Is a change in mode of travel to school associated with a change in overall physical activity levels in children? Longitudinal results from the SPEEDY study

Family Car Ownership: Driving Inactivity in Young People? Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses in the International Children's Accelerometry Database

BACKGROUND

Ubiquitous car ownership may affect children's activity and health. We assessed the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between household car ownership and children's daily time spent sedentary (SED) and in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA).

METHODS

Pooled cohort data were from the International Children's Accelerometry Database. Outcome measures were average daily accelerometer-measured SED and MVPA (in minutes per day). Exposures were household car ownership (none, 1, and ≥2) and change in car ownership. Associations were examined using multivariable mixed-effects linear regression.

RESULTS

Mean age of participants (N = 4193) was 10.4 years (SD = 2.0), 53.4% were girls, and mean follow-up duration (N = 1333) was 3.3 years (SD = 1.1). Cross-sectionally, household car ownership was associated with higher SED (vs none: 1 car: β = 14.1 min/d, 95% CI, 6.7-21.5; ≥2 cars: 12.8, 95% CI, 5.3-20.4) and lower MVPA (vs none: 1 car: β = -8.8, 95% CI, -11.9 to -5.7; ≥2 cars: β = -8.8, 95% CI, -12.0 to -5.7). Associations were stronger in boys than girls and in children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (SED only). Prospectively, there were no associations with increased car ownership. Reductions in household car ownership (of which 93.1% had ≥ 2 cars at baseline) were associated with a greater reduction in MVPA (vs no change: β = -8.4, 95% CI, -13.9 to -3.0) but not SED.

CONCLUSIONS

Children in households with car access were more SED and less active than those without. Losing access to a second car was associated with greater decreases in MVPA, potentially related to losing access to activity-enabling environments. Reducing car access and use are important public health targets (eg, reducing air pollution), but their potential impact on children's activity opportunities should be mitigated.

Active School Commuting in School Children: A Narrative Review of Current Evidence and Future Research Implications

Active school commuting (ASC) has been proposed as a practical way to inculcate positive physical activity habits in children. This paper reviews the current evidence regarding ASC among children, highlights advances in research techniques and existing limitations in the field, and outlines future implications for research and promotion. A comprehensive literature search was conducted to identify English language studies on ASC among children aged 6-12 years, followed by a narrative review. ASC has witnessed a global decline, despite evidence of its contribution to physical activity levels. Context-dependent factors such as commuting distance and parental safety concerns are consistently identified as key determinants of ASC. Several promising interventions have been identified. Despite the limitations in intervention scope and quality, notable advancements in research techniques, such as multilevel regression and agent-based modelling, have been identified. Effective promotion of ASC to tackle childhood physical inactivity requires collaborative efforts among schools, parents, and the government, and should be tailored to address multilevel determinants within the local context. Future research should leverage recent advancements in research techniques to develop effective promotion strategies, while considering the context-dependent nature of ASC behaviours and addressing existing limitations, including the lack of standardised definitions and limited geographical and age coverage.

Compensation or Displacement of Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Empirical Studies

Regular physical activity during childhood and adolescence is associated with health benefits. Consequently, numerous health promotion programs for children and adolescents emphasize the enhancement of physical activity. However, the ActivityStat hypothesis states that increases in physical activity in one domain are compensated for by decreasing physical activity in another domain. Currently, little is known about how physical activity varies in children and adolescents within intervals of one day or multiple days. This systematic review provides an overview of studies that analyzed changes in (overall) physical activity, which were assessed with objective measurements, or compensatory mechanisms caused by increases or decreases in physical activity in a specific domain in children and adolescents. A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, SportDiscus) was performed with a priori defined inclusion criteria. Two independent researchers screened the literature and identified and rated the methodological quality of the studies. A total of 77 peer-reviewed articles were included that analyzed changes in overall physical activity with multiple methodological approaches resulting in compensation or displacement. Of 40,829 participants, 16,265 indicated compensation associated with physical activity. Subgroup analyses separated by study design, participants, measurement instrument, physical activity context, and intervention duration also showed mixed results toward an indication of compensation. Quality assessment of the included studies revealed that they were of high quality (mean = 0.866). This review provides inconclusive results about compensation in relation to physical activity. A trend toward increased compensation in interventional studies and in interventions of longer duration have been observed.

