Occurrence and source apportionment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the Beiyun River of Beijing, China

Enhanced micropollutants removal by nanofiltration and their environmental risks in wastewater reclamation: A pilot-scale study

The emerging contaminants, in particular pharmaceuticals and personal care products and environmental estrogens, have been received global concerns in recent years. Nanofiltration (NF) as an advanced tertiary treatment technology can be a reliable and potential tool for micropollutants removal. However, the influence of operation conditions of NF system to micropollutants rejections in an engineering application, is still lacking. Here, a pilot-scale NF system was set up to investigate its removal efficiencies to 49 micropollutants under different operation conditions by treating actual municipal wastewater. The results showed that the rejections of positively and neutrally charged micropollutants with molecular weight higher than 250 g mol^-1 were both higher than 80%. Besides, most negatively charged micropollutants were also rejected higher than 80% under different operation conditions. The rejections of most micropollutants increased with temperature decreased from 25 °C to 13 °C, which was primarily ascribed to decrease of pore size of NF membrane at low temperature. Compared with the water recovery rate of 80%, lower rejections of micropollutants were observed with lower water recovery rate of 60%. Except for sulfamethoxazole, the risk quotients of other detected 20 micropollutants in NF effluent were all lower than 1.0, showing medium or no risks to aquatic organisms. This study might aid understanding the performance of micropollutants rejections by NF in actual engineering application and could give guideline to the implementation of NF technology in future advanced treatment processes.

Evaluating surface water quality using water quality index in Beiyun River, China

The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration is one of the most water-scarce regions in China, because of the frequent human activities. Water scarcity and pollution have weakened the service functions of water ecosystems and hindered the regional economic development. As the "lifeline" of the economic development of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, the water quality of Beiyun River has been widely concerned. River water quality assessment is one of the most important aspects to enhance water resources management plans. Water quality index (WQI), as one of the most frequently used evaluation tools, was used to comprehensively analyze the water quality in the Beiyun River. Between January 2017 and October 2018, we collected samples from 16 typical sampling sites along the main rivers of the watershed, covering four seasons. Seventeen water quality parameters, including temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅), ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N), total phosphorus (TP), oil, volatile phenol (VP), fluoride, sulfide, surfactant, lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and arsenic (As), were used to calculate WQI. The average WQI values of Beiyun River in winter, spring, summer, and autumn were 88.15, 71.70, 78.92, and 90.12, respectively, explaining the water quality was "good" generally. There were significant differences in the spatial distribution of WQI values from Beiyun River, and water quality of upstream and downstream was better than that of midstream. In addition, correlation analysis was applied to explore the correlation between land use types and water quality. Water quality was significant negatively correlated with agriculture land and rural residential land, and a positive relationship between urban land and water quality. Generally, we believe that people's related activities on different land use are major elements impacting the water quality. Water environment improvement ought to increase the wastewater collection rate and sewage treatment capacity in rural areas, especially in the midstream of the Beiyun River. Graphical abstract.

Comparison of receptor models for source identification of organophosphate esters in major inflow rivers to the Bohai Sea, China

A better understanding of the sources of organophosphate esters (OPEs) is a prerequisite for OPE control and the establishment of related environmental policies. Sources of OPEs in 35 major inflow rivers to the Bohai Sea of China were quantitatively analyzed using three effective receptor models (principal component analysis-multiple linear regression (PCA-MLR), positive matrix factorization (PMF), and Unmix) in this paper. The similarities and differences in results from PCA-MLR, PMF, and Unmix were discussed in depth. All three models well predicted the spatial variability of the total concentrations of nine OPEs (triethyl phosphate, tri-n-butyl phosphate, triisobutyl phosphate, tri (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, tri (2-chloroethyl) phosphate, tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate, tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate, triphenyl phosphate, and triphenylphosphine oxide) (∑₉OPEs) (r² = 0.90-0.96, p = 0.000) and explained 98.4%-101.2% of the observed ∑₉OPEs. The predicted ∑₉OPEs values from each pairwise model were significantly correlated (r² = 0.88-0.91, p = 0.000). Three OPE sources were extracted by all three models: rigid and flexible polyurethane foam/coating, cellulosic/acrylic/vinyl polymer/unsaturated polyester, and polyvinyl chloride, contributing 49.9%, 29.7%, and 20.5% by PCA-MLR, 57.9%, 28.6%, and 13.5% by PMF, and 47.9%, 30.8%, and 22.4% by Unmix to the ∑₉OPEs, respectively. PMF was recommended as the preferred receptor model for analyzing OPE sources in water during the monitoring period because of its optimal performance.

