Fundamental movement skills and physical activity among children living in low-income communities: a cross-sectional study

Body Mass Index and Sedentary Behaviour Affect Hamstring Extensibility in Primary Education Students

Enhancing and maintaining physical condition is an essential element of physical education for primary school children. In this respect, flexibility is of crucial importance in physical performance and coordination. One of the areas addressed in physical education is that of increasing hamstring flexibility, which is diminished by physical inactivity and inversely associated with the body mass index. The objective of this study is to explore the interplay between hamstring extensibility, physical inactivity and overweight in primary school students. Accordingly, a cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out of 265 students, applying sit and reach (SR) and deep trunk flexion (DTF) tests and analysing responses made to the IPAQ questionnaire. Among the results found for the study sample, the average flexor capacity recorded was -0.26 ± 6.33 among the boys and 5.52 ± 6.46 among the girls. The highest values in the girls were achieved at 9-10 years of age (6.69 ± 8.19) and in the boys at 6-7 years of age (2.72 ± 5.99). The lowest values for the girls (3.30 ± 5.19) were recorded in those aged 8-9 years and for the boys (3.13 ± 5.60) at the same age. These study results suggest there is a relationship between a sedentary lifestyle, a high BMI and sub-optimum flexibility. The children identified as physically active obtained higher average results in both the SR and the DTF tests.

Associations Between Fundamental Movement Skills, Muscular Fitness, Self-Perception and Physical Activity in Primary School Students

Background/Objectives: Positive self-perception, physical activity and fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency are important aspects of a child's healthy development. The objective of this research was twofold: first, to explore associations between FMS, muscular fitness, self-perception and physical activity in school children; and second, to identify key predictors of FMS proficiency, athletic self-perception, physical activity levels in these participants and the differences between biological sexes. Methods: Primary school-aged children (n = 104; 53.85% female) from 8 to 10 years old (M = 9.04, SD = 0.69) engaged in two days of testing. All students were measured on FMS, standing long jump (SLJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), seated medicine ball chest throw and self-perception, followed by correlation and stepwise multiple linear regression analyses. Results: The findings revealed significant positive correlations between FMS proficiency, lower body muscular fitness (CMJ, SLJ), and athletic self-perception for the entire cohort, with varying results between male and female subgroups. Additionally, athletic self-perception showed strong relationships with other self-perception domains. Notably, forward stepwise regression analysis identified FMS proficiency as a significant predictor of physical activity levels, explaining 12.8% of the variance. SLJ, scholastic perception, and physical activity explained 45.5% of FMS variance for females. In males, FMS proficiency significantly predicted physical activity, accounting for 13.3% of the variance. SLJ and athletic competence self-perception explained 42.1% of FMS variance in males. Conclusions: The study indicates that FMS, self-perception, muscular fitness, and physical activity levels may mutually enhance each other, and that there is a need for biological sex-specific strategies to be considered in physical education programs.

Multistakeholder Perspectives on the Determinants of Family Fundamental Movement Skills Practice: A Qualitative Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity is a significant public health crisis that is exposing children to associated morbidities and premature mortality. However, parents can positively influence physical activity trajectories and improve health outcomes by nurturing fundamental movement skills (FMS) in children. This is the first study to explore the determinants of family FMS practice via a systematic synthesis of qualitative evidence.

METHODS

Keyword searches were completed in SPORTDiscus, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase. Studies that offered perspectives relating to influences on the FMS of 2-6-year-old children in the family context via qualitative approaches, including visual methodologies that provided an important voice to children, were included. A thematic analysis was used to establish key themes.

RESULTS

The emergent themes included parent knowledge and beliefs, self-efficacy of parents to teach, and the home environment. Parents often undervalued FMS and lacked the self-efficacy to teach due to poor understanding, conflicting priorities, and multifaceted societal influences. Children preferred autonomous play and socialisation but were negatively influenced by technology and restrictive household rules.

CONCLUSIONS

Greater knowledge exchange between stakeholders is necessary to empower parents and enhance FMS application at home. More community initiatives could facilitate greater access to outdoor spaces, facilities, and equipment, which may improve family engagement with FMS.

Exploring the Relationship between Fundamental Movement Skills and Health-Related Fitness among First and Second Graders in Korea: Implications for Healthy Childhood Development

This study investigated the relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMSs) and health-related fitness (HRF) among first and second graders in South Korean elementary schools. It aimed to provide foundational data for developing physical education programs tailored to the motor development stages and fitness levels of younger elementary school students. This study utilized secondary data from the physical activity competence evaluation conducted by the Health Physical Activity Institute (HPAI). In October 2023, the HPAI evaluated the fundamental movement skills (jumping, running, hopping, static balance, dynamic balance, overhand throwing, and kicking) and health-related fitness (muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility) of 291 first and second-grade students. The collected data were analyzed through frequency and multiple regression analyses performed using SPSS software. The results revealed that higher scores in jumping and hopping are associated with greater muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility. Running had no significant effect on HRF elements. Higher scores in static balance (i.e., that used in single-leg stance) were associated with increased muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, and flexibility, but dynamic balance (balance beam walking) did not have a significant effect. Higher scores in overhand throwing were associated with greater muscular strength and cardiorespiratory endurance, but kicking did not show a significant association. Overall, these findings emphasize the importance of prioritizing jumping and static balance in physical education for the well-rounded health development of first and second graders. Based on the results derived from this study, it is expected to serve as a theoretical basis for including "jumping" and "static balance" in the first and second grade curriculum of elementary schools, thereby providing essential guidance.

Associations of obesity, movement behaviors, and socioeconomic status with fundamental movement skills in children: Results from the REACT project

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship of biological characteristics (age, sex, and obesity), movement behaviors (physical activity and sedentary time), and family socioeconomic status with fundamental movement skills (FMS) in primary school children.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study sampled 1014 children (537 girls) aged 6 to 10 years from 25 primary schools in Matosinhos, north of Portugal. Five object control skills (dribbling, kicking, catching, throwing, and underarm rolling) were assessed with a categorical scale using the Meu Educativo® platform. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated and transformed into z-scores. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time were monitored with accelerometry (ActiGraph wGT3X-BT) for seven consecutive days. Family socioeconomic status (SES) was obtained from the Portuguese social support system. Ordinal multilevel logistic regression was used to analyze the associations of weight status, MVPA, sedentary time and SES with FMS, adjusted for sex and age.

RESULTS

Boys (odds ratio (OR) = 6.54; 95% CI: 5.13-8.36) and older children (OR = 2.04; 95% CI: 1.85-2.26) were more likely to achieve higher FMS scores. Children with obesity (OR = 0.60; 95% CI: 0.45-0.80), those less active (OR = 0.56; 95% CI: 0.42-0.75) and children with more sedentary time (OR = 0.86; 95%CI: 0.77-0.97) were less likely to score high on FMS. Family SES was not significantly associated with FMS scores.

CONCLUSION

Primary school children's FMS are significantly related to biological and behavioral factors but not to family SES. These findings highlight the need for suitable strategies to enhance children's FMS proficiency, considering differences in these characteristics. Fostering adequate motor skill proficiency levels will assist in establishing a robust foundation for healthy lifestyles of all children.

Associations between fundamental movement skills and accelerometer-measured physical activity in Chinese children: the mediating role of cardiorespiratory fitness

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The associations of fundamental motor skills (FMS), health-related physical fitness (e.g., cardiorespiratory fitness, CRF), and moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) have been demonstrated in Western children, but these associations have not yet been validated in a sample of Chinese children. The aims of this study, therefore, were to examine the association between FMS subdomains and MVPA in a sample of Chinese children and to evaluate whether this association is mediated by CRF.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study consisting of 311 children aged 8-12 years (49.2% girls; mean age = 9.9 years) from Shanghai was conducted. FMS, CRF and MVPA were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition, Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run and ActiGraph GT3X accelerometers. Preacher & Hayes's bootstrap method was used to test the mediating effects of CRF on the association between FMS and MVPA.

