Effect of Choline Forms and Gut Microbiota Composition on Trimethylamine-N-Oxide Response in Healthy Men

Association of Serum Trimethylamine-N-Oxide Concentration from Childhood to Early Adulthood with Age and Sex

BACKGROUND

Primary prevention is the cornerstone of cardiometabolic health. In the randomized, controlled Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project (STRIP), dietary counseling intervention was given to children from infancy to 20 years of age and a follow-up was completed at age 26 years. We investigated the associations of age, sex, gut microbiome, and dietary intervention with the gut metabolite and the cardiac biomarker trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO).

METHODS

Overall, 592 healthy participants (females 46%) from STRIP were investigated. Compared to the control group, the intervention group had received dietary counseling between ages 7 months and 20 years focused on low intakes of saturated fat and cholesterol and the promotion of fruit, vegetable, and whole-grain consumption. TMAO serum concentrations were measured by a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method at ages 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, and 26 years. Microbiome composition was assessed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing at 26 years of age.

RESULTS

TMAO concentrations increased from age 11 to 26 years in both sexes. At all measurement time points, males showed significantly higher serum TMAO concentrations compared to females, but concentrations were similar between the intervention and control groups. A direct association between TMAO concentrations and reported fiber intake was found in females. Gut microbiome analysis did not reveal associations with TMAO.

CONCLUSIONS

TMAO concentration increased from childhood to early adulthood but was not affected by the given dietary intervention. In females, TMAO concentrations could be directly associated with higher fiber intake suggesting sex-specific differences in TMAO metabolism.

Trimethylamine N-Oxide in Aquatic Foods

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a characteristic nonprotein nitrogen compound, is widely present in seafood, which exhibits osmoregulatory effects for marine organisms in vivo and plays an important role in aquaculture and aquatic product preservation. However, much attention has been focused on the negative effect of TMAO since it has recently emerged as a putative promoter of chronic diseases. To get full knowledge and maximize our ability to balance the positive and negative aspects of TMAO, in this review, we comprehensively discuss the TMAO in aquatic products from the aspects of physiological functions for marine organisms, flavor, quality, the conversion of precursors, the influences on human health, and the seafood ingredients interaction consideration. Though the circulating TMAO level is inevitably enhanced after seafood consumption, dietary seafood still exhibits beneficial health effects and may provide nutraceuticals to balance the possible adverse effects of TMAO.

Choline-An Underappreciated Component of a Mother-to-Be's Diet

The nutritional status of the mother-to-be has a key impact on the proper development of the fetus. Although all nutrients are important for the developing baby, recent research indicates the importance of adequate choline intake during the periconceptional period, pregnancy, and lactation. Choline plays a key role in the biosynthesis of cell membranes, supporting liver function, neurotransmission, brain development, and DNA and histone methylation. Choline participates in the formation of a child's nervous system, supports its cognitive development, and reduces the risk of neural tube defects. The human body is incapable of producing sufficient choline to meet its needs; therefore, it must be obtained from the diet. Current data indicate that most women in their reproductive years do not achieve the recommended daily intake of choline. The presented narrative review indicates the importance of educating mothers-to-be and thereby increasing their awareness of the effects of choline on maternal and child health, which can lead to a more aware and healthy pregnancy and proper child development.

Plasma trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO): associations with cognition, neuroimaging, and dementia

BACKGROUND

The gut-derived metabolite Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) and its precursors - betaine, carnitine, choline, and deoxycarnitine - have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, but their relation to cognition, neuroimaging markers, and dementia remains uncertain.

METHODS

In the population-based Rotterdam Study, we used multivariable regression models to study the associations between plasma TMAO, its precursors, and cognition in 3,143 participants. Subsequently, we examined their link to structural brain MRI markers in 2,047 participants, with a partial validation in the Leiden Longevity Study (n = 318). Among 2,517 participants, we assessed the risk of incident dementia using multivariable Cox proportional hazard models. Following this, we stratified the longitudinal associations by medication use and sex, after which we conducted a sensitivity analysis for individuals with impaired renal function.

RESULTS

Overall, plasma TMAO was not associated with cognition, neuroimaging markers or incident dementia. Instead, higher plasma choline was significantly associated with poor cognition (adjusted mean difference: -0.170 [95% confidence interval (CI) -0.297;-0.043]), brain atrophy and more markers of cerebral small vessel disease, such as white matter hyperintensity volume (0.237 [95% CI: 0.076;0.397]). By contrast, higher carnitine concurred with lower white matter hyperintensity volume (-0.177 [95% CI: -0.343;-0.010]). Only among individuals with impaired renal function, TMAO appeared to increase risk of dementia (hazard ratio (HR): 1.73 [95% CI: 1.16;2.60]). No notable differences were observed in stratified analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Plasma choline, as opposed to TMAO, was found to be associated with cognitive decline, brain atrophy, and markers of cerebral small vessel disease. These findings illustrate the complexity of relationships between TMAO and its precursors, and emphasize the need for concurrent study to elucidate gut-brain mechanisms.