Active pharmaceutical ingredients in Malaysian drinking water: consumption, exposure, and human health risk

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are typical endocrine disruptors found in common pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which are frequently detected in aquatic environments, especially surface water treated for drinking. However, current treatment technologies are inefficient for removing emerging endocrine disruptors, leading to the potential contamination of tap water. This study employed an optimized analytical method comprising solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) to detect APIs in tap water in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Several therapeutic classes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, including anti-inflammatory drugs (dexamethasone and diclofenac), antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole and triclosan), antiepileptics (primidone), antibacterial agents (ciprofloxacin), beta-blockers (propranolol), psychoactive stimulants (caffeine), and antiparasitic drugs (diazinon), were detected in the range of < 0.03 to 21.39 ng/L, whereas chloramphenicol (an antibiotic) was below the detection limit (< 0.23 ng/L). A comparison with global data revealed the spatial variability of emerging tap water pollutants. Diclofenac accounted for the highest concentration (21.39 ng/L), followed by triclosan and ciprofloxacin (9.74 ng/L and 8.69 ng/L, respectively). Caffeine was observed in all field samples with the highest distribution at 35.32%. Caffeine and triclosan exhibited significantly different distributions in household tap water (p < 0.05). Humans are exposed to these APIs by drinking the tap water; however, the estimated risk was negligible (risk quotient < 1). APIs are useful water quality monitoring indicators for water resource conservation and water supply safety related to emerging organic contaminants; thus, API detection is important for safeguarding the environment and human health.

Catalytic degradation of chlorpheniramine over GO-Fe3O4 in the presence of H2O2 in water: The synergistic effect of adsorption

Chlorpheniramine is a pharmaceutical widely used and found in water environments. Besides hormone disruption and adverse environmental effects, chlorpheniramine forms carcinogenic nitrosamines during disinfection. We have demonstrated previously the efficient adsorption of chlorpheniramine from aqueous solution onto graphene oxide-magnetite composite (GO-Fe₃O₄). The present study focused on the elimination of chlorpheniramine and the formation of nitrosamine byproducts during reaction with H₂O₂ over GO-Fe₃O₄ catalyst. The effects of the morphology of GO-Fe₃O₄ in terms of iron fraction, pH, concentrations of H₂O₂ and organic matters on chlorpheniramine removal in the GO-Fe₃O₄-H₂O₂ system were investigated. Chlorpheniramine was efficiently removed at pH 9 when GO-Fe₃O₄ had a higher micropore volume and surface area. Kinetics study showed that both oxidation (k = 5.1(±0.2) × 10^-3 (mg g^-1)^-1 min^-1) and adsorption reactions (k = 2.7(±0.1) × 10^-3 (mg g^-1)^-1 min^-1) fitted well with the second-order kinetics model. The adsorption sites on the GO-Fe₃O₄ surface could be different from those involved during catalytic oxidation. Chlorpheniramine removal decreased by 44.9% in the 5th cycle without regeneration due to the structural fracture of GO-Fe₃O₄. A tentative pathway of chlorpheniramine degradation and nitrosamine formation by GO-Fe₃O₄-H₂O₂ was proposed. GO-Fe₃O₄ was an adsorbent and effective catalyst in chlorpheniramine degradation by H₂O₂ that exhibited limited nitrosamine formation at moderate reaction time.