Association of change in the school travel mode with changes in different physical activity intensities and sedentary time: A International Children's Accelerometry Database Study

Our aim was to assess the association between changes in active travel to school and changes in different intensities of physical activity (i.e. moderate - MPA and vigorous - VPA) and time spent sedentary (SED) among adolescents and assess the moderating effect of children's sex, age and weight status. Data from six cohort studies in the International Children's Accelerometry Database were used (4108 adolescents aged 10-13y at baseline, with 1.9±0.7y of follow-up). Participants self-reported travel mode to school at baseline and follow-up. Mutually exclusive categories of change were created using passive (e.g. by car) or active (cycling or walking) forms of transport (active/active, passive/active, active/passive, passive/passive). Multilevel linear regression analyses assessed associations with change in accelerometer-assessed time spent MPA, VPA and SED, adjusting for potential confounders. The moderation of sex, age and weight status was tested though the inclusion of interaction terms in the regression models. Relative to those remaining in active travel (active/active), participants classified as passive/active increased VPA (B: 2.23 min/d; 95%CI: 0.97-3.48), while active/passive (MPA: -5.38min/d; -6.77 to -3.98; VPA: -2.92min/d; -4.06 to -1.78) and passive/passive (MPA: -4.53min/d; -5.55 to -3.50; VPA: -2.84min/d; -3.68 to -2.01) decreased MPA and VPA. There were no associations with SED. An interaction was observed, age group moderated the association with change in VPA: among 12-13y-olds a greater increase in VPA was observed for the passive/active group compared to active/active. Promoting active travel to school can be a strategy to attenuate the decline in physical activity through adolescence.

Impact of automated photo enforcement of vehicle speed in school zones: interrupted time series analysis

OBJECTIVE

Measure the impact of automated photo speed enforcement in school zones on motorist speed and speeding violation rates during school travel.

METHODS

Automated enforcement cameras, active during school commuting hours, were installed around four elementary schools in Seattle, Washington, USA in 2012. We examined the effect of automated enforcement on motorist speeds and speed violation rates during the citation period (10 December 2012 to 15 January 2015) compared with the 'warning' period (1 November to 9 December 2012). We evaluated outcomes with an interrupted time series approach using multilevel mixed linear regression.

RESULTS

Motorist speed violation rates decreased by nearly half in the citation period compared with the warning period (standardised incident rate ratio 0.53, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.66). The hourly maximum violation speed and mean hourly speeds decreased 2.1 MPH (95% CI -2.88 to -1.39) and 1.1 MPH (95% CI -1.64 to - 0.60), respectively. The impact of automated enforcement was sustained during the second year of implementation.

CONCLUSION

Automated photo enforcement of speed limit in school zones was effective at reducing motorist speed violations and also achieved a significant reduction in mean motorist speed.

Physical activity and its correlates among higher secondary school students in an urban district of Nepal

Background

Data on adolescents’ physical activity and determinants are scarce in Nepal. In this study, we aim to assess the level of physical activity, its correlates and the sedentary behavior of high school students in an urban district of Nepal.

Methods

This is a cross-sectional study. Participants were selected using two-stage cluster sampling technique. We used Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) to collect information regarding physical activity and sedentary behavior. We also collected information about socio-demographic, academic, environmental and lifestyle-related factors. Data from 945 high school students from 23 randomly selected schools were analyzed. Logistic regression was used to identify correlates of low physical activity separately for male and female students.