Blueberry intervention mitigates detrimental microbial metabolite trimethylamine N-oxide by modulating gut microbes

Gut microbes play a pivotal role in host physiology by producing beneficial or detrimental metabolites. Gut bacteria metabolize dietary choline and L-carnitine to trimethylamine (TMA) which is then converted to trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO). An elevated circulating TMAO is associated with diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancer in humans. In the present study, we investigated the effect of dietary blueberries and strawberries at a nutritional dosage on TMA/TMAO production and the possible role of gut microbes. Blueberry cohort mice received a control (C) or freeze-dried blueberry supplemented (CB) diet for 12 weeks and subgroups received an antibiotics cocktail (CA and CBA). Strawberry cohort mice received a control (N) or strawberry-supplemented (NS) diet and subgroups received antibiotics (NA and NSA). Metabolic parameters, choline, TMA, and TMAO were assessed in addition to microbial profiling and characterization of berry powders. Blueberry supplementation (equivalent to 1.5 human servings) reduced circulating TMAO in CB versus C mice (~48%) without changing choline or TMA. This effect was not mediated through alterations in metabolic parameters. Dietary strawberries did not reduce choline, TMA, or TMAO. Depleting gut microbes with antibiotics in these cohorts drastically reduced TMA and TMAO to not-quantified levels. Further, dietary blueberries increased the abundance of bacterial taxa that are negatively associated with circulating TMA/TMAO suggesting the role of gut microbes. Our phenolic profiling indicates that this effect could be due to chlorogenic acid and increased phenolic contents in blueberries. Our study provides evidence for considering dietary blueberries to reduce TMAO and prevent TMAO-induced complications.

Association between dietary total choline and abdominal aorta calcification among older US adults: A cross-sectional study of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

BACKGROUND

Numerous studies indicate a potential bidirectional association between dietary choline intake and its derivative, betaine, and subclinical atherosclerosis. However, little research has been conducted on the relationship between dietary choline and severe abdominal aortic calcification (SAAC).

METHODS

This cross-sectional study analyzed population-based data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2013-2014). Choline intake and food sources were measured using two 24-h dietary-recall interviews. The abdominal aortic calcification score was measured using a dual-emission x-ray absorptiometry scan. To assess the relationship between choline intake and SAAC, the study utilized restricted cubic spline and a multivariable logistic regression model.

RESULTS

Among the 2640 individuals included in the study, 10.9% had SAAC. After adjusting for all selected covariates, compared with the lowest quartile of dietary choline, the odds ratios of SAAC for the second-quartile, third-quartile, and fourth-quartile dietary choline intake were 0.63 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.43-0.93), 0.63 (95% CI, 0.42-0.94), and 0.77 (95% CI, 0.5-1.16), respectively. The study found an L-shaped relationship between dietary choline and SAAC in the dose-response analysis. Subgroup analyses did not demonstrate any statistically significant interaction effects for any subgroup.

CONCLUSION

The study found that a higher intake of dietary choline is associated with a lower prevalence of SAAC. The dose-response analysis revealed an L-shaped relationship between dietary choline and SAAC. However, further studies are warranted to investigate the direct role of choline in the development of SAAC.

The Association between the Gut Microbiota and Erectile Dysfunction

PURPOSE

Explore the causal relationship between the gut microbiota and erectile dysfunction (ED) at phylum, class, order, family, and genus levels, and identify specific pathogenic bacteria that may be associated with the onset and progression of ED.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The genetic variation data of 196 human gut microbiota incorporated in our study came from the human gut microbiome Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) dataset released by the MiBioGen Consortium. The GWAS statistics for ED were extracted from one study by Bovijn et al., which included 223,805 participants of European ancestry, of whom 6,175 were diagnosed with ED. Subsequently, Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was carried out to explore whether a causal relationship exists between the gut microbiota and ED. Additionally, bidirectional MR analysis was performed to examine the directionality of the causal relationship.

RESULTS

Through MR analysis, we found that family Lachnospiraceae (odds ratio [OR]: 1.27, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.05-1.52, p=0.01) and its subclass genus LachnospiraceaeNC2004 group (OR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.01-1.37, p=0.04) are associated with a higher risk of ED. In addition, genus Oscillibacter (OR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.02-1.35, p=0.03), genus Senegalimassilia (OR: 1.32, 95% CI: 1.06-1.64, p=0.01) and genus Tyzzerella3 (OR: 1.14, 95% CI: 1.02-1.27, p=0.02) also increase the risk of ED. In contrast, the inverse variance weighted estimate of genus RuminococcaceaeUCG013 (OR: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.61-0.96, p=0.02) suggests that it has a protective effect against the occurrence of ED.

CONCLUSIONS

This study preliminarily identified 6 bacterial taxa that may have a causal relationship with ED, including family Lachnospiraceae, genus Lachnospiraceae NC2004 group, Oscillibacter, Senegalimassilia, Tyzzerella 3 and Ruminococcaceae UCG013. These identified important bacterial taxa may serve as candidates for microbiome intervention in future ED clinical trials.

Choline - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023

Choline is an essential nutrient with metabolic roles as a methyl donor in one carbon metabolism and as a precursor for membrane phospholipids and the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline content is particularly high in liver, eggs, and wheat germ, although it is present in a variety of foods. The main dietary sources of choline in the Nordic and Baltic countries are meat, dairy, eggs, and grain. A diet that is devoid of choline causes liver and muscle dysfunction within 3 weeks. Choline requirements are higher during pregnancy and lactation than in non-pregnant women. Although no randomized controlled trials are available, observational studies in human, supported by coherence from interventional studies with neurodevelopmental outcomes and experimental studies in animals, strongly suggest that sufficient intake of choline during pregnancy is necessary for normal brain development and function in the child. Observational studies suggested that adequate intake of choline could have positive effects on cognitive function in older people. However, prospective data are lacking, and no intervention studies are available in the elderly.