RESULTS

CRF fully mediated the association between total FMS and MVPA in girls (indirect effects, b = 0.21, 95% CI [0.07-0.37]), while the mediation was only partial in boys (indirect effects, b = 0.12, 95% CI [0.01-0.26]). CRF fully mediated the association between locomotor skills and MVPA in girls (indirect effects, b = 0.27, 95% CI [0.09- 0.51]), whereas CRF partially mediated the association between object control skills and MVPA in boys (indirect effects, b = 0.15, 95% CI [0.18-0.35]).

CONCLUSION

In order to better design and implement sex-specific interventions aiming to increase MVPA, it is essential to consider FMS subdomains and CRF alongside the sex differences in the association between them.

The role of fundamental movement skills on children's physical activity during different segments of the school day

BACKGROUND

Although prior studies have demonstrated that children with high levels of fundamental movement skill (FMS) are more active throughout the day, little is known about children's FMS and their physical activity (PA) during different segments of the school day (e.g., recess, lunch break, and physical education). The present study focused on FMS and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) during school day and identifies the association between children's FMS and MVPA during different segments of the school day in China.

METHODS

A total of 322 children (boys n = 163, girls n = 159; Mage = 8.12, SD = 1.22 years) from four elementary schools involved in this study. Children's FMS and MVPA were measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition (TGMD-2) and hip-mounted accelerometers. Data such as height, weight, and socio-economic status (SES) were also obtained. Multilevel mixed regression models were used to examine the cross-sectional associations between FMS and MVPA. Models were adjusted for gender, age, standardized body mass index, and SES.

RESULTS

Children engaged in 32.19 min of MVPA during the whole school day. Boys were more active than girls and had higher object-control skills competency. Locomotor skills were positively associated with children's long recess (B = 1.063) and short recess time (B = 1.502) MVPA. Object-control skills were positively correlated with children's MVPA time during long recess (B = 1.244) and physical education (PE) lessons (B = 1.171).

CONCLUSION

The findings highlight the importance of developing both locomotor and object-control skills in elementary schools to lead more MVPA engagement during different segments of the school day.

Physical activity level correlates with obesity-related factors, but not with fundamental movement skills in preschool children: a cross-sectional study

This study aimed to examine the differences in physical activity (PA) level, fundamental movement skill (FMS), and obesity-related factors in preschoolers. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 426 preschool children aged 3-5 years. Participants were assigned to the low PA group (LPAG), moderate PA group (MPAG), and high PA group (HPAG) according to the total score obtained in the PA questionnaire for young children. FMS and obesity-related factors were also analyzed. PA was compared by age and sex, and FMS and obesity-related factors were compared between groups. Significant differences were found according to sex. Boys were more active than girls in the 3-4 years age group, but no significant differences were observed at the age of 5 years. LPAG showed lower FMS than MPAG and HPAG, although this was not statistically significant. However, body mass index (BMI), BMI z-score, body fat, and muscle mass showed significant differences in terms of PA levels. Consideration of age and sex is crucial in promoting PA among preschoolers. Additionally, better obesity-related factors are associated with higher PA levels, and FMS may be a useful tool in evaluating health and fitness.

Direct Parent Engagement to Improve Fundamental Movement Skills in Children: A Systematic Review

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are basic movements in children that represent the building blocks for more complex motor skill development and act as a prerequisite for enduring sport and physical activity (PA) engagement and positive health-related behaviours. The FMS proficiency is currently inadequate worldwide, and consequently there are alarming levels of inactivity and childhood obesity. However, parents are role models to their children and possess the power to influence their PA behaviour. This review investigated if parent-focused interventions could improve FMS in 2-7-year-old children and evaluated which setting and method of parent engagement was most impactful. Keyword searches were conducted via Scopus, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Only nine articles met the inclusion criteria. No research originated from the United Kingdom, highlighting the urgent need for further FMS interventions involving parents. The FMS improved in all nine studies, with significant changes in seven of the articles (p < 0.05). Parent-child co-activity, the education and empowerment of parents, and the provision of clear FMS guidance, messaging, and structure can positively influence children's FMS. Recently, smartphone apps have increased the feasibility and accessibility of FMS practice at home and may be integral to future interventions. Further research with direct parental involvement is clearly warranted.

The Reliability of the Wall Drop Punt Kick and Catch Test

This study aimed to evaluate the reliability of a manipulative eye-segmental (hand and foot) coordination task, namely the Wall Drop Punt Kick and Catch test (WDPK&C), over two weeks. Forty-one children and adolescents (18 boys, 23 girls) with a mean age of 10.2 (SD = 1.62) years old were recruited for assessment. Subjects had 30 s to perform as many ball impacts as possible on a wall two meters away, following a drop punt kick, rebound on the wall, and catch sequence. The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC = 0.896) for unique measures, Cronbach Alpha (α = 0.945), and Lin's Concordance Correlation Coefficient (CCC = 0.896) provide evidence of reliability considering two consecutive measurements. These results further support the reliability of the WDPK&C test in a sample of Portuguese children and adolescents. Thus, the WDPK&C test can be applied to Portuguese boy and girl children and adolescents. Forthcoming studies should test the reliability of this test across different age groups since it is intended to be a test with a wide lifespan coverage.

The relationships between children's motor competence, physical activity, perceived motor competence, physical fitness and weight status in relation to age

The goal of this cross-sectional study was to further explore the relationships between motor competence, physical activity, perceived motor competence, physical fitness and weight status in different age categories of Dutch primary school children. Participants were 2068 children aged 4 to 13 years old, divided over 9 age groups. During physical education classes, they completed the 4-Skills Test, a physical activity questionnaire, versions of the Self-Perception Profile for Children, Eurofit test and anthropometry measurements. Results show that all five factors included in the analyses are related to each other and that a tipping point exists at which relations emerge or strengthen. Physical fitness is related to both motor competence and physical activity and these relationships strengthen with age. A relationship between body mass index and the other four factors emerges in middle childhood. Interestingly, at a young age, motor competence and perceived motor competence are weakly related, but neither one of these have a relation with physical activity. In middle childhood, both motor competence and perceived motor competence are related to physical activity. Our findings show that children in late childhood who have higher perceived motor competence are also more physically active, have higher physical fitness, higher motor competence and lower body mass index. Our results indicate that targeting motor competence at a young age might be a feasible way to ensure continued participation in physical activities throughout childhood and adolescence.

Fundamental motor skill proficiency among 7- to 10-year-old children with Down syndrome

[Purpose] The purposes of this study were to assess the fundamental motor skill (FMS) of children with Down syndrome (DS) and to compare their FMS proficiencies to those of chronological age-matched and gender-matched typically developing children (TDC). [Participants and Methods] This cross-sectional study involved a total of 60 participants (30 children with DS and 30 TDC). The FMS proficiency of participants was assessed by using the test of gross motor development, second edition (TGMD-2). The data were analyzed using independent samples t-tests to verify the differences between the two groups and gender. The effect size of Cohen's d was also determined for comparing the two groups. [Results] The results showed that there were significant differences between children with DS and the TDC on locomotor and object control standard scores, and the gross motor quotient (GMQ). However, there were no significant gender-based differences in the locomotor and object control standard scores and the GMQ in both groups. [Conclusion] Based on the current results, the FMS proficiency of children with DS is lower than the TDC. Therefore, a therapeutic intervention program is necessary for children with DS to improve their FMS proficiency.