Results

Based on GPAQ classification, one out of five respondents reported low physical activity. The prevalence of low physical activity was 8% for males and 31% for females. About 31% of the adolescents and 14% of young adults did not meet the WHO recommendations of physical activity. Forty-seven percent of the total physical activity was borne by recreational activities. Correlates of low physical activity included school type and mode of transport among females, family support and drinking among males, and playground/park around home among both.

Conclusions

The prevalence estimate of low physical activity among adolescents is high, with higher odds among females. Several different factors are associated with physical activity among males and females, therefore, interventions to promote physical activity in school may need to weigh these factors prior to/during implementation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-7230-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Impact of an Australian state-wide active travel campaign targeting primary schools

Active travel can have health and environmental benefits. This study evaluated the impact of a month-long (October 2015) campaign encouraging primary school children in Victoria, Australia to engage in active school travel. With support from local councils, schools participated in the campaign by monitoring active school travel and delivering promotional activities. A longitudinal study evaluated campaign impact. Carers (n = 715) of Victorian primary school children were recruited via social media and completed online surveys at baseline (T1; 0 wk) and during (T2; +2 wks) and after the campaign (T3; +6 wks). Carers reported their child's travel behaviour over the last five school days, and whether their child and/or their child's school participated in the campaign. Separate generalised linear models were used for T2 and T3 outcomes adjusting for T1 values and potential confounders. A greater proportion of children who participated in the campaign engaged in any active school travel at T2 (OR = 2.49, 95% CI = 1.63, 3.79) and T3 (1.62, 95% CI = 1.06, 2.46) compared with non-participating children. Similarly, these children had a higher frequency of active school travel at T2 (IRR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.29, 1.97) and T3 (IRR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.16, 1.80). Campaign participation resulted in small, short-term increases in active school travel.

•

A controlled trial evaluated a state-wide campaign to promote school active travel.

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Carers reported school active travel at baseline and after the four-week campaign.

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A greater proportion of participating children engaged in school active travel.

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Campaign impact did not differ by key individual and area-level indicators.

•

However, campaign impact did differ by sex and distance to school.

Associations between different weight-related anthropometric traits and lifestyle factors in Norwegian children and adolescents: A case for measuring skinfolds

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between weight-related anthropometric measures and children's eating habits, physical activity and sedentary lifestyle at a population level.

METHODS

Data from the Bergen Growth Study were used to study the association of z-scores of waist circumference (WC), weight-to-height ratio (WHtR), subscapularis (SSF) and triceps (TSF) skinfolds and BMI, with lifestyle factors in 3063 Norwegian children (1543 boys) aged 4-15 years, using linear regression analysis. Each sex was analyzed separately.

RESULTS

In a fully adjusted model with additional correction for BMI z-scores, the consumption of vegetables was associated with higher WC (b = 0.03) and TSF (b = 0.05) z-scores in girls. Sedentary behavior was not associated with any of the anthropometric measures. Physical activity was negatively associated with SSF (b = -0.07) and TSF (b = -0.07) z-scores in boys, while a significant negative association was observed with WC (b = -0.02), WHtR (b = -0.03), SSF (b = -0.04) and TSF (b = -0.06) in girls.

CONCLUSION

Physical activity was negatively associated with skinfolds in both sexes. The BMI was not related to the level of physical activity, and should be complemented with direct measures of fat tissue, like skinfolds, when studying the effect of physical activity on body composition in children.

Correlates of intensity-specific physical activity in children aged 9-11 years: a multilevel analysis of UK data from the International Study of Childhood Obesity, Lifestyle and the Environment

OBJECTIVES

Physical activity (PA) can provide numerous physical and psychological health gains, yet a low proportion of children in England are sufficiently active to accrue benefit. Analysing the correlates of PA from a socioecological perspective may help to identify factors that promote versus discourage PA. The purpose of the present study was to: (1) assess the relationships between a wide range of potential correlates and intensity-specific PA and (2) explore which correlates are associated with meeting government PA guidelines.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Cross-sectional study on children aged 9-11 years from the South West of England (n=425; 183 males).