Dietary Intakes of Choline and Betaine and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes: Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study

Background: Our knowledge for the possible link between choline and betaine and the risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is very limited and contradictory. This study aimed to investigate the prospective association of dietary choline and betaine intakes with the risk of T2D in a group of Tehranian adults. Methods: In this prospective study, 6022 eligible subjects aged ≥18 years were chosen from the participants of the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study in a secondary analysis. Diet was assessed based on a valid and reliable semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. At baseline and follow-up examinations, biochemical and anthropometric variables were assessed. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression models was used to estimate the new onset of T2D concerning choline and betaine intake. Results: The mean age ± SD of 2707 men and 3315 women were, respectively, 41.4 ± 14.2 and 39.1 ± 13.1. During a median follow-up of 6.63 years, 528 cases of T2D incidence were diagnosed. Participants with a higher intake of choline had a higher intake of protein, fiber, and B12 and a lower intake of energy and carbohydrates. After controlling of confounders a significant positive association was observed between choline intake and the hazard ratio (HR) of T2D across quartiles of choline intake [HR (CI) in the fourth quartile: 1.25 (1.14-1.38), P trend = 0.01], but this significant finding was not reported for betaine intake. For every 100 milligram increase in choline consumption, the HR of T2D increased significantly in all age, sex, and BMI subgroups. Conclusions: Choline consumption increased the risk of T2D in total population and subgroups. No statistically significant association was found between dietary betaine intake and the risk of T2D in total population and subgroups.

Fermented Stevia Improves Alcohol Poisoning Symptoms Associated with Changes in Mouse Gut Microbiota

We previously found that the continuous feeding of ethanol caused mice dysbiosis, in which the cecal microbiota were significantly altered, as compared with those in the non-feeding control group, especially in some bacterial genera involved in gut inflammation. In the present study, we have found that the fermented extract of stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) leaves with plant-derived lactic acid bacteria (LABs), Pediococcus pentosaceus LY45, improves the trimethylamine (TMA) productivity of cecal content, which can be used as an indicator of dysbiosis. The following animal experiment also shows that the LY45-fermented stevia extract represses the typical increase in serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, which decreased from 1106 to 210 IU/L (p < 0.05) and from 591 to 100 IU/L (p < 0.05), respectively, together with the simultaneously latent TMA productivity (from 1356 to 745 μM, p < 0.05) of cecal content in the ethanol-fed mice. The microbiota analyses have shown that the observed increased alterations in pro-inflammatory genera putative SMB53 (family Clostridiaceae) and Dorea are restored by the fermented stevia extract. Our result indicates that the preliminary bioconversion of herbal medicinal precursors by fermentation with safe microorganisms like LABs is expected to be a hopeful method of producing specific metabolites that may contribute to the reconstruction of gut microbiota.

Changes in Choline Metabolites and Ceramides in Response to a DASH-Style Diet in Older Adults

This feeding trial evaluated the impact of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet on changes in plasma choline, choline metabolites, and ceramides in obese older adults; 28 adults consumed 3oz (n = 15) or 6oz (n = 13) of beef within a standardized DASH diet for 12 weeks. Plasma choline, betaine, methionine, dimethylglycine (DMG), phosphatidylcholine (PC), lysophosphotidylcholine (LPC), sphingomyelin, trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), L-carnitine, ceramide, and triglycerides were measured in fasted blood samples. Plasma LPC, sphingomyelin, and ceramide species were also quantified. In response to the study diet, with beef intake groups combined, plasma choline decreased by 9.6% (p = 0.012); DMG decreased by 10% (p = 0.042); PC decreased by 51% (p < 0.001); total LPC increased by 281% (p < 0.001); TMAO increased by 26.5% (p < 0.001); total ceramide decreased by 22.1% (p < 0.001); and triglycerides decreased by 18% (p = 0.021). All 20 LPC species measured increased (p < 0.01) with LPC 16:0 having the greatest response. Sphingomyelin 16:0, 18:0, and 18:1 increased (all p < 0.001) by 10.4%, 22.5%, and 24%, respectively. In contrast, we observed that sphingomyelin 24:0 significantly decreased by 10%. Ceramide 22:0 and 24:0 decreased by 27.6% and 10.9% (p < 0.001), respectively, and ceramide 24:1 increased by 36.8% (p = 0.013). Changes in choline and choline metabolites were in association with anthropometric and cardiometabolic outcomes. These findings show the impact of the DASH diet on choline metabolism in older adults and demonstrate the influence of diet to modify circulating LPC, sphingomyelin, and ceramide species.