Associations between Fundamental Movement Skills and Moderate-to-Vigorous Intensity Physical Activity among Chinese Children and Adolescents with Intellectual Disability

Higher physical activity (PA) levels will obtain more health-related benefits for children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID). The mastery of fundamental movement skills (FMS) potentially correlates with PA. This study aimed to examine the associations of FMS with moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) levels in children and adolescents with moderate to severe ID. Moreover, this research analyzes whether there are gender and age differences in the association between these two variables. A total of 93 children and adolescents with ID, aged 8-17 years (mean age = 13.27; SD = 3.35), were recruited from a special school located in western China. The time spent in MVPA was measured using waist-worn accelerometers. FMS proficiency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). Children and adolescents with ID tend to have delayed maturity of FMS patterns (locomotor skills t (92) = -16.91, p < 0.001, d = 2.48; object control skills t (92) = -25.39, p < 0.001, d = 3.72; total FMS t (92) = -21.83, p < 0.001, d = 3.20) and lower proficiency in objective control skills (t (92) = 3.989, p < 0.001, d = 0.29). A significant positive correlation was found between MVPA and FMS, and this association was moderated by gender and age. For boys, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.842, p < 0.01), whereas locomotor skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.472, p < 0.05) for girls. For children with ID, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (B = 0.736, p < 0.05). Proficiency in FMS has a positive effect on increasing the level of MVPA in children and adolescents with ID. Gender and age factors should be considered when implementing FMS intervention programs.

The Impact of Obesity on the Fitness Performance of School-Aged Children Living in Rural Areas-The West Attica Project

This study aimed to investigate the relationship of body mass index (BMI) with muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness in children living within rural areas (regional unit of West Attica) in Greece. Participants included 399 students (187 boys, 212 girls), ages 8-12 years old, and were evaluated in physical performance tests. The point prevalence of overweight and obesity was 21.39% and 26.20% in boys, and 19.90% and 23.79% in girls. Significant differences were observed in all physical performance tests (handgrip, long jump, shuttle run, trunk flexors, and extensors endurance) between normal weight and obese participants. BMI was positively correlated with handgrip (r = 0.442-0.462, p < 0.001). There was a negative association with long jump (r = -0.206, p < 0.001), 20 m shuttle run (r = -0.394, p < 0.001), trunk flexors (r = -0.403, p < 0.001) and trunk extensors endurance (r = -0.280, p < 0.001). The regression analysis showed that 20-30% of the overall variation for physical performance assessments could be accounted for by BMI, age, and sex. With the exception of the long jump and the endurance of the trunk extensors, BMI alone may explain more than 10% of the outcome of most tests. This study highlights the determinant of BMI on muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness. The management of obesity should begin early in childhood to prevent adult chronic cardiovascular and metabolic diseases.

Relationship between Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity with Health-Related Physical Fitness Indicators among Pakistani School Adolescents: Yaali-Pak Study

Background

The current study is the foremost study exploring the relationships between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and health-related physical fitness indicators among 12-16-year-old adolescents of the South Punjab region of Pakistan.

Methods

The researcher adopted the cross-sectional research design for the study. A total of 2970 participants (1477 boys and 1493 girls) aged adolescents from South Punjab, Pakistan, completed health-related physical fitness indicators measuring strength, endurance, and aerobic capacity through a hand-grip strength test, modified pull-up test, plank test, and 20-m shuttle run test, and physical activity were subjectively assessed by International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF). Linear regression models were used to explore the between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) with health-related physical fitness indicators.

Results

Positive associations were observed between hand-grip strength (p < 0.001), modified pull-up (p < 0.001), plank exercise (p < 0.001), and 20-m shuttle run test (p < 0.001), with MVPA. The gender-specific comparison also indicated a significant (p < 0.001) and positive relationship. The results revealed that as MVPA increases, body composition, muscular strength, core muscular endurance, and aerobic capacity could improve in both genders.

Conclusions

MVPA appears to be an effective and reliable predictor of health-related physical fitness among school adolescents.

Fundamental motor skills of kindergarten children in different environments and ethnic groups in Northwest China

Background

The status of children’s early motor skills play an important role during childhood and across lifetime. This study described FMS proficiency among boys (n = 189) and girls (n = 179) kindergarten children from 3 to 6 years old (4.4 s 0.7, mean ± SD) in northwest China. The differences in FMS proficiency of boys and girls from different environments, ethnic groups were analyzed respectively.

Methods

TGMD-3 was used to assess FMS. FMS mastery level was defined according to the correct performance of all criteria over two trials. The correlation between BMI and FMS and the interaction of environmental and ethnic on FMS were analyzed. The general linear model was used to evaluate the differences of boys and girls among environment groups (urban/suburban/county), and ethnic groups (Han/Hui/Tibetan) on the FMS subsets respectively.

Results

FMS proficiency was assessed in 368 3- to 6-year-old children (n = 156 urban, n = 101 suburban, n = 111 county)/(n = 208 Han, n = 107 Hui, n = 53 Tibetan). Overall, the highest skill performance was the run, with 86% achieving mastery level, and the poorest performance was the FH strike, at only 19%. Correlation between BMI and FMS is minimal. According to TGMD-3 scores, there was no significant difference between boys and girls in total FMS (p = 0.38). In terms of locomotor skills, boys performed better than girls in the hop, skip and slide (p < 0.05). County children performed significantly difference than urban and suburban children. Some skills performed less proficiently, (boys in 6 of 13 skills: run, HJ, slide, TH strike, FH strike and kick; girls in 4 of 13 skills: run, slide, TH strike and kick) and some skills performed more proficiently (boys in dribble; girls in hop and dribble). Tibetan children performed significantly difference than Han and Hui children. Some skills performed less proficiently, (boys in 6 of 13 skills: run, HJ, slide, TH strike, FH strike and kick; girls in TH strike) and some skills performed more proficiently (boys and girls were all in dribble).

Conclusion

Children in northwest China showed certain characteristics in FMS, the county/Tibetan boys and girls performed poorer than others in ability to execute particular process characteristics of some skills and performed more outstanding in other skills. It suggests that a certain group population may need specific focus on interventions to improve their FMS level.

Primary School Pupils: Unequal GMC Developmental Pathways in a Single School Year

Gross motor coordination (GMC) is essential for the development of specific motor skills and long-term participation in physical activities and sports. Group analysis reveals that, on average, children develop these skills gradually; however, how individuals develop GMC is less clear. The main aim of this study is to increase the understanding of developmental patterns within one school year, and whether children’s grade, gender, or baseline GMC proficiency are associated with these developmental patterns. In total, 2594 Dutch children aged 6−12 years performed the modified Körper Koordinations Test für Kinder (KTK3+) twice in one school year (autumn and spring). The KTK3+ includes four subtests: walking backwards, moving sideways, jumping sideways, and eye-hand coordination (EHC) test. On average, children developed significantly on all subtests (p < 0.001). At baseline, children in higher grades scored significantly higher than children in lower grades, and children in grades 5 and 6 (age 9 and 10 years) showed most development (raw scores on average, p < 0.001). Boys outperformed girls on EHC across all grades, whereas girls outperformed boys on walking backwards. Nevertheless, both boys and girls developed similarly. Children with lower scores at baseline developed more quickly across all grades. Noteworthy is that 12.1−24% (depending on the test item) of the children scored lower in the spring than in the autumn tests. On average, children develop their GMC; however, we report large differences in their individual trajectories and note that a substantial number did not show a positive GMC development. Further research should examine GMC development with more possible influencing factors as well as over a longer time span to better understand differences in children’s GMC development. This may result in more individualized programs in PE lessons, enabling children to optimally develop their GMC, and better use of GMC assessment tools to monitor children’s development.

The Effects of a Physical Education Intervention Program on the Bone Properties of Second- and Third-Grade Pupils: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Many young children do not participate in sufficient physical activity for promoting optimal bone growth. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of young children who participated in a school-based intervention program on bone properties. The program included structured physical activity, with a focus on the application of mechanical loads on the upper and lower limbs.