OUTCOME MEASURES

A mixture of self-reported and objective measures (eg, body mass index (BMI), accelerometer-derived PA, self-reported sport participation, etc) were collected from child participants, parents and school teachers. After adjusting for covariates (ie, age, sex and accelerometer wear time), multilevel modelling techniques were employed to examine the relationships between potential correlates and light-intensity, moderate-intensity and vigorous-intensity PA, as measured with an ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer. Generalised linear mixed modelling was used to analyse the correlates associated with government-recommended levels of PA.

RESULTS

Computer use shared a negative association whereas parent support for PA showed a positive relationship with light-intensity PA. In terms of moderate-intensity PA, computer use and BMI z-score shared a negative association whereas positive relationships were found for sport participation, active transport and for outdoor time after school. Children at schools with 25%-49% of pupils attending school sport/PA clubs did more moderate-intensity PA than those attending schools with lower participation rates. For vigorous-intensity PA, a negative relationship was observed for BMI z-score, and positive associations for self-efficacy, active transport, parent support and the presence of crossing guards on routes to school. Correlates associated with meeting the PA guidelines were BMI z-score (negative), sport participation, active transport and outdoor time after school (all positive).

CONCLUSION

Results demonstrate that factors pertaining to the individual, home and school environment may play an important role in understanding the correlates of differing PA intensities in children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT01722500.

Correlates of intensity-specific physical activity in children aged 9-11 years: a multilevel analysis of UK data from the International Study of Childhood Obesity, Lifestyle and the Environment

OBJECTIVES

Physical activity (PA) can provide numerous physical and psychological health gains, yet a low proportion of children in England are sufficiently active to accrue benefit. Analysing the correlates of PA from a socioecological perspective may help to identify factors that promote versus discourage PA. The purpose of the present study was to: (1) assess the relationships between a wide range of potential correlates and intensity-specific PA and (2) explore which correlates are associated with meeting government PA guidelines.

DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Cross-sectional study on children aged 9-11 years from the South West of England (n=425; 183 males).

OUTCOME MEASURES

A mixture of self-reported and objective measures (eg, body mass index (BMI), accelerometer-derived PA, self-reported sport participation, etc) were collected from child participants, parents and school teachers. After adjusting for covariates (ie, age, sex and accelerometer wear time), multilevel modelling techniques were employed to examine the relationships between potential correlates and light-intensity, moderate-intensity and vigorous-intensity PA, as measured with an ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometer. Generalised linear mixed modelling was used to analyse the correlates associated with government-recommended levels of PA.

RESULTS

Computer use shared a negative association whereas parent support for PA showed a positive relationship with light-intensity PA. In terms of moderate-intensity PA, computer use and BMI z-score shared a negative association whereas positive relationships were found for sport participation, active transport and for outdoor time after school. Children at schools with 25%-49% of pupils attending school sport/PA clubs did more moderate-intensity PA than those attending schools with lower participation rates. For vigorous-intensity PA, a negative relationship was observed for BMI z-score, and positive associations for self-efficacy, active transport, parent support and the presence of crossing guards on routes to school. Correlates associated with meeting the PA guidelines were BMI z-score (negative), sport participation, active transport and outdoor time after school (all positive).

CONCLUSION

Results demonstrate that factors pertaining to the individual, home and school environment may play an important role in understanding the correlates of differing PA intensities in children.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT01722500.

Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Development: Protocol for a 15-Year Longitudinal Follow-Up Study

The aim of the study is to investigate the relationship between physical activity as assessed by accelerometers and cognitive development across the human age ranges (from children and adolescents to adults). Additionally, this study seeks to explore whether physical activity contributes to cognitive development via modification of plasma insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In the study, 500 preschool children (3.5–5.5 years old) are taking part in 6 triennial assessment waves over the span of 15 years. At each wave, participant measures included (a) 7-day physical activity monitoring using ActiGraph's GT3X accelerometers, (b) the evaluation of cognitive development, (c) anthropometric and physical fitness assessments, (d) plasma IGF-1 and BDNF concentrations, and (e) retrospective questionnaires. Linear regression models are used to examine the effect of physical activity on cognitive development; plasma IGF-1 and BDNF concentrations are considered as mediators into data analyses. The results of the study may help to inform future health interventions that utilize physical activity as a means to improve cognitive development in children, adolescents, and adults. Additionally, the study may assist in determining whether the putative effects occur via modification of plasma IGF-1 or BDNF concentrations.