Characteristics of pharmaceutically active compounds in surface water in Beijing, China: Occurrence, spatial distribution and biennial variation from 2013 to 2017

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) are widely found in the environment due to vast human consumption. Lots of work has been devoted to investigating the occurrence and seasonal variations globally. To fully understand characteristics and cross-year variation of PhACs in Beijing, 35 PhACs were analyzed in 46 sites across Beijing from both urban and suburban areas. Concentrations of target PhACs were ranged from levels of ng L^-1 to μg L^-1. Metoprolol (524 ng L^-1), caffeine (390 ng L^-1) and acetaminophen (156 ng L^-1) were the three most abundant non-antibiotics with the highest median concentration, and nalidixic acid (135 ng L^-1), erythromycin (64 ng L^-1) and sulfamethoxazole (77 ng L^-1) were the most abundant antibiotics. Urban and suburban areas are distinguished by PhAC composition in cluster analysis due to different wastewater collection rate. The ratio of easily removable compound group and hardly removable group was then proposed to reflect the wastewater collection rate. The compositional comparison of PhACs in WWTPs' effluents and their receiving rivers further illustrates the impact of WWTPs in urban area. Higher proportion of antibiotics (>30%) in suburban area reflected the impact of presence of livestock farms, which should be concerned. Further statistical analyses show an improving trend of wastewater collection rate, and excluding metoprolol, an anti-hypertension medicine, the total concentration of 13 target PhACs was reduced by 72% during 2013-2017.

Cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents in surface waters at global scale: Occurrence, ecotoxicity and risk assessment

Cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents have emerged as major groups of environmental contaminants over the past decades. However, knowledge about their occurrence in freshwaters and their ecotoxicity is still limited. Here, we critically summarize the presence of 82 cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents at a global-scale and represent their effects on aquatic organisms. Only about 71% of these pharmaceuticals in use have been analyzed for their residues in aquatic ecosystems and only about 24% for their effects. When detected in surface waters, they occurred at concentrations of dozens to hundreds of ng/L. In wastewaters, they reached up to several μg/L. Effects of cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents have been extensively studied in fish and a few in invertebrates, such as Daphnia magna and mussels. These pharmaceuticals affect cardiac physiology, lipid metabolism, growth and reproduction. Besides, effects on spermatogenesis and neurobehavior are observed. Environmental risks are associated with beta-blockers propranolol, metoprolol, and lipid lowering agents bezafibrate and atorvastatin, where adverse effects (biochemical and transcriptional) occurred partially at surface water concentrations. In some cases, reproductive effects occurred at environmentally relevant concentrations. This review summarizes the state of the art on the occurrence of cardiovascular drugs and lipid regulating agents at a global-scale and highlights their risks to fish. Further research is needed to include more subtle changes on heart function and to explore non-investigated drugs. Their occurrence in freshwaters and impact on a diverse array of aquatic organisms are particularly needed to fully assess their environmental hazards and risks.

Occurrence of caffeine in the freshwater environment: Implications for ecopharmacovigilance

Owing to the substantial consumption of caffeinated food, beverages, and medicines worldwide, caffeine is considered the most representative pharmaceutically active compound (PhAC) pollutant based on its high abundance in the environment and its suitability as an indicator of the anthropogenic inputs of PhACs in water bodies. This review presents a worldwide analysis of 132 reports of caffeine residues in freshwater environments. The results indicated that more than 70% of the studies reported were from Asia and Europe, which have densely populated and industrially developed areas. However, caffeine pollution was also found to affect areas isolated from human influence, such as Antarctica. In addition, the maximum concentrations of caffeine in raw wastewater, treated wastewater, river, drinking water, groundwater, lake, catchment, reservoir, and rainwater samples were reported to be 3.60 mg/L, 55.5, 19.3, 3.39, 0.683, 174, 44.6, 4.87, and 5.40 μg/L, respectively. The seasonal variation in caffeine residues in the freshwater environment has been demonstrated. In addition, despite the fact that there was a small proportion of wastewater treatment plants in which the elimination rates of caffeine were below 60%, wastewater treatment is generally believed to have a high caffeine removal efficiency. From a pharmacy perspective, we proposed to adopt effective measures to minimize the environmental risks posed by PhACs, represented by caffeine, through a new concept known as ecopharmacovigilance (EPV). Some measures of EPV aimed at caffeine pollution have been advised, as follows: improving knowledge and perceptions about caffeine pollution among the public; listing caffeine as a high-priority PhAC pollutant, which should be targeted in EPV practices; promoting green design and production, rational consumption, and environmentally preferred disposal of caffeinated medicines, foods, and beverages; implementing intensive EPV measures in high-risk areas and during high-risk seasons; and integrating EPV into wastewater treatment programs.