METHODS

A cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted, in which classes were randomly assigned to the intervention or control groups. A total of 295 (50.17% girls) children from the second and third grades from 12 classes in Israel were randomly allocated to an intervention consisting of three 10-minute weekly medium- to high-intensity activities throughout one academic year or to a treatment as usual control group. Bone properties were measured at the distal radius and tibia shaft using speed of sound, before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Distal radius properties improved significantly for both boys and girls in the intervention group (boys: meanpre = 3769.95, meanpost = 3875.08, Δ = 2.80%; girls: meanpre = 3766.27, meanpost = 3890.83, Δ = 3.30%; d = 1.03); whereas, tibia shaft properties only significantly improved for boys (meanpre = 3663.98, meanpost = 3732.75, Δ = 1.90%; d = 1).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that distal radius properties of children can be positively affected by a short, easy to implement intervention program that does not require special resources.

Exploring the Level of Physical Fitness on Physical Activity and Physical Literacy Among Chinese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study

Physical literacy (PL) has received considerable attention in the field of physical education and physical activity (PA) worldwide. According to recent studies, the level of physical fitness (PF) among Chinese university students is gradually decreasing. This study aims to examine the impact of the PF level (fit/unfit) on PA and PL, as well as the relationships among PF, PA, and PL, in Chinese university students. Participants comprised 798 university students (390 men; mean age, 19.2 ± 1.2 years) in Chongqing, China. Participants completed the tests of vital capacity, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, and flexibility, according to the National Physical Fitness Measurement Standards Manual (NPFMSM), as well as questionnaires on PA (time spent performing PA at various intensities) and PL. The independent t-tests were conducted to examine sex differences in the evaluated variables, and the Pearson's correlation between each PF test and PL attributes and PA was calculated according to sex. In addition, the independent t-tests were conducted to determine whether the PF level had an effect on PL attributes and PA at various intensities. Significant sex differences were found in the PF domains of vital capacity, muscular strength, and aerobic fitness, with higher scores in men than in women (all p-values < 0.05), but not in the PF domain of flexibility and total PL score. Furthermore, the PF domains of muscular strength and aerobic fitness were significantly and positively correlated with the PL attributes of confidence and physical competence in both men and women, while the PF domains of vital capacity and aerobic fitness were significantly and positively correlated with the PL attribute of motivation in men. In addition, PL was significantly and positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness, vital capacity, muscular strength, and flexibility among participants in the fit group. These findings support advocating for increased participation in PA in university students and using PL as a tool to improve PF components.

Is Foundational Movement Skill Competency Important for Keeping Children Physically Active and at a Healthy Weight?

This longitudinal study examines the associations between foundational movement skills (FMS) competency, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and weight status among children (n = 75) attending preschools in deprived areas from early to late childhood. Twelve FMS were assessed using the Children's Activity and Movement in Preschool Motor Skills Protocol and video analysis. Physical activity was measured via hip-mounted accelerometry. Data was collected over a five-year period, with Baseline Follow Up data collected between 2010 and 2015. There was an overall pattern of increase for total, object-control and locomotor scores between Baseline and Follow-Up. Conversely, there was an overall pattern of decline for MVPA among participants. There was a positive significant (p < 0.05) association between total and locomotor scores and MVPA at Baseline. However, these associations weakened over time and no significant associations were found at Follow-Up. Baseline competency failed to predict Follow-Up MVPA or weight status. Likewise, Baseline MVPA was not found to be a predictor of Follow-Up FMS competency. Further longitudinal research is required to explore these associations among children from highly deprived areas. Future interventions may require a more holistic approach to improving FMS competency and increasing PA in order to account for the number of variables that can affect these outcomes.

Improving Motor Skills in Early Childhood through Goal-Oriented Play Activity

Goal-oriented play activity encourages children to exercise and triggers the movement of body muscles. Active muscles are stronger, more agile, faster, and more powerful.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to determine that goal-oriented play activity in early childhood improves motor skills.

METHODS

Forty children aged 4.5-6 years old were recruited and took part in a set of training activities divided into Posts 1-5. To pass each post, a child had to run, walk on a balance beam, move sticks, throw and catch the ball, and arrange blocks. Training was given three times every week for 12 weeks. Data collected consisted of running 25 m, walking on the balance beam, throwing the ball as far as possible, locomotor movement, arranging cans, and bouncing the ball. Paired t and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used for analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed that there were significant differences in the motor skills evaluated pre- and post-training with p < 0.05. Conclusion: All six training activities conducted for 12 weeks provided significant improvements in the motor skills areas in children aged 4.5-6 years old.

Does the Spatial Layout of a Playground Affect the Play Activities in Young Children? A Pilot Study

Background

The objective of this study was to describe, through measurement of physical activity and observation of free outdoor play, the relation between children's free play and the spatial layout of the playground. To accomplish this, we altered the spatial layout of the same playground to see how the layout affects the play activity and the physical activity levels in the same children.

Methods

Participants were six young children (four girls and two boys; mean age = 5 years and 1 month, SD = 2.59 months). Participants' physical activity level and the duration of different types of action that occurred in each area and their transitions were compared before and after the alteration of the play-equipment layout using the data from accelerometers and video recordings.

Results

A significant increase in physical activity occurred after the spatial layout alteration, which was related to action differences. Before the alteration, children tended to play in a similar manner for a given play area; however, after the alteration, pronounced interindividual variation in play activity across children was observed.

Conclusion

The present pilot study found that in free play situations in the outdoor playground, the spatial layout of playground affects the pattern of play activity and the physical activity levels of young children.

Relationship between motor fitness, fundamental movement skills, and quality of movement patterns in primary school children

Seefeldt`s classic motor development pyramid model recognizes the significance of fundamental movement skills (FMS) in physical activities and proposes a "proficiency barrier" between FMS and higher-level specific sports skills during middle childhood. However, the relationship between the layers of the conceptual model has not been empirically tested. This study investigated motor fitness (MF), FMS, and quality of movement patterns (QMP) in 7-10 years old children and evaluated the relationships among them. A total of 117 children were randomly selected to take tests of MF, the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), and the Functional Movement Screen (FMS™). MF and FMS levels were classified according to percentile ranges. Two multiple (R×C) Chi-Square tests were applied to analyze the relationships between MF, FMS, and QMP. Post-hoc testing estimated the possibility of FMS and QMP to predict MF. The results showed that boys scored significantly higher on the object-control subtest and on the TGMD-2 compared to girls (p<0.001), while girls scored significantly higher on the FMS™ (p = 0.001). FMS score and QMP level were weakly correlated with MF (FMS: χ2 = 14.605, p = 0.006, Cramer`s V = 0.25; QMP: χ2 = 13.943, p = 0.007, Cramer`s V = 0.24). Thus, 60.5% of children with "excellent" FMS and 59.6% with "high" QMP were categorized as having a "good" MF. In contrast, only 23.1% of children with "poor" FMS and 24.3% with "low" QMP were classified as having a "good" MF. Our results confirm MF, FMS, and QMP are correlated with each other, although this relationship is weak. Further, a possible motor skill proficiency barrier exists already in children 7-10 years old. The study results support the promotion of physical activity and motor skill development in primary school children.

Pre-schoolers fundamental movement skills predict BMI, physical activity, and sedentary behavior: A longitudinal study

AIMS

This study aimed to predict the variation in future fundamental movement skills (FMS), physical activity (PA) and body mass index (BMI) from prior FMS, PA, and BMI in British pre-schoolers.

METHODS

British pre-schoolers (n = 177) underwent assessment of FMS, via the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2), BMI, and PA, via accelerometer at two time points one year apart. Regression analysis was used to predict the change in PA and BMI in Year 2 from FMS variables in Year 1 and Year 2.

RESULTS

Variation in FMS performance between individuals predicted a significant amount of change in BMI, with 12.3 and 9.8% of the change in Year 2 BMI data explained by change in Year 1 and Year 2 FMS data, respectively. Change in FMS performance between individuals predicted a significant amount of change in PA, but was better at predicting change in sedentary activity rather than light or moderate-vigorous activities. A combination of run, throw, dribble, and kick performance predicted 46.1% of the change in sedentary activity between individuals in the 2nd year of testing.