Choline and contribution to normal liver function of the foetus and exclusively breastfed infants: evaluation of a health claim pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Following an application from Procter & Gamble BV pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 via the Competent Authority of Belgium, the Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the scientific substantiation of a health claim related to choline and contribution to normal liver function of the foetus and exclusively breastfed infant. The scope of the application was proposed to fall under a health claim referring to children's development and health. The Panel considers that choline is sufficiently characterised. The claimed effect proposed by the applicant is contribution 'to normal foetal and infant development, especially liver'. The proposed target population is 'unborn fetuses and breastfed infants'. Choline is involved in the structure of cell membranes, cell signalling, metabolism and transport of lipids and cholesterol and neurotransmitter synthesis. Although choline can be synthesised de novo by the human body, depletion-repletion studies in humans show that low choline intake leads to liver dysfunction and muscle damage, which are reverted by the administration of dietary choline. For these functions, de novo synthesis of choline by the human body is insufficient and choline must be obtained from dietary sources. No human studies have addressed the effect of low maternal dietary choline intake on liver function in the fetus or exclusively breastfed infants. However, the Panel considers that the biological role of choline in normal liver function and dietary choline being essential for the function applies to all ages, including fetus and infants. The Panel concludes that a cause and effect relationship has been established between the intake of choline by pregnant and lactating women and contribution to normal liver function of the fetus and exclusively breastfed infants.

Choline supplementation for preterm infants: metabolism of four Deuterium-labeled choline compounds

BACKGROUND

Supply of choline is not guaranteed in current preterm infant nutrition. Choline serves in parenchyma formation by membrane phosphatidylcholine (PC), plasma transport of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) via PC, and methylation processes via betaine. PUFA-PC concentrations are high in brain, liver and lung, and deficiency may result in developmental disorders. We compared different deuterated (D9-) choline components for kinetics of D9-choline, D9-betaine and D9-PC.

METHODS

Prospective study (1/2021-12/2021) in 32 enterally fed preterm infants (28 0/7-32 0/7 weeks gestation). Patients were randomized to receive enterally a single dose of 2.7 mg/kg D9-choline-equivalent as D9-choline chloride, D9-phosphoryl-choline, D9-glycerophosphorylcholine (D9-GPC) or D9-1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-PC(D9-POPC), followed by blood sampling at 1 + 24 h or 12 + 60 h after administration. Plasma concentrations were analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. Results are expressed as median (25th/75th percentile).

RESULTS

At 1 h, plasma D9-choline was 1.8 (0.9/2.2) µmol/L, 1.3 (0.9/1.5) µmol/L and 1.2 (0.7/1.4) µmol/L for D9-choline chloride, D9-GPC and D9-phosphoryl-choline, respectively. D9-POPC did not result in plasma D9-choline. Plasma D9-betaine was maximal at 12 h, with lowest concentrations after D9-POPC. Maximum plasma D9-PC values at 12 h were the highest after D9-POPC (14.4 (9.1/18.9) µmol/L), compared to the other components (D9-choline chloride: 8.1 [5.6/9.9] µmol/L; D9-GPC: 8.4 (6.2/10.3) µmol/L; D9-phosphoryl-choline: 9.8 (8.6/14.5) µmol/L). Predominance of D9-PC comprising linoleic, rather than oleic acid, indicated fatty-acyl remodeling of administered D9-POPC prior to systemic delivery.

CONCLUSION

D9-Choline chloride, D9-GPC and D9-phosphoryl-choline equally increased plasma D9-choline and D9-betaine. D9-POPC shifted metabolism from D9-betaine to D9-PC. Combined supplementation of GPC and (PO) PC may be best suited to optimize choline supply in preterm infants. Due to fatty acid remodeling of (PO) PC during its assimilation, PUFA co-supplementation with (PO) PC may increase PUFA-delivery to critical organs. This study was registered (22.01.2020) at the Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), DRKS00020502.

STUDY REGISTRATION

This study was registered at the Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (DRKS) (German Register for Clinical Studies), DRKS00020502.

Microbiota Effect on Trimethylamine N-Oxide Production: From Cancer to Fitness-A Practical Preventing Recommendation and Therapies

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a microbial metabolite derived from nutrients, such as choline, L-carnitine, ergothioneine and betaine. Recently, it has come under the spotlight for its close interactions with gut microbiota and implications for gastrointestinal cancers, cardiovascular disease, and systemic inflammation. The culprits in the origin of these pathologies may be food sources, in particular, high fat meat, offal, egg yolk, whole dairy products, and fatty fish, but intercalated between these food sources and the production of pro-inflammatory TMAO, the composition of gut microbiota plays an important role in modulating this process. The aim of this review is to explain how the gut microbiota interacts with the conversion of specific compounds into TMA and its oxidation to TMAO. We will first cover the correlation between TMAO and various pathologies such as dysbiosis, then focus on cardiovascular disease, with a particular emphasis on pro-atherogenic factors, and then on systemic inflammation and gastrointestinal cancers. Finally, we will discuss primary prevention and therapies that are or may become possible. Possible treatments include modulation of the gut microbiota species with diets, physical activity and supplements, and administration of drugs, such as metformin and aspirin.