First record of emerging contaminants in sponges of an inhabited island in the Maldives

In the Maldivian islands, the lack of sewage wastewater treatment and an improper landfill enhance the potential hazard of emerging contaminants, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products. In order to analyze the occurrence of emerging contaminants in the marine biota, sponges were collected in two coral reef areas of Magoodhoo island (Faafu), one near the landfill and the other furthest from the island. Caffeine, fluoxetine and norfluoxetine were detected only in the proximity of the landfill, with caffeine showing the highest concentration (28.4 ng/g d.w.), followed by fluoxetine (6.00 ng/g d.w.). Norfluoxetine was below the limit of quantification of 10 ng/g d.w. Nitro xylene, N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide and galaxolide were found in both areas, with concentrations of 3.51/6.11/8.54 and <LOQ/1.14/0.62 ng/g d.w., respectively. Due to the vital role of the coral reef for the livelihood and economy of the Maldivian people, attention should be paid to this class of contaminant.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a drinking water resource of Yangtze River Delta Ecology and Greenery Integration Development Demonstration Zone in China: Occurrence and human health risk assessment

The occurrence, partition, and human health risk of thirteen pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been investigated in surface water, overlying water, pore water and sediment samples from Dianshan Lake of Yangtze River Delta Ecology and Greenery Integration Development Demonstration Zone in China. PPCPs were ubiquitous in aqueous phase and sediments from Dianshan Lake. Sulfamethazine (SMZ) was dominated in surface water and overlying water, while ketoprofen (KPF) was rich in sediment. The total concentration of PPCPs ranged from 0.38-85.27 ng/L, 24.26-130.03 ng/L and 5.39-149.84 μg/kg in surface water, overlying water and sediment, respectively, which were in middle levels compared with these reported in other aquatic environment in China. Naproxen (NPX), sulfadimethoxine (SDM), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and sulfamethazine (SMZ) in surface water showed a relatively higher level in lake side than those in lake center suggesting that a mixed containment source of human- and animal-derived from the areas around lake. The significant season variations of most PPCPs were mainly attributed to their usage, water temperature and dilution effect. The partition behaviors of PPCPs in sediment-overlying water and sediment-pore water system were mainly affected by their logK_ow values, and showed weak correlation with total organic carbon (TOC) content in sediment and molecular weights of PPCPs. Preliminary results indicated that PPCPs in Dianshan Lake have not posed a high risk to human health by exposure to drinking water for all age groups. Nevertheless, their potential to cause the mixture toxicity and resistance genes cannot be neglected. This work will contribute to the clear picture of PPCPs contamination in drinking water source in the Demonstration Zone, and provide reliable and simple-to-use information to regulators on the exposure and risk levels of PPCPs, as well as recommendations for future research.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of source for organic carbon and nitrogen in sediments of rivers and lakes based on stable isotopes

Sediment is the most dominant reservoir of organic pollutants in the aquatic environment. Understanding carbon and nitrogen sources in sediments and factors that controls distribution enhances our understanding of biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen. Different end-members and surface sediments of rivers and sediments profiles of lakes were collected. The concentrations of TOC and TON and their δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N were studied for qualitative and quantitative analysis of natural and anthropogenic sources. The results show that TOC and TON concentrations of the sediments from rivers range from 0.63% to 10.83% and 0.06%-0.86%, respectively, indicating substantial great environmental risks in these rivers. The concentrations of TOC and TON for the four sediment profiles below the 5 cm, increase in the order of Miyun < Chuidiao < Qunming < Houhai, as influenced by their respective environment condition. Moreover, water quality was quite good and there was no risk of eutrophication in Miyun reservoir. δ¹³C_org and δ¹⁵N_org in surface sediments of the studied 18 rivers range from -27.2‰ to -24.9‰ and -2.2‰ to +10.9‰, respectively. Based on a simple δ¹³C-based end-member mixing and a C/N ratio model, organic matter in the surface sediments of these rivers were mainly derived from sewage and C3 plant. In addition, the sources of organic matter differed in each layer of the four sediment profiles. This study provides a reliable method for qualitative and quantitative identification of the source of organic matter in sediments, and offers theoretical basis for better management of rivers and lakes.