CONCLUSIONS

FMS mastery at four years of age predicts children's BMI and time spent sedentary at five years of age.

Learning to Be Employable Through Volunteering: A Qualitative Study on the Development of Employability Capital of Young People

Over the last decades, consistent research showed that voluntary work could be considered as a tool for professional development and concrete employment: volunteering could be either experienced as a desire to improve career opportunities or to acquire new skills. The study aimed to investigate voluntary work as a context of informal and non-formal workplace learning and vocational guidance, useful to develop skills and abilities, namely the capital of personal and social resources, that could promote future employability. Participants were 38 young volunteers who experienced the Universal Civil Service, a national Italian program addressed to young people aged up to 28 years, giving them both the opportunity to engage in social activities useful for the community and have the first contact with a working context. In line with the objectives of the study, participants were invited to describe their volunteering experience in a diary, highlighting if and to what extent this context contributed to enhancing their employability capital, namely the asset of skills, knowledge, and networks acquired, that they could transfer to a future professional domain. The narrative data collected were examined through diatextual analysis, a specific address of discourse analysis designed to catch the relationship between enunciators, text, and context of the talk. This qualitative analysis allowed us to investigate the meanings young people attributed to these activities. In light of these results, the paper contributed to investigate volunteers’ perceptions about the conditions that could best foster this specific kind of workplace informal and non-formal learning and at proposing a qualitative perspective on the analysis of the employability capital they developed.

Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency Among British Primary School Children: Analysis at a Behavioral Component Level

Fundamental Movement Skill (FMS) proficiency is an important antecedent of physical activity for children and adolescents. Many studies report children's overall FMS proficiency to be low. However, in order to develop effective intervention strategies, it is critical to understand FMS proficiency at a behavioral component level. This study investigated British primary school children's FMS proficiency across all three FMS domains, reporting proficiency at both an individual skill level and at a behavioral component level. Participants were 219 primary school children, aged 7-10 years (Boys 111, girls 108) from central England. We assessed (a) eight FMS (run, jump, hop, skip, catch, overarm throw, underarm throw, stability) using the second and third revisions of the Test of Gross Motor Development, and (b) stability, using the rock skill from the Rudd stability assessment tool. We calculated descriptive statistics and frequencies for each FMS and their behavioral components. We explored gender differences using the Mann- Whitney U-test, and differences between school years using the Kruskal- Wallis test. There was a similar pattern in the prevalence of failure for behavioral components across skills, with children failing on components requiring (a) the simultaneous use of both upper and lower limbs and (b) contralateral actions. Detailed descriptive analysis of low proficiency levels highlighted co ordination and the process for power/force production. These data can be used to guide development and plan targeted interventions for the weakest skills and behavioral components of 7-10 year old British primary school children to increase their FMS levels.

Evidence-Based Overview of Accelerometer-Measured Physical Activity during School Recess: An Updated Systematic Review

Interest in analyzing physically active behaviors during school recesses has grown in recent years as the school environment has consolidated (recess, physical education classes, lunch-time, before and after school) as a crucial space to bring these levels towards those recommended through intervention programs and improvements in the school environment. Unfortunately, in most of these studies, children do not achieve the 60 min a day of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) recommended by the World Health Organization. The aim of this systematic review is to analyze the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention studies objectively measured with accelerometers that have emerged in recent years to determine the amount of MVPA of children at recess. This systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines. The extraction process for the studies included in this systematic review yielded a total of 43 articles. The studies were classified according to the methodological nature of the research: cross-sectional (n = 34), longitudinal (n = 3) and quasi-experimental (n = 6). The results of the studies confirm that during the recess period younger children are physically more active than older ones and that in general, boys are more physically active than girls. In addition, the data show that the school contributes to more than 40% of the total MVPA. The intervention programs led to an increase in MVPA of up to 5%. Providing schools with equipment and facilities shows that intervention programs are beneficial for raising children's levels of physical activity.

Physical behaviors and fundamental movement skills in British and Iranian children: An isotemporal substitution analysis

Although the relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical behaviors has been established, differences between countries are scarcely explored. The impact of the whole physical behavior composition, in relation to FMS, has yet to be investigated in 9-11 y children. The aims were to investigate the associations of substitution of physical behaviors with FMS score and to compare traditional linear regression and compositional data analysis and compare between England and Iran. Measures included accelerometer-derived activity (sleep (SL), sedentary behavior (SB), light physical activity (LPA), and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and FMS, using the TGMD-2, in 119 children (64 boys) from Iran (mean (±SD) age: 9.8 ± 0.3 y; BMI of 18.2 ± 3.3 kg/m² ) and 139 (61 boys) children from England (mean (±SD) age: 9.5 ± 0.6 y; BMI of 17.7 ± 3.1 kg/m² ). Isometric log-ratio multiple linear regression models were used to discern the association between FMS and the mean activity composition, and for new compositions, where fixed durations of time were reallocated from one behavior to another, while the remaining behaviors were unchanged. In physical behaviors as a composition, FMS was significantly associated in both ethnicities. English children responded significantly positively to adding 5 or more minutes LPA at the expense of SB (FMS unit change from 0.05 [0.01, 0.09] at 5 minutes to 0.72 [0.01, 1.34] at 60 minutes). Adding 10 minutes or more of SL, at the expense of SB, was associated with a significant, positive change in FMS in all children. Investigation is needed to understand the composition of SB and its potential influence on FMS development.

Socioeconomic and gender-based disparities in the motor competence of school-age children

This study examined socioeconomic and gender-based disparities in motor competence (MC) amongst 6-12-year-old children (N = 2654). Validated product-oriented tests assessing agility, balance and coordination were used to measure MC. School-level socioeconomic status (low, middle, high) was used to assess socioeconomic disparities. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were conducted and odds ratios were calculated for the likelihood of having low MC by gender and socioeconomic status (SES). Girls displayed lower MC than boys for agility and coordination involving object-control (P < 0.001) while boys scored lower than girls for balance and hand-foot coordination (P < 0.001). Children in high SES schools displayed the highest level of MC for agility, balance and coordination (P < 0.001). Compared to the children in high SES schools, odds of having low competence in balance was higher for the children in low SES schools and odds of having low competence in agility and coordination were higher for the children in both low and middle SES schools. Newell's model of constraints (1986) and Bourdieu's concept of habitus (1984) were used to consider potential explanations of the observed disparities. To level up inequalities in children's MC, resources invested in school-based interventions should be proportionate to the school SES.

Bifactor structure and model reliability of the Test of Gross Motor Development - 3rd edition

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the structure of the Test of Gross Motor Development - 3rd edition (TGMD-3). Specifically, we examine bifactor structure, which simultaneously models a fundamental motor skills (FMS) general factor and specific factors for locomotor skills and ball skills, compared to other models.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional design using the TGMD-3 normative sample.

METHODS

The sample (N = 862) of children (Mage = 6.51, SD = 2.23) was matched based on United States census data, ensuring appropriate percentages of demographic representation and disability status. Confirmatory factor analyses, exploratory structural equation modeling, model-based reliability estimates including coefficient omega hierarchical, and coefficient omega hierarchical subscale, explained common variance estimates, and relative parameter bias were examined.

RESULTS

Findings revealed bifactor structure produced a better model fit compared to both one-factor and two-factor models. Furthermore, model reliability estimates that parceled true score variance for the general FMS factor, locomotor skills factor, and ball skills factor yielded high internal consistency for FMS (.797) but not locomotor skills (.168) and ball skills (.216). Finally, explained common variance (.852-.879) and relative parameter bias (.018-.072) estimates identified the strength of the run, skip, slide, and dribble skills tests to represent the FMS general factor.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate the advantages of using bifactor structure to examine the TGMD-3 compared to one-factor and two-factor models. Additionally, these results provide further evidence that using the TGMD-3 to examine an overall FMS general factor may explain more variance in performance and provide a better picture for evaluating children's current FMS levels compared to subscales independently.