Active travel to non-school destinations but not to school is associated with higher physical activity levels in an ethnically diverse sample of inner-city schoolchildren

Background

This study investigated the association of travel mode to school and non-school destinations with objectively assessed health markers and physical activity in an ethnically diverse sample of inner-city UK schoolchildren.

Methods

We used data from the Camden Active Spaces project (n = 450 children aged 9.1 yrs) to examine associations of school travel mode and frequency of active travel to non-school destinations with daily and out-of-school physical activity, sedentary time and health markers; whilst controlling for appropriate covariates including objectively measured route length.

Results

High frequency of active travel to non-school destinations was associated with more time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during out-of-school periods (3.8, 0.8–6.9 min/d) and greater out-of-school (738, 197.4–1278.6 steps/d) and daily step counts (588.1, 51.6–1124.6 steps/d). No associations were observed between school travel mode, health outcomes and activity levels.

Conclusion

High frequency of active travel to non-school destinations is associated with higher levels of physical activity. These findings highlight the contribution of travel to non-school destinations to overall physical activity levels in schoolchildren.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3920-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Different Methods Yielded Two-Fold Difference in Compliance with Physical Activity Guidelines on School Days

Introduction

The aim was to compare the average and the days method in exploring the compliance of children with physical activity guidelines and describe their physical activity patterns in different school day segments.

Methods

Physical activity was objectively measured in 472 children aged 6–13 for one school week. Children were compliant when fulfilling PA recommendations 1) on average over all measured days (average method) or 2) on at least four measured days (days method). To explore the difference in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) minutes between compliant and non-complaint children (using both the average and days method) in various day segments, linear mixed models was used.

Results

Compliance with physical activity guidelines was significantly higher with the average compared to the days method (51.7% and 23.7%, respectively). In segmented-day analysis, compliant children accrued more MVPA minutes in all day segments, especially during after-school. Gender differences appeared only during the in-school segments, where girls spent less time in MVPA (average method: -4.39 min, 95% CI = -5.36,-3.42, days method: -4.45 min, 95%CI = -5.46,-3.44). Older children accrued more MVPA minutes during physical education classes, but less during breaks, compared to younger children.

Conclusions

The used methods yielded remarkably different prevalence estimates for compliance to physical activity recommendations. To ensure comparability between studies, interventions and reports, there is a need for internationally agreed operationalization and assessment methods of physical activity guidelines. As non-compliant children had lower MVPA during all day segments, greater efforts should be made to provide physical activity opportunities both during and after school.

The tracking of active travel and its relationship with body composition in UK adolescents

BACKGROUND

To examine the tracking of active travel through adolescence, and its association with body mass index (BMI) and fat mass at age 17 in a UK cohort.

METHODS

We analysed data collected from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). The analyses include all participants with self-reported travel mode to school at ages 12, 14 and 16 years, and measured height, weight and body composition at age 17 (n=2,026). Tracking coefficients were calculated for individual travel behaviours (including walking and cycling) through adolescence using Generalised Estimating Equations. Linear regression analyses examined associations between travel pattern (consistently passive, consistently active, active at two time points or active at one time point), BMI, and DXA-measured fat mass (expressed as internally derived standard deviation scores) at 17 years. Analyses were adjusted for height (where appropriate), sex, age, parental social class, and maternal education with interaction terms to assess sex differences.