Trimethylamine N-Oxide Response to a Mixed Macronutrient Tolerance Test in a Cohort of Healthy United States Adults

Plasma trimethylamine n-oxide (TMAO) concentration increases in responses to feeding TMAO, choline, phosphatidylcholine, L-carnitine, and betaine but it is unknown whether concentrations change following a mixed macronutrient tolerance test (MMTT) with limited amounts of TMAO precursors. In this proof-of-concept study, we provided healthy female and male adults (n = 97) ranging in age (18-65 years) and BMI (18-44 kg/m2) a MMTT (60% fat, 25% sucrose; 42% of a standard 2000 kilo calorie diet) and recorded their metabolic response at fasting and at 30 min, 3 h, and 6 h postprandially. We quantified total exposure to TMAO (AUC-TMAO) and classified individuals by the blood draw at which they experienced their maximal TMAO concentration (TMAO-response groups). We related AUC-TMAO to the 16S rRNA microbiome, to two SNPs in the exons of the FMO3 gene (rs2266782, G>A, p.Glu158Lys; and rs2266780, A>G, p.Glu308Gly), and to a priori plasma metabolites. We observed varying TMAO responses (timing and magnitude) and identified a sex by age interaction such that AUC-TMAO increased with age in females but not in males (p-value = 0.0112). Few relationships between AUC-TMAO and the fecal microbiome and FMO3 genotype were identified. We observed a strong correlation between AUC-TMAO and TNF-α that depended on TMAO-response group. These findings promote precision nutrition and have important ramifications for the eating behavior of adults who could benefit from reducing TMAO exposure, and for understanding factors that generate plasma TMAO.

Dietary Polysaccharides as Modulators of the Gut Microbiota Ecosystem: An Update on Their Impact on Health

A polysaccharide is a macromolecule composed of more than ten monosaccharides with a wide distribution and high structural diversity and complexity in nature. Certain polysaccharides are immunomodulators and play key roles in the regulation of immune responses during the progression of some diseases. In addition to stimulating the growth of certain intestinal bacteria, polysaccharides may also promote health benefits by modulating the gut microbiota. In the last years, studies about the triad gut microbiota–polysaccharides–health have increased exponentially. In consequence, in the present review, we aim to summarize recent knowledge about the function of dietary polysaccharides on gut microbiota composition and how these effects affect host health.

Choline, folic acid, Vitamin D, and fetal brain development in the psychosis spectrum

Choline, folic acid, and Vitamin D are essential for fetal brain development that may be the first steps in the pathogenesis of the psychotic spectrum. Micronutrient deficiencies have been associated with changes in fetal brain development, manifest as early problems in childhood behavior, and cognition, and later as increased incidence of psychotic and autism spectrum disorders. Micronutrient supplements may not only prevent deficiency, but they may also positively affect brain development in the context of other maternal risk factors, including maternal infection, stress, inflammation, and substance abuse. Many genes associated with later psychotic illness are highly expressed in the fetal brain, where they are responsible for various neurodevelopmental mechanisms. Interaction of micronutrient vitamins with these genetically programmed mechanisms to prevent pathological brain development associated with later psychosis is under active investigation. In addition to their effects on brain development, micronutrient vitamins have effects on other aspects of gestation and fetal development, including the prevention of premature delivery and other developmental abnormalities. Supplemental micronutrient vitamins should be part of good prenatal care, as has already happened for folic acid and Vitamin D and is now advocated by the American Medical Association for choline. The benefits of these micronutrient supplements include protection of brain development and the possibility of decreased risk for future psychotic disorders in those children who are either genetically or environmentally vulnerable. The purpose of this review is to present the current evidence supporting the safety and effectiveness of micronutrients in gestation and to suggest areas for future research.

Unlike Glycerophosphocholine or Choline Chloride, Dietary Phosphatidylcholine Does Not Increase Plasma Trimethylamine-N-Oxide Levels in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Choline, betaine, and L-carnitine are transformed into trimethylamine (TMA) by gut microbiota, absorbed into the liver, and oxidized into trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) by flavin-containing monooxygenases. Elevated TMAO levels may negatively affect human health. As phosphatidylcholine (PC) is the main source of dietary choline, its intake or PC-rich foods may be harmful to human health; however, quantitative comparative information among dietary choline compounds (PC, glycerophosphocholine [GPC], and choline chloride [CC]) regarding in vivo generation of TMAO is lacking. Here, we compared the effects of PC, GPC, and CC on plasma TMAO levels in rats. Furthermore, we investigated their effects on gut microbiota at the genus level. Dietary PC did not affect plasma TMAO levels, whereas dietary GPC and CC significantly increased them. At the genus level, plasma TMAO levels were significantly negatively correlated with relative abundances of Anaerotruncus, Actinomyces, Enterococcus, Dialister, Clostridium XIVa, and Granulicatella; they were significantly positively correlated with that of Coprobacter. Moreover, the relative abundances of Anaerotruncus and Coprobacter were found to predict plasma TMAO levels. Therefore, dietary PC, unlike GPC or CC, does not increase plasma TMAO levels in rats. Furthermore, several gut microbes are associated with changes in plasma TMAO levels in rats fed with choline compounds.