The prenatal, postnatal, neonatal, and family environmental risk factors for Developmental Coordination Disorder: A study with a national representative sample

Knowledge of obstetric and environmental influences on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) helps provide increased understanding of the mechanisms underlying the disorder. However, the literature to date has not adequately examined the obstetric and environmental risk factors for DCD in a population-based sample. The current study was therefore conducted to explore the prenatal, perinatal, neonatal, and family environmental risk factors for DCD. A total of 2185 children aged 3-10 years from a national representative sample in China were included; the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 was used to assess motor function, and a questionnaire was completed by parents. DCD was identified in 156 children according to the DSM-5 criteria. Multilevel logistic regression was used, and comparisons were made between the DCD and non-DCD group. The results confirmed that male sex, BMI score, preterm birth, and some prenatal conditions are significant risk factors for DCD. Parents' education level and one-child status as two significant environmental risk factors for DCD appear largely independent of other risk factors in the Chinese population. This study provides an opportunity to explore the etiology of DCD and suggest potential assessment, monitoring and intervention programs for DCD that could be examined in the future.

Health-related physical fitness levels of youths with visual impairment in Jordan

As fitness is an important component of quality of life, it is necessary to determine fitness levels among various population groups to be able to plan programs for their future fitness improvement. Previous research shows that individuals with visual impairments have lower levels of health-related physical fitness than people without visual impairment. In Jordan, research mainly focuses on youths without visual impairment, whereas no previous studies have been conducted on children with visual impairment and their physical fitness levels. This study aimed to explore health-related physical fitness levels of children with visual impairment in Jordan. A total of 107 children (65 boys and 42 girls) with visual impairment aged 11–15 years and 114 children without visual impairment were included in this study. All children were asked to perform the following assessment items: a one mile run/walk test to measure cardiovascular endurance, a handgrip strength to measure the maximum isometric strength of the hand and forearm muscles, push-up and curl-up tests to measure upper body and abdominal muscular endurance, respectively, sit-and-reach test to measure flexibility, and two-site skinfold measures to determine body composition. Children with visual impairment appeared to have low health-related physical fitness. For instance, the overall mean of push-ups was 4.06, while cardiovascular endurance was excluded from data analysis as only a few students (7) completed the test. No significant differences were found in any of the tested variables among the various age groups. Furthermore, boys showed statistically significant measurements in strength, curl-up, and push-up tests than girls. Children with visual impairment had significantly better score in only push-up test than children who were blind. In addition, except boys with visual impairment aged 15 years, all children with visual impairment failed FitnessGram, whereas sighted children passed all tests.

Motor Development Research: Designs, Analyses, and Future Directions

Throughout this special issue, different authors have discussed diverse aspects of past, present, and future motor development research. In such research, understanding how people move involves much more than studying motor behavior in individuals of different ages. Rather, empirical designs should embed some element of past, present, and future motor behavior into research questions, designs, methodologies, and interpretations. In this article, we provide an overview on the process of asking movement-related developmental questions and designing appropriate research studies that will answer them to provide a foundation for both new and returning investigators interested in studying human motor development. We compare descriptive and experimental approaches as well as longitudinal, cross-sectional, and alternative research designs, followed by a discussion of common statistical analyses suited for these designs. Through this discussion, we offer suggestions for the most appropriate ways in which to study developmental change. We finish with our thoughts on future directions for investigational methods within motor development research.

The Effects of Combined Movement and Storytelling Intervention on Motor Skills in South Asian and White Children Aged 5-6 Years Living in the United Kingdom

Early motor development has an important role in promoting physical activity (PA) during childhood and across the lifespan. Children from South Asian backgrounds are less active and have poorer motor skills, thus identifying the need for early motor skill instruction. This study examines the effect of a movement and storytelling intervention on South Asian children’s motor skills. Following ethics approval and consent, 39 children (46% South Asian) participated in a 12-week movement and storytelling intervention. Pre and post, seven motor skills (run, jump, throw, catch, stationary dribble, roll, and kick) were assessed using Children’s Activity and Movement in Preschool Study protocol. At baseline, South Asian children had poorer performance of motor skills. Following the intervention, all children improved their motor skills, with a bigger improvement observed for South Asian children. Early intervention provided remedial benefits to delays in motor skills and narrowed the motor skills gap in ethnic groups.

A healthy behavior and socioeconomic inequality in school-age children in the West of Iran

BACKGROUND

Sufficient physical activity (SPA) in children and adolescents has an important role in health, growth, and development of persons. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of and inequality in physical activity (PA) in 12-15-year-old students in the West of Iran, 2018.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 1404 students from 14 schools of Kermanshah city were included. Data on demographic and socioeconomic status (SES) of students and their family, body mass index, moderate-to-vigorous PA of students were collected. Normalized concentration index (NC) and decomposition analysis applied to measure inequality in SPA and the contribution of affecting factors, respectively.

RESULTS

About 19% of the students had SPA. The proportion of SPA in boys was higher than girls (38.98% vs. 9.84%). There was a significant deviation from equality line (NC = 0.31; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.23, 0.38) and NC for boys and girls were 0.15 (95% CI: 0.04, 0.25) and 0.05 (95% CI: -0.07, 0.17). Sex of students and SES of households with 59.09% and 39.77% contribution to the measured inequality in SPA were the highest positive contributors. Household size (-2.60) had a negative contribution to inequality in SPA.

CONCLUSION

There was a significant pro-rich socioeconomic inequality in SPA and sex, and SES were the main contributors to the inequality in PA. Some interventions are needed to improve PA among children and adolescents with a focus on girls and low-SES groups to narrow the existing gaps.

Effects of a Need-Supportive Motor Skill Intervention on Children's Motor Skill Competence and Physical Activity

A need-supportive environment can provide various motivational benefits to impact children’s psychomotor developmental levels. However, very little is known about the effects of need-supportive motor skill intervention on children’s motor skill competence and physical activity by gender. Guided by self-determination theory (SDT), this study aimed to (a) investigate the effect of a need-supportive fundamental movement skill (FMS) program on children’s FMS competence and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and (b) explore potential gender differences in these effects. Thirty-six children (63.8% girls; M_age = 6.52 ± 0.97) participated and were divided into two groups: an intervention group (24 need-supportive FMS sessions over eight weeks) and a control group. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine the influence of the motor skill intervention on FMS competence and MVPA over time by group (intervention, control) and gender (boys, girls). The results showed (a) significant group differences between the intervention and control group in FMS competence and MVPA (p < 0.001), (b) non-significant gender differences between boys and girls in FMS competence and MVPA (p = 0.85), and (c) non-significant interaction effects over time (p = 0.52). The findings highlight that a need-supportive FMS program may enhance FMS development and daily physical activity for both genders during the early school years.

The Effectiveness of a Primary School Based Badminton Intervention on Children's Fundamental Movement Skills

This study examined the effects of the Badminton World Federation (BWF) Shuttle Time program on fundamental movement skills (FMS) in English children. A total of 124 children; 66 in key stage 1 (ages 6–7 years) and 58 in key stage 2 (10–11 years) undertook the Shuttle Time program, once weekly for six weeks (n = 63) or acted as controls (n = 61). Pre, post and ten-weeks post, both process and product FMS were determined. Children in the intervention group, aged 6–7 years, had higher total process FMS (via test of gross motor development-2) compared to the control group at post and ten-weeks post intervention (both p = 0.0001, d = 0.6 and 0.7, respectively). There were no significant differences in process FMS scores for children aged 10–11 years. Ten-meter sprint speed decreased pre to post and was maintained at ten-weeks post for the intervention groups aged 6–7 years (p = 0.0001, d = 0.6) and 10–11 years (p = 0.001, d = 0.2) compared to control. Standing long jump distance increased pre to post (p = 0.0001, d = 0.8) and was maintained at ten-weeks post (p = 0.0001, d = 0.5) for the intervention group. Medicine ball throw performance increased pre to post (p = 0.0001, d = 0.3) for the intervention group. The BWF Shuttle Time program is beneficial in developing FMS for key stage 1 children (ages 6–7).