RESULTS

There was substantial tracking in active travel through adolescence, with 38.5% of males and 32.3% of females consistently walking or cycling to school. In males, a consistently or predominantly active travel pattern was associated with a lower BMI SD score at age 17 (consistently active: adjusted β=-0.23; 95% CI -0.40, -0.06; active at two time points: adjusted β-0.30; 95% CI -0.50, -0.10) compared to those with a consistently passive pattern. No associations were seen in females.

CONCLUSIONS

Maintenance of active travel behaviours throughout adolescence may help to protect against the development of excess BMI in males. In addition to encouraging the adoption of active travel to school, public health messages should aim to prevent drop out from active travel to promote good health in youth.

A Scoping Review of Observational Studies Examining Relationships between Environmental Behaviors and Health Behaviors

Individual lifestyles are key drivers of both environmental change and chronic disease. We undertook a scoping review of peer-reviewed studies which examined associations between environmental and health behaviors of individuals in high-income countries. We searched EconLit, Medline, BIOSIS and the Social Science Citation Index. A total of 136 studies were included. The majority were USA-based cross-sectional studies using self-reported measures. Most of the evidence related to travel behavior, particularly active travel (walking and cycling) and physical activity (92 studies) or sedentary behaviors (19 studies). Associations of public transport use with physical activity were examined in 18 studies, and with sedentary behavior in one study. Four studies examined associations between car use and physical activity. A small number included other environmental behaviors (food-related behaviors (n = 14), including organic food, locally-sourced food and plate waste) and other health behaviors ((n = 20) smoking, dietary intake, alcohol). These results suggest that research on individual environmental and health behaviors consists largely of studies examining associations between travel mode and levels of physical activity. There appears to be less research on associations between other behaviors with environmental and health impacts, and very few longitudinal studies in any domain.

International inter-school competition to encourage children to walk to school: a mixed methods feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Active travel to school can be an important contributor to the total physical activity of children but levels have declined and more novel approaches are required to stimulate this as an habitual behaviour. The aim of this mixed methods study was to investigate the feasibility of an international walk to school competition supported by novel swipecard technology to increase children's walking to/from school.

METHODS

Children aged 9-13 years old participated in an international walk to school competition to win points for themselves, their school and their country over a 4-week period. Walks to and from school were recorded using swipecard technology and a bespoke website. For each point earned by participants, 1 pence (£ 0.01) was donated to the charity of the school's choice. The primary outcome was number of walks to/from school objectively recorded using the swipecard tracking system over the intervention period. Other measures included attitudes towards walking collected at baseline and week 4 (post-intervention). A qualitative sub-study involving focus groups with children, parents and teachers provided further insight.

RESULTS

A total of 3817 children (mean age 11.5 ± SD 0.7) from 12 schools in three cities (London and Reading, England and Vancouver, Canada) took part in the intervention, representing a 95% intervention participation rate. Results show a gradual decline in the average number of children walking to and from school over the 4-week period (week 1 mean 29% ± SD2.5; week 2 mean 18% ± SD3.6; week 3 mean 14% ± SD4.0; week 4 mean 12% ± SD1.1). Post intervention, 97% of children felt that walking to school helped them stay healthy, feel happy (81%) and stay alert in class (76%). These results are supported by qualitative findings from children, parents and teachers. Key areas for improvement include the need to incorporate strategies for maintenance of behaviour change into the intervention and also to adopt novel methods of data collection to increase follow-up rates.

CONCLUSIONS

This mixed methods study suggests that an international walk to school competition using innovative technology can be feasibly implemented and offers a novel way of engaging schools and motivating children to walk to school.

Is change in environmental supportiveness between primary and secondary school associated with a decline in children׳s physical activity levels?

Using a sample of English schoolchildren, we evaluate whether a change in school local area environmental supportiveness between primary and secondary school is associated with changes in active travel behaviours and physical activity levels. Participant׳s activity levels and travel behaviours were recorded for a week during their primary school final year and secondary school first year. Environmental supportiveness was evaluated using a Geographical Information System. Children attending both a primary and secondary school with a more supportive local environment were more likely to maintain active travel behaviours than those with less supportive environments. However, no trends were apparent with change in school supportiveness and change in physical activity. Policies that focus on the maintenance and uptake of active travel behaviours may help maintain children׳s physical activity levels into adolescence.

