeoxynucleotides. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2002; 46:2219-24. [PMID: 12209528 DOI: 10.1002/art.10423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Bacterial DNA contains immunostimulatory CpG motifs that cause inflammation when injected into the knee joints of normal mice. We examined whether synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) that suppress CpG-induced immune responses prevent CpG-induced arthritis. METHODS CpG, suppressive, and/or control ODN were injected into the knees of BALB/c mice. Joint swelling and inflammation were evaluated by physical measurement, by histologic analysis of joint tissue, and by magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS Immunostimulatory CpG DNA induced local arthritis, characterized by swelling of the knee joints, the presence of inflammatory cell infiltrates, the perivascular accumulation of mononuclear cells, and hyperplasia of the synovial lining. Administering suppressive (but not control) ODN reduced the manifestations and severity of arthritis up to 80%. CONCLUSION Suppressive ODN may be useful for the prevention or treatment of arthritis induced by bacterial DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainald A Zeuner
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA, Bethesda, Maryland, and Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
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Auf G, Chen L, Fornès P, Le Clanche C, Delattre JY, Carpentier AF. CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide rejection of a neuroblastoma in A/J mice does not induce a paraneoplastic disease. Neurosci Lett 2002; 327:189-92. [PMID: 12113909 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(02)00422-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs (CpG-ODN) are powerful immunostimulating agents that are currently entering clinical trials in various human diseases. Concerns exist about potential auto-immune diseases triggered by such treatment. We thus investigated whether tumor rejection induced by CpG-ODN treatment could lead to a harmful auto-immune reaction against the nervous system (neurological paraneoplastic disease) at the time of acute tumor rejection, or in long-term surviving animals. Mice bearing established neuroblastomas were treated with intra-tumoral injections of CpG-ODN, resulting in tumor inhibition and tumor rejection in one-third of the animals. Immunocytochemistry and Western blot studies revealed no specific anti-neuronal antibodies. None of the animals developed neurological disabilities and histological studies of the nervous system were normal. CpG-ODN can therefore trigger neuroblastoma rejection without inducing neurological paraneoplastic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Auf
- Fédération de Neurologie Mazarin and Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U-495, Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, 75013, Paris, France
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Zheng M, Klinman DM, Gierynska M, Rouse BT. DNA containing CpG motifs induces angiogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:8944-9. [PMID: 12060721 PMCID: PMC124403 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.132605599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2001] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
New blood vessel formation in the cornea is an essential step in the pathogenesis of a blinding immunoinflammatory reaction caused by ocular infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV). By using a murine corneal micropocket assay, we found that HSV DNA (which contains a significant excess of potentially bioactive "CpG" motifs when compared with mammalian DNA) induces angiogenesis. Moreover, synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs attract inflammatory cells and stimulate the release of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which in turn triggers new blood vessel formation. In vitro, CpG DNA induces the J774A.1 murine macrophage cell line to produce VEGF. In vivo CpG-induced angiogenesis was blocked by the administration of anti-mVEGF Ab or the inclusion of "neutralizing" oligodeoxynucleotides that specifically oppose the stimulatory activity of CpG DNA. These findings establish that DNA containing bioactive CpG motifs induces angiogenesis, and suggest that CpG motifs in HSV DNA may contribute to the blinding lesions of stromal keratitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Zheng
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0845, USA
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Dalpke AH, Schäfer MKH, Frey M, Zimmermann S, Tebbe J, Weihe E, Heeg K. Immunostimulatory CpG-DNA activates murine microglia. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:4854-63. [PMID: 11994434 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.10.4854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial DNA containing motifs of unmethylated CpG dinucleotides (CpG-DNA) triggers innate immune cells through the pattern recognition receptor Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR-9). CpG-DNA possesses potent immunostimulatory effects on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes. Therefore, CpG-DNA contributes to inflammation during the course of bacterial infections. In contrast to other TLR-dependent microbial patterns, CpG-DNA is a strong inductor of IL-12. Thus, it acts as a Th1-polarizing agent that can be utilized as potent vaccine adjuvant. To assess the role of CpG-DNA in immune reactions in the CNS, we analyzed the effects of CpG-DNA on microglial cells in vitro and in vivo. Primary microglial cells as well as microglial cell lines express TLR-9 mRNA. Consequently, CpG-DNA activated microglial cells in vitro and induced TNF-alpha, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, and NO. Furthermore, MHC class II, B7-1, B7-2, and CD40 molecules were up-regulated. In addition, phagocytic activity of microglia was enhanced. After intracerebroventricular injection of CpG-DNA, microglial cells were activated and produced TNF-alpha and IL-12p40 transcripts, as shown by in situ hybridization. These results indicate that microglia is sensitive to CpG-DNA. Thus, bacterial DNA containing CpG motifs could not only play an important role during infections of the CNS, but also might trigger and sustain Th1-dominated immunopathogenic reactions.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/antagonists & inhibitors
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Animals
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/metabolism
- Cell Line
- Cell Line, Transformed
- CpG Islands/immunology
- DNA, Bacterial/administration & dosage
- DNA, Bacterial/antagonists & inhibitors
- DNA, Bacterial/pharmacology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/biosynthesis
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- Injections, Intraventricular
- Interleukin-12/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-12/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-12/genetics
- Interleukin-12/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Microglia/enzymology
- Microglia/immunology
- Microglia/metabolism
- Nitric Oxide/metabolism
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/biosynthesis
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/genetics
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/administration & dosage
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/antagonists & inhibitors
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology
- Phagocytosis/immunology
- Poly G/metabolism
- Poly G/pharmacology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cell Surface/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Toll-Like Receptor 9
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/antagonists & inhibitors
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/biosynthesis
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/genetics
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander H Dalpke
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Philipps-University Marburg, Baldinger Strasse, 35033 Marburg, Germany
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