Relationship between meeting physical activity guidelines and motor competence among low-income school youth

OBJECTIVES

Global health guidelines suggest that youth should accumulate at least 60min of daily, moderate-to-vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA). The relationship between meeting physical activity (PA) guidelines and motor competence (MC) in youth is relatively unknown. This study assessed levels of MVPA and MC among socially vulnerable youth and determined if meeting the PA guidelines was associated with MC.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

METHODS

A total of 1017 youths aged 3-14 years from three schools participated in the study. Participants wore accelerometers for seven consecutive days to assess PA. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd Edition and the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. MVPA and MC were compared by sex and school levels (preschool, elementary school and middle school). Binary logistic regression models examined the predictive power of meeting PA guidelines and age on MC.

RESULTS

The prevalence of meeting PA guidelines declined across school levels among both girls (72% in preschool to 21% in middle school, p<0.001) and boys (84% in preschool to 57% in middle school, p<0.001). MC levels were low and also declined across age in both sexes (p<0.001). During preschool, age (older) was a consistent predictor of low MC, independently of meeting PA guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS

Except for adolescent boys, meeting PA guidelines was not associated with higher MC. Public health policies should focus on the quantity and quality of MVPA within schools and on alleviating the decline in PA and MC across childhood and adolescence, with special attention to girls and disadvantaged families.

Later achievement of infant motor milestones is related to lower levels of physical activity during childhood: the GECKO Drenthe cohort

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to investigate whether age of infant motor milestone achievement is related to levels of physical activity (PA), weight status and blood pressure at age 4-7 years of age.

METHODS

In the Dutch GECKO (Groningen Expert Center of Kids with Obesity) Drenthe cohort, the age of achieving the motor milestone 'walking without support' was reported by parents. Weight status and blood pressure were assessed by trained health nurses and PA was measured using the Actigraph GT3X between age 4 and 7 years.

RESULTS

Adjusted for children's age, sex and the mother's education level, infants who achieved walking without support at a later age, spent more time in sedentary behaviour during childhood and less time in moderate-to-vigorous PA. Later motor milestones achievement was not related to higher BMI Z-score, waist circumference Z-score, diastolic or systolic blood pressure.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that a later age of achieving motor milestone within the normal range have a weak relation to lower PA levels at later age. It is not likely that this will have consequences for weight status or blood pressure at 4-7 years of age.

Physical activity in pre-school children: Trends over time and associations with body mass index and screen time

Background: Pre-school years are important for adopting health behaviours; however, today's children seem to be overweight, present low physical activity (PA) levels and exceed screen time (ST) recommendations.Aim: To examine (a) time trends in PA in Greek pre-school children, (b) the associations among PA, body mass index (BMI) and ST and (c) potential PA differences between boys and girls.Subjects and methods: Data from five cross-sectional cohorts (2005 [n = 252]; 2008 [n = 212]; 2011 [n = 187]; 2014 [n = 194]; 2017 [n = 128]) were compared. PA was assessed using Omron HJ-720IT-E2 pedometers, whereas ST was reported by participants' parents. A 4-way ANOVA was applied on children's average week step counts.Results: A significant association (F = 828.90, p < 0.001, η² = 0.638) between ST and PA was revealed, with children that had ST < 1 hour/day presenting the higher PA levels and being the only ones that met PA recommendations (11,500 steps/day). Statistically significant PA differences, though of no practical importance, were found among cohorts. There were no significant PA differences between boys and girls or among BMI categories. Nevertheless, obesity prevalence was found to exist at alarming levels (24.5% in 2008-41.4% in 2017), and a large percentage of children (23.6% in 2008-63.3% in 2017) presented excessive ST (> 2 hours/day).Conclusion: Effective interventions aiming at reducing ST and enhancing PA seem imperative if children's health is to be safeguarded.

Healthy for Life Pilot Study: A Multicomponent School and Home Based Physical Activity Intervention for Disadvantaged Children

The study aimed to develop and evaluate a multicomponent school and home based physical activity (PA) intervention in children in grades 3–7 (aged 8–13 years) and determine the psychological variables that influence PA; 10 × 1 h school-based training sessions, a home-based activity program and 4 × 1 h lifestyle workshops for parents. PA was assessed at an intervention and nearby control school using accelerometers and self-report at 3-time points: baseline, post intervention and 10-week follow-up. Self-efficacy, self-management strategies, enjoyment, perceived barriers to PA, outcome-expectancy and social support were evaluated. The study showed 73% of the children with complete data sets at the intervention school (n = 27) did not increase device measured moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) in the after-school period (3 p.m. to 6 p.m.) or over the whole day or during school break time immediately following the intervention or at follow-up, as compared to 70% of children with complete data sets at the control school (n = 35; p > 0.05 for all). Overall, 59% of boys attained more than double the recommended 120 min of MVPA each day compared to 42% of girls (p = 0.013). At the baseline, children’s self-reported PA in the intervention school positively correlated with: outcome expectancy (R = 0.240, p = 0.015), enjoyment (R = 0.339, p < 0.001), self-efficacy (R = 0.399, p < 0.001), self-management (R = 0.617, p < 0.001), social support at home (R = 0.406, p < 0.001), and social support at school (R = 0.407, p < 0.001). Similar relationships were observed after the intervention and at follow-up. Focus groups with the children, parents and interviews with teachers identified areas for improvement of the intervention. In conclusion, while the multifaceted approach to improve PA was ineffective over the time span of the study, important predictors of PA in this sample of disadvantaged children were identified.

Young Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Children’s Fundamental Motor Competence and Physical Activity Behaviors

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between fundamental motor skills (FMS; including locomotor and object-control skills), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and sedentary behavior among young Hispanic and non-Hispanic children. Using the prospective research design spanning one academic school year, we recruited 671 children (6.96 ± 1.6 years, 46% girls) from four primary schools in North Texas, 300 of whom were Hispanic and 371 non-Hispanic children, with 90% of the Hispanic and 74% of the non-Hispanic children from low-income families. All participants completed the PE Metrics™ FMS assessment and wore Actical accelerometers. Hispanic children demonstrated a lower level of MVPA on school days than their non-Hispanic peers. After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, both locomotor and object-control skills significantly predicted school-based MVPA for the non-Hispanic groups, while only object-control skills significantly predicted MVPA for the Hispanic group. For both ethnic groups, locomotor skills significantly predicted school-based sedentary behavior. The findings shed light on future motor competence–based interventions for physical activity promotion and obesity prevention among young Hispanic as well as non-Hispanic children.

Associations of School Day Sedentary Behavior and Physical Activity With Gross Motor Skills: Use of Compositional Data Analysis

Background

To examine the relationships among school day sedentary times (SED), light physical activity (LPA), and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) with gross motor skills in children using Compositional Data Analysis.

Methods

Participants were 409 children (mean age = 8.4 [1.8] y) recruited across 5 low-income schools. Gross motor skills were assessed using the test for gross motor development—third edition (TGMD-3), and physical activity was assessed using accelerometers. Isometric log-ratio coordinates were calculated by quantifying the relative proportion of percentage of the school day spent in SED, LPA, and MVPA. The associations of the isometric log-ratio coordinates with the TGMD-3 scores were estimated using general linear mixed-effects models adjusted for age, body mass index, estimated aerobic capacity, and school affiliation.

Results

A higher proportion of the school day spent in %MVPA relative to %SED and %LPA was significantly associated with higher TGMD-3 total scores (γMVPA = 14.44, P = .01). This relationship was also observed for the ball skills subtest scores (γMVPA = 16.12, P = .003).