Excess Vitamins or Imbalance of Folic Acid and Choline in the Gestational Diet Alter the Gut Microbiota and Obesogenic Effects in Wistar Rat Offspring

Excess vitamin intake during pregnancy leads to obesogenic phenotypes, and folic acid accounts for many of these effects in male, but not in female, offspring. These outcomes may be modulated by another methyl nutrient choline and attributed to the gut microbiota. Pregnant Wistar rats were fed an AIN-93G diet with recommended vitamin (RV), high 10-fold multivitamin (HV), high 10-fold folic acid with recommended choline (HFol) or high 10-fold folic acid without choline (HFol-C) content. Male and female offspring were weaned to a high-fat RV diet for 12 weeks post-weaning. Removing choline from the HFol gestational diet resulted in obesogenic phenotypes that resembled more closely to HV in male and female offspring with higher body weight, food intake, glucose response to a glucose load and body fat percentage with altered activity, concentrations of short-chain fatty acids and gut microbiota composition. Gestational diet and sex of the offspring predicted the gut microbiota differences. Differentially abundant microbes may be important contributors to obesogenic outcomes across diet and sex. In conclusion, a gestational diet high in vitamins or imbalanced folic acid and choline content contributes to the gut microbiota alterations consistent with the obesogenic phenotypes of in male and female offspring.

Gut Microbiome Alterations in Patients With Carotid Atherosclerosis

Carotid atherosclerosis (CAS) is a reflection of systemic atherosclerosis and the main pathological processes of cardiovascular disease (CVD), namely, carotid intima-media thickening, carotid plaque formation, and carotid stenosis. Accumulating evidence indicates that the gut microbiota plays an important role in CVD and gut-brain disorders, but the associations of the composition and metabolites of the gut microbiome with CAS have not been studied comprehensively. We performed a gut microbiome genome-wide association study in 31 patients with CAS and 51 healthy controls using whole-genome shotgun sequencing. We found that several risk factors (waist circumference, body mass index, diastolic blood pressure, systolic blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin A1c, total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) and inflammatory markers (white blood cell count and absolute value of neutrophils) were significantly higher in the CAS group than in the control group. In addition, 21 species and 142 pathways were enriched in the CAS group, and 10 species and 1 pathway were enriched in the control group. Specifically, Bacteroides eggerthii, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae were the most abundant species in the CAS group, whereas Parabacteroides unclassified, Prevotella copri, Bacteroides sp 3_1_19, and Haemophilus parainfluenzae were the most abundant species in the control group. Finally, we found that most gut microbes and microbial pathways that were enriched in the CAS group had significant positive correlations with clinical characteristics, whereas the microbes and pathways enriched in healthy controls had significant negative correlations with clinical characteristics excluding high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. In addition, the associations between gut microbes and some microbial pathways (short-chain fatty acid, lipopolysaccharide, and menaquinol biosynthesis) were identified. Our results indicate the existence of a cyclic pathway that elevates the circulating concentrations of trimethylamine-N-oxide in patients with CAS but reduces its concentrations in healthy controls.

Fueling Gut Microbes: A Review of the Interaction between Diet, Exercise, and the Gut Microbiota in Athletes

The athlete's goal is to optimize their performance. Towards this end, nutrition has been used to improve the health of athletes' brains, bones, muscles, and cardiovascular system. However, recent research suggests that the gut and its resident microbiota may also play a role in athlete health and performance. Therefore, athletes should consider dietary strategies in the context of their potential effects on the gut microbiota, including the impact of sports-centric dietary strategies (e.g., protein supplements, carbohydrate loading) on the gut microbiota as well as the effects of gut-centric dietary strategies (e.g., probiotics, prebiotics) on performance. This review provides an overview of the interaction between diet, exercise, and the gut microbiota, focusing on dietary strategies that may impact both the gut microbiota and athletic performance. Current evidence suggests that the gut microbiota could, in theory, contribute to the effects of dietary intake on athletic performance by influencing microbial metabolite production, gastrointestinal physiology, and immune modulation. Common dietary strategies such as high protein and simple carbohydrate intake, low fiber intake, and food avoidance may adversely impact the gut microbiota and, in turn, performance. Conversely, intake of adequate dietary fiber, a variety of protein sources, and emphasis on unsaturated fats, especially omega-3 (ɷ-3) fatty acids, in addition to consumption of prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics, have shown promising results in optimizing athlete health and performance. Ultimately, while this is an emerging and promising area of research, more studies are needed that incorporate, control, and manipulate all 3 of these elements (i.e., diet, exercise, and gut microbiome) to provide recommendations for athletes on how to "fuel their microbes."

Are eggs good again? A precision nutrition perspective on the effects of eggs on cardiovascular risk, taking into account plasma lipid profiles and TMAO

Although eggs are a nutrient dense food delivering high quality protein and micronutrients, given that eggs are also rich in cholesterol and choline, whether egg intake is contraindicated for individuals at risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains controversial. In this mini review, we provide a Precision Nutrition perspective, highlighting the importance of two factors: the effect of egg cholesterol on plasma cholesterol concentrations in most people and in cholesterol hyper-absorbers, and the effect of egg choline on plasma concentrations of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a microbe-host co-metabolite independently associated with increased CVD risk. We discuss recent evidence from intervention studies showing that in most individuals egg intake does not have a deleterious effect on plasma lipid profiles, but also highlight that some individuals are cholesterol hyper-absorbers or individuals who are not able to maintain cholesterol homeostasis by suppressing endogenous cholesterol synthesis, and that for these individuals the intake of eggs and other dietary sources of cholesterol would be contraindicated. We also discuss the complex relationship between dietary sources of choline vs. phosphatidylcholine, the gut microbiome, and plasma TMAO concentrations, highlighting the high inter-individual variability in TMAO production and gut microbiome profiles among healthy individuals and those with metabolic conditions. Precision Nutrition approaches that allow the clinician to stratify risk and improve dietary recommendations for individual patients are desirable for improving patient compliance and health outcomes. More clinical studies are needed to determine how to identify individuals at risk for CVD for whom egg intake is contraindicated vs. those for whom egg intake is not associated with negative effects on plasma lipid profiles nor plasma TMAO concentrations.