Rapid and efficient removal of naproxen from water by CuFe2O4 with peroxymonosulfate

Naproxen, a widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, has been detected in many environmental matrixes and is regarded as an emerging pollutant. Sulfate radical (SO₄·^-) -based advanced oxidation processes have attracted wide attention due to their high efficiency and applicability in the removal of emerging contaminants. In this study, CuFe₂O₄ was used as an efficient catalyst to activate peroxymonosulfate to oxidize naproxen. The results suggested that 92.3% of naproxen was degraded and 50.3% total organic carbon was removed in 60 min in the presence of 0.3 g·L^-1 CuFe₂O₄ and 2 mM peroxymonosulfate. This degradation system showed strong adaptability in a wide pH range from 4.0 to 10.0. Free radical scavenger experiments and electron spin resonance analysis indicated that ¹O₂, ·OH, and SO₄·^- are the main active species. Finally, the potential degradation pathways of naproxen were proposed by detecting and analyzing the degradation products with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry. The results of this study suggest that the CuFe₂O₄-activated peroxymonosulfate system is a promising technology for the removal of naproxen from natural water.

Distribution, combined pollution and risk assessment of antibiotics in typical marine aquaculture farms surrounding the Yellow Sea, North China

This study focused on the distribution, combined pollution, potential source and risk assessment of 17 antibiotics in an aquaculture ecosystem surrounding the Yellow sea, North China. Antibiotics were detected in various matrices (seawater, sediment/biofilm, organism and feed) in different aquaculture modes (greenhouse and outdoor aquaculture) during the wet and dry seasons in coastal areas of Shandong province. The innovation points of the study were as follows: (1) To the best of our knowledge, this study was one of the few to investigate the occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in mariculture environments along the Yellow Sea coast; (2) Biofilms, a focus of the study, might act as a sink for antibiotics in the aquaculture ecosystem; and (3) The correlation of heavy metals and antibiotic concentrations was proved, which could correspondingly be used as an indicator for antibiotic concentrations in the studied area. The levels of antibiotics in water were observed to be relatively low, at the ng/L level. Trimethoprim was the most prevalent antibiotic, and was detected in all water samples. Oxytetracycline was detected at high concentrations in biofilms (up to 1478.29 ng/g). Moreover, biofilms exhibited a higher antibiotic accumulation capacity compared to sediments. Concentrations of oxytetracycline and doxycycline were high in feed, while other antibiotics were almost undetected. Tetracycline was widely detected and the concentration of enrofloxacin was highest in organisms. Correlation analysis demonstrated that environmental parameters and other coexisting contaminants (e.g. heavy metals) significantly affected antibiotic concentrations. In addition, the concentration of Zn was significantly correlated with the total antibiotic concentration and was proportional to several antibiotics in water and sediment (biofilm) samples (p < 0.01). High Mn concentrations were closely related to total and individual (e.g. sulfadiazine, sulfamethazine and enrofloxacin) antibiotic levels, which may result in the combined contamination of the environment. Antibiotics in estuaries and groundwater generally originated from aquaculture wastewater and untreated/treated domestic sewage. Most of the detected antibiotics posed no risk to the environment. Ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin found in water may present high ecological and resistance risks, while the two antibiotics observed to accumulate in fish may pose a considerable risk to human health through diet consumption. All antibiotics detected in seafood were lower than the respective maximum residue limits. This study can act as a reference for the government for the determination of antibiotic discharge standards in aquaculture wastewater and the establishment of a standardized antibiotic monitoring and management system.