Conclusion

Replacing %SED and %LPA with %MVPA during school hours may be an effective strategy for improving gross motor skills, specifically ball skills, in low-income elementary school-aged children.

A school-based physical activity intervention for children with developmental coordination disorder: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have lower physical activity (PA) than children with typical development (TD). PA and fundamental movement skills (FMS) are positively associated so interventions that promote FMS of children with DCD are recommended.

AIM

To examine the effects of a school-based FMS training program on motor functions, PA and other psychological outcomes.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

A total of 131 primary children were allocated to FMS training groups (DCD-FMS n = 35, TD-FMS n = 29), which received FMS training (eight weekly 40-min sessions), or to control groups (DCD-C n = 34, TD-C n = 33), which received conventional physical education lessons. Outcome measures, including accelerometer-assessed PA, motor functions, and self-perceived competence and enjoyment, were measured at baseline, 1-week (immediate effect), 3-months (short-term effect) and 12-months (longer-term effect) after the intervention.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

FMS training resulted in improved FMS proficiency and increased PA and enjoyment of activity participation in children. In particular, the DCD-FMS group reported greater enjoyment over time. Some effects were also evident for both short- and longer-term.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The findings suggest that a school-based FMS training program has the potential to promote physical and psychological health in children with DCD in the long run.

Using Oaxaca Decomposition to Study Socioeconomic Inequity of Physical Activity among Children Aged 10-12 Years: A Study in West of Iran

Background

Low physical activity (PA) is increasing public health problem. The present study aimed to determine socioeconomic inequality in PA among children aged 10-12 years old in Kurdistan, west of Iran in 2015.

Methods

The present cross-sectional study was conducted on 2506 children aged 10-12 in Sanandaj, Iran, in 2015. Data on the children's level of PA were collected using the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire. The concentration index was used to measure inequality and the Oaxaca decomposition to examine the different determinants of the inequality. The data were analyzed in Stata 13 and SPSS 20.

Results

Of the 2506 participants, 40.90% (38.97-42.82) had insufficient PA. Girls had a lower level of PA than boys (odds ratio [OR] = 0.34; 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 0.28-0.41) and it is directly related to maternal education (OR = 1.71; 95% CI: 1.18-2.47), the family's Socioeconomic status (SES) (OR = 2.18; 95% CI: 1.56-3.05), and the place of residence (OR = 1.68; 95% CI: 1.16-2.44). The concentration index for insufficient PA was -0.25 (95 CI: -0.30 to -0.21), revealing an insufficient PA in the group with a low SES. The prevalence of insufficient PA is 51.38% (95% CI: 48.45-54.31) in poor group and 28.40% (95% CI: 22.80-33.99) in the wealthier group. The Oaxaca decomposition showed maternal education and the place of residence was the most important determinants of inequality.

Conclusions

According to the findings, most of the children especially in the poor groups didn't have sufficient PA and socioeconomic factors could have the important role.

SKIP (Supporting Kids with diabetes In Physical activity): Feasibility of a randomised controlled trial of a digital intervention for 9-12 year olds with type 1 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

Physical activity and self-monitoring are important for children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) but it is unclear whether interventions delivered online are feasible, acceptable to patients and efficacious. The aim was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of an internet-based physical activity and self-monitoring programme for children with T1DM, and of a randomised controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate efficacy.

METHODS

A total of 49 children aged 9-12 with T1DM were randomly assigned to usual care only or to an interactive intervention group combining a website (STAK-D) and a PolarActive activity watch (PAW; Polar Electro (UK) Ltd.), alongside usual care. Participants completed self-report measures on their health, self-efficacy and physical activity at baseline (T0), eight weeks (T1) and six months (T2). They also wore a PAW to measure physical activity for one week at the end of T0, T1 and T2. Intervention participants were interviewed about their experiences at T2. Explanatory variables were examined using multi-level modelling and examination of change scores, 95% confidence intervals and p-values with alpha set at 0.95. Descriptive analysis was undertaken of the 'end-of-study questionnaire'. Qualitative analysis followed a framework approach.

RESULTS

Completion rates for all self-report items and objective physical activity data were above 85% for the majority of measures. HbA1c data was obtained for 100% of participants, although complete clinical data was available for 63.3% to 63.5% of participants at each data collection time-point. Recruitment and data collection processes were reported to be acceptable to participants and healthcare professionals. Self-reported sedentary behaviour (-2.28, p=0.04, 95% CI=-4.40, -0.16; p = 0.04; d_ppc2 = 0.72) and parent-reported physical health of the child (6.15, p=0.01, 95%CI=1.75, 10.55; p = 0.01; d_ppc2 = 0.75) improved at eight weeks in the intervention group.

CONCLUSIONS

The trial design was feasible and acceptable to participants and healthcare providers. Intervention engagement was low and technical challenges were evident in both online and activity watch elements, although enjoyment was high among users. Reported outcome improvements were observed at 8 weeks but were not sustained.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN 48994721 (prospectively registered). Date of registration: 28.09.2016.

Fundamental Movement Skill Proficiency and Health Among a Cohort of Irish Primary School Children

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMS) and markers of health among a cohort of Irish primary school children.

METHODS

Participants (N = 296, mean age: 7.99 ± 2.02 years) were senior infant (n = 149, mean age: 6.02 ± 0.39 years) and 4th class (n = 147, mean age: 9.97 ± 0.40 years) students from three primary schools in Cork, Ireland. FMS proficiency (TGMD-2) and markers of health (BMI percentile, waist circumference percentile, blood pressure percentiles, resting heart rate, cardiorespiratory fitness, objectively measured physical activity; PA) measurements were recorded. Correlation and hierarchical stepwise multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship between FMS and markers of health.

RESULTS

A small, positive relationship was found between FMS (Gross Motor Quotient; GMQ) and cardiorespiratory fitness with small negative correlations between GMQ and 550 m time SDS among 6-year-olds (r(129) = -.286, p < .05) and 10-year-olds (r(132) = -.340, p < .05). A moderate, positive correlation was found between GMQ and light PA (r(71) = .400, p < .05). Small positive correlations were revealed between GMQ and moderate PA (r(71) = .259, p < .05) and between GMQ and total PA (r(71) = .355, p < .05). After adjusting for age, sex, the interaction effect of age and sex, and school attended, FMS explained 15.9% and 24.8% of the variance in 550 m time SDS among 6- and 10-year-olds, respectively, and 6% and 6.5% of the variance in light PA and moderate PA, respectively. After adjusting for age and sex, FMS explained 11.6% of the variance in total PA.

CONCLUSION

A wide range of FMS is important for children's cardiorespiratory fitness and PA.

Investigating Motor Competence in Association with Sedentary Behavior and Physical Activity in 7- to 11-Year-Old Children

Children's motor competence (MC) has declined in the past decades, while sedentary behavior (SB) has increased. This study examined the association between MC and physical activity (PA) levels among primary schoolchildren. Demographics, body height and weight, MC (Athletic Skills Track), and PA levels (ActiGraph, GT3X+) were assessed among 595 children (291 boys, mean age = 9.1 years, SD = 1.1). MC was standardized into five categories: from very low to very high. PA levels were classified into SB, light PA (LPA), and moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA). Mixed-model analyses were conducted with PA levels as dependent variables and MC as the independent variable, while adjusting for age, gender, and body mass index (BMI) z-score on the individual level. A negative association between MC and SB and a positive association between MC and MVPA were found. The strength of both associations increased as children expressed lower or higher levels of MC. MC is an important correlate of both SB and MVPA, particularly for children with very high or low MC. Developing and improving children's MC may contribute to spending less time in SB and more time in MVPA, particularly for high-risk groups, i.e., children with low MC. Moreover, addressing MC development and PA promotion simultaneously might create positive feedback loops for both children's MC and PA levels.