Enterobacter aerogenes ZDY01 inhibits choline-induced atherosclerosis through CDCA-FXR-FGF15 axis

Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of cardiovascular diseases worldwide. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a metabolite of intestinal flora from dietary quaternary amines, has been shown to be closely related to the development of atherosclerosis. Previous studies have shown that Enterobacter aerogenes ZDY01 significantly reduces the serum levels of TMAO and cecal trimethylamine (TMA) in Balb/c mice; however, its role in the inhibition of choline-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- mice remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that E. aerogenes ZDY01 inhibited choline-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- mice fed with 1.3% choline by reducing cecal TMA and modulating CDCA-FXR/FGF15 axis. We observed that E. aerogenes ZDY01 decreased the cecal TMA and serum TMAO levels by utilizing cecal TMA as a nutrient, not by changing the expression of hepatic FMO3 and the composition of gut microbiota. Furthermore, E. aerogenes ZDY01 enhanced the expression of bile acid transporters and reduced the cecal CDCA levels, thereby attenuating the FXR/FGF15 pathway, upregulating the expression of Cyp7a1, promoting reverse cholesterol transport. Taken together, E. aerogenes ZDY01 attenuated choline-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE^-/- mice by decreasing cecal TMA and promoting reverse cholesterol transport, implying that E. aerogenes ZDY01 treatment might have therapeutic potential in atherosclerosis.

Understanding Choline Bioavailability and Utilization: First Step Toward Personalizing Choline Nutrition

Choline is an essential macronutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, cell-membrane signaling, lipid transport, and methyl-group metabolism. Nevertheless, the vast majority are not meeting the recommended intake requirement. Choline deficiency is linked to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, skeletal muscle atrophy, and neurodegenerative diseases. The conversion of dietary choline to trimethylamine by gut microbiota is known for its association with atherosclerosis and may contribute to choline deficiency. Choline-utilizing bacteria constitutes less than 1% of the gut community and is modulated by lifestyle interventions such as dietary patterns, antibiotics, and probiotics. In addition, choline utilization is also affected by genetic factors, further complicating the impact of choline on health. This review overviews the complex interplay between dietary intakes of choline, gut microbiota and genetic factors, and the subsequent impact on health. Understanding of gut microbiota metabolism of choline substrates and interindividual variability is warranted in the development of personalized choline nutrition.

Digestion and Absorption of Milk Phospholipids in Newborns and Adults

Milk polar lipids provide choline, ethanolamine, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are needed for the growth and plasticity of the tissues in a suckling child. They may also inhibit cholesterol absorption by interacting with cholesterol during micelle formation. They may also have beneficial luminal, mucosal, and metabolic effects in both the neonate and the adult. The milk fat globule membrane contains large proportions of sphingomyelin (SM), phosphatidylcholine (PC), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and some phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylinositol (PI), and glycosphingolipids. Large-scale technical procedures are available for the enrichment of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) in milk replacement formulations and food additives. Pancreatic phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and mucosal phospholipase B digest glycero-phospholipids in the adult. In the neonate, where these enzymes may be poorly expressed, pancreatic lipase-related protein 2 probably has a more important role. Mucosal alkaline SM-ase and ceramidase catalyze the digestion of SM in both the neonate and the adult. In the mucosa, the sphingosine is converted into sphingosine-1-phosphate, which is both an intermediate in the conversion to palmitic acid and a signaling molecule. This reaction sequence also generates ethanolamine. Here, we summarize the pathways by which digestion and absorption may be linked to the biological effects of milk polar lipids. In addition to the inhibition of cholesterol absorption and the generation of lipid signals in the gut, the utilization of absorbed choline and ethanolamine for mucosal and hepatic phospholipid synthesis and the acylation of absorbed lyso-PC with polyunsaturated fatty acids to chylomicron and mucosal phospholipids are important.

Long-Term Effects of Bariatric Surgery on Gut Microbiota Composition and Faecal Metabolome Related to Obesity Remission

Obesity is one of the main worldwide public health concerns whose clinical management demands new therapeutic approaches. Bariatric surgery is the most efficient treatment when other therapies have previously failed. Due to the role of gut microbiota in obesity development, the knowledge of the link between bariatric surgery and gut microbiota could elucidate new mechanistic approaches. This study aims to evaluate the long-term effects of bariatric surgery in the faecal metagenome and metabolome of patients with severe obesity. Faecal and blood samples were collected before and four years after the intervention from patients with severe obesity. Biochemical, metagenomic and metabolomic analyses were performed and faecal short-chain fatty acids were measured. Bariatric surgery improved the obesity-related status of patients and significantly reshaped gut microbiota composition. Moreover, this procedure was associated with a specific metabolome profile characterized by a reduction in energetic and amino acid metabolism. Acetate, butyrate and propionate showed a significant reduction with bariatric surgery. Finally, correlation analysis suggested the existence of a long-term compositional and functional gut microbiota profile associated with the intervention. In conclusion, bariatric surgery triggered long-lasting effects on gut microbiota composition and faecal metabolome that could be associated with the remission of obesity.