Which social support and psychological factors are associated to active commuting to school?

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between self-efficacy, enjoyment, and volitional control with active commuting, as well as to analyze the impact of social support from parents, friends, and teachers with active commuting to school.

METHODS

Participants in this cross-sectional study were 625 students (male: 46.3%) aged 10 to 15years from Porto, Portugal (2010/2011). A questionnaire was used to assess active commuting to/from school (walk/cycle), self-efficacy, enjoyment, volitional control and social support. Binary logistic regression was performed to identify significant associations between targeted variables and active commuting.

RESULTS

The results show positive associations in crude analyses for all variables, except for enjoyment for walk/cycle to school. In the adjusted model, higher likelihood of active commuting was found among students who reported having higher self-efficacy (OR=2.10; CI95%: 1.07; 4.11) to walk/cycle to school as well as among adolescents who reported being encouraged by their parents (OR=3.66; CI95%: 1.55; 8.69), and having the partnership of friends in active journeys (OR=4.31; CI95%: 1.79; 10.37).

CONCLUSION

Self-efficacy, encouragement from parents and companionship from friends were important indicators of active commuting to school among Portuguese adolescents. These findings provide support for further research to identify and understand factors that predict and explain the active commuting.

The contribution of walking to work to adult physical activity levels: a cross sectional study

Objective

To objectively examine the contribution to adult physical activity levels of walking to work.

Methods

Employees (n = 103; 36.3 ± 11.7 years) at 17 workplaces in south-west England, who lived within 2 miles (3.2 km) of their workplace, wore Actigraph accelerometers for seven days during waking hours and carried GPS receivers during the commute to and from work. Physical activity volume (accelerometer counts per minute (cpm)) and intensity (minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA)) were computed overall and during the walk to work.

Results

Total weekday physical activity was 45% higher in participants who walked to work compared to those travelling by car (524.6. ± 170.4 vs 364.6 ± 138.4 cpm) and MVPA almost 60% higher (78.1 ± 24.9 vs 49.8 ± 25.2 minutes per day). No differences were seen in weekend physical activity, and sedentary time did not differ between the groups. Combined accelerometer and GPS data showed that walking to work contributed 47.3% of total weekday MVPA.

Conclusions

Walking to work was associated with overall higher levels of physical activity in young and middle-aged adults. These data provide preliminary evidence to underpin the need for interventions to increase active commuting, specifically walking, in adults.

Active commuting from youth to adulthood and as a predictor of physical activity in early midlife: the young Finns study

OBJECTIVE

The aims of the study were to describe the stability of active commuting (AC) behavior (i.e., walking and cycling) over 27years and examine the relationship between AC and physical activity (PA) from youth to early midlife.

METHODS

The mode and distance of travel were assessed using a self-reported questionnaire at five consecutive measurements between 1980 and 2007, when 2072 individuals were followed up from youth (9-18years) to adulthood (30-45years). PA was also measured using a questionnaire.

RESULTS

The prevalence of AC declined sharply with age, particularly after 12years, while AC distances to work or place of study increased substantially. AC was concurrently and prospectively associated with PA in both men and women. Maintained AC, whether walking or cycling and short or long distances, positively predicted adult PA over time. Compared with persistently passive commuters, persistently active commuters had higher adult PA after adjustment for potential covariates. Increasing AC was independently associated with high adult PA, particularly in young adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

Walking and cycling to school/work should be encouraged, as regular AC is associated with higher levels of PA over 27years of follow-up, and thus, may contribute to a healthy and active lifestyle through the various stages of life-course.