Occurrence, source estimation and risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in the Chaobai River characterized by adjacent land use

This study investigated the occurrence of 27 pharmaceuticals with diverse physicochemical properties in a year-long monitoring campaign in the Chaobai River, China. The correlation between the distribution of pharmaceuticals in the river and the adjacent sources was elucidated. The results indicate that the agriculture area was the most polluted area with a median summed pharmaceutical concentration of 225.3 ng L^-1, followed by the urban area and the mountain area with the corresponding values of 136.9 and 29.9 ng L^-1, respectively. In terms of individual compounds, 22 out of 27 compounds were detected with concentrations ranging from <1 to 1972 ng L^-1. Caffeine, carbamazepine, azithromycin, bezafibrate, metoprolol, sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, clarithromycin, erythromycin, roxithromycin, and trimethoprim were pharmaceuticals with relatively high levels, with median concentrations ranging from 3.3 to 25.6 ng L^-1 and detection frequencies ranging from 40% to 97%. Higher concentrations were mainly observed during cold seasons, with mean concentrations 1 to 52 times as high as those during warm seasons. Spatial analysis reveals that the pharmaceutical concentrations in different areas were impacted by different sources. A wastewater treatment plant was an important source in the urban area, while the agriculture area was impacted by various treated and untreated wastewater sources. The species sensitivity distribution model and risk quotient (RQ) method were combined in the ecological risk assessment. The results indicate that the multi-substance potentially affected fraction (msPAF) values of the sampling sites were below 0.04%, whereas nearly half of RQ values were higher than 1. Caffeine was proposed as a priority compound due to its high contribution rate (i.e., 79%) to the cumulative msPAF value, which implies that increased control and management of untreated wastewater sources along the Chaobai River is necessary.

Occurrence and human health risks of pesticides and antibiotics in Nile tilapia along the Rosetta Nile branch, Egypt

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) samples were collected at monthly intervals between July 2018 and June 2019 from 3 sampling sites (El-Rahawy, Sabal and Tala) situated along the Rosetta branch of the Nile, Egypt, to monitor the presence of 100 pesticides and 5 antibiotics using different extraction procedures followed by GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS. Potential human health risks via the consumption of contaminated fish was also assessed. Of the 72 analyzed fish muscle samples; 86% and 21% were contaminated with pesticides and antibiotics, respectively. Chlorpyrifos (ranging from < LOQ to 0.08 mg/kg) was the most frequently detected pesticide followed by p,p'-DDE (ranging from < LOQ to 0.04 mg/kg) in 83 and 45% of the fish muscle samples, respectively. Nitrofurazone (ranging from 8.6 to 52 μg/kg) was the most frequently detected antibiotic, followed by nitrofurantoin (ranging from 1.1 to 2 μg/kg) and chloramphenicol (ranging from < LOQ to 0.17 μg/kg). These antibiotics were found in 12, 6 and 5% of the fish muscle samples, respectively. The spatial distribution of the detected pesticides and antibiotics in fish samples along the Rosetta branch showed that the highest mean concentrations were found in the Sabal area, followed by samples from Tala and El-Rahawy. An investigation into seasonal variations revealed that the highest mean concentrations of pesticides and antibiotics in fish samples were detected in winter and spring, respectively. According to target hazard quotient (THQ) calculations for the detected pollutants in Nile tilapia muscle, all pollutants gave THQ values lower than 1, indicating that the consumption of this fish from the study sites is unlikely to cause any detrimental effects to consumers.

Efficient electrochemical generation of ferrate(VI) by iron coil anode imposed with square alternating current and treatment of antibiotics

Anode passivation is still a main challenge for the electrochemical generation of ferrate(VI, Fe(VI)), leading to the reduction of Fe(VI) production efficiency. In this study, cyclic voltammetry, scanning electronic microscopy, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were used to select better anode electrode configurations (iron wire, iron gauze, and iron coil). The results indicate that iron coil had the least degree of passivation. Different imposed current waveforms during the electrochemical generation of Fe(VI) were also investigated, and the iron coil imposed with square alternating current (AC) wave can mitigate the anode passivation, resulting in higher Fe(VI) production efficiency. The optimum conditions for the electrochemical generation of Fe(VI) were evaluated and the optimum temperature (40 ℃), current density (10 mA/cm²), AC cycle period (15 s) and electrolyte concentrations (14 M NaOH) were identified. As a result, 0.12 mol/L Fe(VI) concentration and over 50% of current efficiency can be achieved after 3 h electrolysis. The generated Fe(VI) solution was further applied to oxidize doxycycline(DOX) and sulfadiazine(SDZ) as typical antibiotics. Over 80% of DOX can be removed at a Fe(VI) to DOX molar ratio of 5:1 (pH = 4-9), whilst a higher Fe(VI) to SDZ molar ratio of 20:1 (pH = 7) was needed to obtain 75% SDZ removal.