Dietary phosphatidylcholine supplementation reduces atherosclerosis in Ldlr-/- male mice2

Choline is an essential nutrient required for various biological processes. Eggs, dairy, and meat are rich in phosphatidylcholine (PC), whereas cereal and legumes are rich in free choline. Excess dietary choline leads to increase plasma trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). Epidemiological studies suggest that plasma TMAO is a biomarker for atherosclerosis and it has been suggested that a lower intake of eggs and meat would reduce choline consumption and thus reduce atherosclerosis development. To investigate whether the form of dietary choline influences atherosclerosis development in Ldlr^-/-, we randomly fed Ldlr^-/-male mice (aged 8 - 10 wk) one of the three 40% (calories) high fat diets (with 0.5% w/w of cholesterol): Control (0.1% w/w free-choline, CON), choline-supplemented (0.4% free-choline, CS), or PC-supplemented (0.1% free-choline and 0.3% choline from PC, PCS). After 12-wk of dietary intervention, the animals were euthanized and tissues and blood collected. Aortic atherosclerotic plaque area, plasma choline, lipid metabolites, and spleen and peripheral blood cell phenotypes were quantified. Surprisingly, the PCS group had significantly lower atherosclerotic lesions while having 2-fold higher plasma TMAO levels compared with both CON and CS groups (P<0.05). In the fasting state, we found that PCS decreased plasma very low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C) and apolipoprotein B48 (APOB48), and increased plasma high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C). However, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion was not affected by dietary treatment. We observed lower levels of circulating pro-atherogenic chemokines in the PCS group. Our study suggests that increased dietary PC intake does not induce a pro-atherogenic phenotype.

Nutritional Viewpoints on Eggs and Cholesterol

Although most current epidemiologic studies indicate no significant association between consuming one egg daily and blood cholesterol levels and cardiovascular risk, arguments still persist with a positive association. Since the diet is one of the most influential factors for this association, we illustrate characteristic features in Japanese people whose dietary pattern is distinct from that, for example, the US (United States) population. Available epidemiologic studies in healthy Japanese people show no association between consumption of one egg daily and blood cholesterol level, consistent with those observed in the US population. However, when consumption of major nutrients and food sources of cholesterol are compared to the US population, Japanese people may have an extra-reserve against the influence of eggs on cardiovascular risk markers, despite consuming relatively more eggs. Further discussion on the influence of nutrients contained in the egg and dietary pattern, including interaction with gut microbes, is necessary. In addition, special consideration at the personalized level is needed for judgment regarding dietary cholesterol not only for hypercholesterolemic patients but for hyper-responsive healthy persons. Although randomized controlled trials with long-term follow-up are required to evaluate the association between consumption of eggs and human health, available information, at least from the nutritional viewpoint, suggests that egg is a healthy and cost-efficient food worldwide.

Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO), Diet and Cardiovascular Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The association between plasma Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO), diet and risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) is still not fully understood. While epidemiologic research shows a causal relationship between plasma TMAO concentrations and CVD risk, the role of dietary precursors in determining plasma concentrations of TMAO and biomarkers for CVD is inconclusive.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies in diverse populations show that plasma TMAO concentrations are positively associated with inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, type-2 diabetes, central adiposity and hypertension. Most recent studies utilizing challenges of dietary choline have not shown increases in plasma chronic TMAO concentrations while studies with carnitine have shown increases in plasma TMAO but in some cases, no alterations in plasma lipids or biomarkers of oxidative stress were observed. TMAO is an important plasma metabolite that through several mechanisms can increase the risk of CVD. The correlations between dietary choline and carnitine on chronic plasma TMAO levels and risk for CVD requires further investigation.

Choline Content of Term and Preterm Infant Formulae Compared to Expressed Breast Milk-How Do We Justify the Discrepancies?

Choline/phosphatidylcholine concentrations are tightly regulated in all organs and secretions. During rapid organ growth in the third trimester, choline requirement is particularly high. Adequate choline intake is 17–18 mg/kg/day in term infants, whereas ~50–60 mg/kg/day is required to achieve fetal plasma concentrations in preterm infants. Whereas free choline is supplied via the placenta, other choline carriers characterize enteral feeding. We therefore quantified the concentrations and types of choline carriers and choline-related components in various infant formulae and fortifiers compared to breast milk, and calculated the supply at full feeds (150 mL/kg/day) using tandem mass spectrometry. Choline concentration in formula ranged from values below to far above that of breastmilk. Humana 0-VLB (2015: 60.7 mg/150 mL; 2020: 27.3 mg/150 mL), Aptamil-Prematil (2020: 34.7 mg/150 mL), Aptamil-Prematil HA (2020: 37.6 mg/150 mL) for preterm infants with weights < 1800 g, and Humana 0 (2020: 41.6 mg/150 mL) for those > 1800 g, comprised the highest values in formulae studied. Formulae mostly were rich in free choline or phosphatidylcholine rather than glycerophosphocholine and phosphocholine (predominating in human milk). Most formulae (150 mL/kg/day) do not supply the amounts and physiologic components of choline required to achieve fetal plasma choline concentrations. A revision of choline content in formulae and breast milk fortifiers and a clear declaration of the choline components in formulae is required to enable informed choices.