Camden active spaces: does the construction of active school playgrounds influence children's physical activity levels? A longitudinal quasi-experiment protocol

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity is essential for every facet of children's health. However, physical activity levels in British children are low. The school environment is a promising setting to increase children's physical activity but limited empirical evidence exists on how a change in the outdoor physical school environment influences physical activity behaviour. The London Borough of Camden is redesigning seven existing school playgrounds to engage children to become more physically active. The primary aim of this project is to evaluate the impact of the redesigned playgrounds on children's physical activity, well-being and physical function/fitness.

METHOD AND ANALYSIS

This project will use a longitudinal quasi-experimental design. Seven experimental schools and one control school will take part. One baseline data collection session and two follow-ups will be carried out. Between baseline and follow-up, the experimental school playgrounds will be redesigned. At baseline, a series of fitness tests, anthropometric and questionnaire measurements, and 7-day objective physical activity monitoring (Actigraph accelerometer) will be carried out on children (aged 5–16 years). This will be repeated at follow-up. Changes in overall physical activity levels and levels during different times of the day (eg, school breaks) will be examined. Multilevel regression modelling will be used to analyse the data.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The results of this study will be disseminated through peer-review publications and scientific presentations. Ethical approval was obtained through the University College London Research Ethics Committee (Reference number: 4400/002).

Change in active travel and changes in recreational and total physical activity in adults: longitudinal findings from the iConnect study

BACKGROUND

To better understand the health benefits of promoting active travel, it is important to understand the relationship between a change in active travel and changes in recreational and total physical activity.

METHODS

These analyses, carried out in April 2012, use longitudinal data from 1628 adult respondents (mean age 54 years; 47% male) in the UK-based iConnect study. Travel and recreational physical activity were measured using detailed seven-day recall instruments. Adjusted linear regression models were fitted with change in active travel defined as 'decreased' (<-15 min/week), 'maintained' (± 15 min/week) or 'increased' (>15 min/week) as the primary exposure variable and changes in (a) recreational and (b) total physical activity (min/week) as the primary outcome variables.

RESULTS

Active travel increased in 32% (n=529), was maintained in 33% (n=534) and decreased in 35% (n=565) of respondents. Recreational physical activity decreased in all groups but this decrease was not greater in those whose active travel increased. Conversely, changes in active travel were associated with commensurate changes in total physical activity. Compared with those whose active travel remained unchanged, total physical activity decreased by 176.9 min/week in those whose active travel had decreased (adjusted regression coefficient -154.9, 95% CI -195.3 to -114.5) and was 112.2 min/week greater among those whose active travel had increased (adjusted regression coefficient 135.1, 95% CI 94.3 to 175.9).

CONCLUSION

An increase in active travel was associated with a commensurate increase in total physical activity and not a decrease in recreational physical activity.

Physical activity and screen time in metabolically healthy obese phenotypes in adolescents and adults

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to examine levels of physical activity (PA) and screen time (ST) in metabolically healthy obese (MHO) and metabolically unhealthy obese (MUO) adolescents and adults.

METHODS

NHANES data from obese adolescents (12-18 years, BMI z-score ≥ 95th percentile) and adults (19-85 years, BMI ≥ 30 kg/m(2)) were pooled from 2003-2005 cycles. Metabolic phenotypes were categorized as MHO (0 or 1 cardiometabolic risk factor; triglycerides, HDL-C, blood pressure, or glucose) or MUO (≥2 cardiometabolic risk factors). Logistic regression models estimated associations between phenotype and PA/ST adjusted for age, gender, BMI, race/ethnicity, menopausal status, and NHANES cycle.

RESULTS

Among adolescents, PA was not associated with MHO. In contrast, MHO adults 19-44 years were 85% more likely to engage in active transportation and 2.7 times more likely to be involved in light intensity usual daily activity versus sitting. For each minute per day, adults 45-85 years were 36% more likely to have the MHO phenotype with higher levels of moderate PA. ST was not associated with metabolic phenotypes in adolescents or adults.

CONCLUSION

The current study provides evidence that PA, but not ST, differs between MHO and MUO in adults, but not in adolescents. Future studies are needed to confirm results.