Using a high-throughput zebrafish embryo screening approach to support environmental hazard ranking for cardiovascular agents

Cardiovascular agents are among the most frequently prescribed pharmaceuticals worldwide. They are widely detected in aquatic ecosystems, while their ecotoxicological implications are rarely explored. Here, by the use of a new developed high-throughput zebrafish embryo screening approach, we systematically assessed the cardiovascular disruptive effects of 32 commonly used cardiovascular agents at environmental relevant concentrations and above (0.04, 0.2 and 1 µM). Multiple endpoints, including cardiac output, heart rate and blood flow, were quantified via customized video analysis approaches. Among the 32 agents, simvastatin and lovastatin exhibited the strongest toxicities to fish embryos, and the lethal doses were observed at 0.2 µM and 1 µM. Beta-blockers such as atenolol and metoprolol significantly decreased heart rates by up to 15% and 12% and increased blood flows by up to 14% and 14%, respectively, at concentrations as low as 0.04 µM. Several hypertension/hyperlipidemia medications such as pravastatin and enalapril led to significant inhibition of heart rates (up to 14% and 16% decreases, respectively) as well as slightly decreases of the cardiac outputs and blood flows. In addition, a tentative risk assessment clearly demonstrated that some compounds such as atenolol, metoprolol and bezafibrate pose considerable risks to aquatic organisms at environmental or slightly higher than surface water concentrations. Our results provided novel insights into understanding of the potential risks of cardiovascular agents and contributed to their environmental hazard ranking.

Occurrence, interactive effects and ecological risk of diclofenac in environmental compartments and biota - a review

Diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug has turned into a contaminant of emerging concern; hence, it was included in the previous Watch List of the EU Water Framework Directive. This review paper aims to highlight the metabolism of diclofenac at different trophic levels, its occurrence, ecological risks, and interactive effects in the water cycle and biota over the past two decades. Increased exposure to diclofenac not only raises health concerns for vultures, aquatic organisms, and higher plants but also causes serious threats to mammals. The ubiquitous nature of diclofenac in surface water (river, lake canal, estuary, and sea) is compared with drinking water, groundwater, and wastewater effluent in the environment. This comprehensive survey from previous studies suggests the fate of diclofenac in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and may predict its persistence in the environment. This review offers evidence of fragmentary available data for the water environment, soil, sediment, and biota worldwide and supports the need for further data to address the risks associated with the presence of diclofenac in the environment. Finally, we suggest that the presence of diclofenac and its metabolites in the environment may represent a high risk because of their synergistic interactions with existing contaminants, leading to the development of drug-resistant strains and the formation of newly emerging pollutants.

Monitoring the release of anti-inflammatory and analgesic pharmaceuticals in the receiving environment

The occurrence of anti-inflammatory and analgesic pharmaceuticals (AIAPs) in the effluents of 16 hospitals, influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), the contribution and mass load of each hospital to WWTP influent, and the removal efficiencies in WWTP were investigated. Environmental risk was also evaluated by toxicity tests using organisms from three different trophic levels. Acetaminophen had the highest concentration in summer and winter samples, followed by ketoprofen, ibuprofen, and naproxen. The total daily load of AIAPs detected in influent of WWTP was 1677 mg/day/1000 inhabitants in summer and 5074 mg/day/1000 inhabitants in winter. The contribution of 16 hospitals to the total AIAP load in influent of WWTP was 11.30% in summer and 7.09% in winter. The highest mass loads were calculated as 203 mg/bed.day in general hospital in summer and 300 mg/bed.day in pediatric hospital in winter. The removal efficiencies of AIAPs in WWTP ranged between 13% and 100% in summer and 0.88% and 99% in winter. WWTP is not sufficient to remove all the AIAPs. Diclofenac (in summer), mefenamic acid, indomethacin, and phenylbutazone exhibited poor removal below 50%. The effluents of the WWTP exhibited a low risk for fish and Daphnia magna and an insignificant risk for algae.

Characterization and source-tracking of antibiotic resistomes in the sediments of a peri-urban river

The peri-urban rivers are one of the critical interfaces between urban-rural symbiotic ecosystems and appear to be a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the environment. To prevent the transmission risks of ARGs between peri-urban river and human, it is essential to explore the prevalence and source of ARGs in the environment for designing potential mitigation strategies. In this study, we focused on the characterization and source-tracking of ARGs in the sediments of a typical peri-urban river in Beijing, Chaobai River. Twenty-seven ARGs frequently reported in the environment, and two integrons (intI1 and intI2) were detected using high-throughput quantitative PCR. The profile of bacterial community was determined by performing 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Meanwhile, crAssphage, a novel recently-discovered DNA bacteriophage, was employed for tracking the contribution of human fecal pollution to the prevalence of ARGs. Results showed that the targeted ARGs were detected widely in the sediments of Chaobai River. Relatively, the abundances of ARGs in downstream were higher than those in the upstream, likely suggesting a gradient impact of anthropogenic activities along the river. Remarkably, the int1 gene was correlated significantly with most of the ARGs and might be the key factor influencing the shaping of ARGs in the river sediments. However, no significant correlations were observed between the ARGs and selective pressure factors, including antibiotics and metals. Of the identified 1039 genera, Escherichia-Shigella, Bacteroides, Arcobacter, Dechloromonas and Pseudomonas were the top most abundant organisms. Microbial source tracking based on the crAssphage annotation suggested that human sewage might be one of the potential sources of resistance bacteria in the river sediments. The study can advance our knowledge about ARGs in the peri-urban river and provides a management reference for ARG pollution control.

Occurrence and risk assessment of multiclass endocrine disrupting compounds in an urban tropical river and a proposed risk management and monitoring framework

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are an emerging environmental concern and commonly occur as a mixture of compounds. The EDC mixture can be more toxic than any single compound. The present study analyses EDCs in surface water in the case of an urban tropical river, the Langat River, using the multiresidue analytical method of solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS). The Langat River is used as a drinking water source and is treated for Malaysian drinking water supply. A total of 14 EDCs i.e. five hormones, seven pharmaceuticals, one pesticide, and one plasticizer were detected. Caffeine was observed to be highest at 19.33 ng/L, followed by bisphenol A and diclofenac at 8.24 ng/L and 6.15 ng/L, respectively. Using a conservative risk quotient (RQ) method, EDCs were estimated for having negligible risks under acute and chronic exposure (RQ < 0.002 and RQ_mix < 0.003; RQ < 0.01), suggesting that there is currently an insignificant ecological risk related to these compounds in the Langat River riverine ecosystem. However, the presence of EDCs in surface water raises concerns about potential human exposure to EDCs via dietary intake i.e. food and drinking water supply. Although the ecological risks are considered negligible, these risks should not be neglected in terms of future prioritization and risk management. Improvements in water quality monitoring and risk assessment in water source protection are required to support a multibarrier approach to managing drinking water supply systems for safe water supply. The present study proposes a risk management and monitoring framework for EDCs to support the aforementioned multibarrier approach.

Characterization of an efficient chloramphenicol-mineralizing bacterial consortium

Obtaining efficient antibiotic-mineralizing consortium or pure cultures is a central issue for the deep elimination of antibiotic-contaminated environments. However, the antibiotic chloramphenicol (CAP) mineralizing consortium has not yet been reported. In this study, an efficient CAP-mineralizing consortium was successfully obtained with municipal activated sludge as the initial inoculum. This consortium is capable of aerobically subsisting on CAP as the sole carbon, nitrogen and energy sources and completely degrading 50 mg L^-1 CAP within 24 h. After 5 d, 71.50 ± 2.63% of CAP was mineralized and Cl^- recovery efficiency was 90.80 ± 7.34%. Interestingly, the CAP degradation efficiency obviously decreased to 18.22 ± 3.52% within 12 h with co-metabolic carbon source glucose. p-nitrobenzoic acid (p-NBA) was identified as an intermediate product during CAP biodegradation. The consortium is also able to utilize p-NBA as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources and almost completely degrade 25 mg L^-1p-NBA within 24 h. Microbial community analysis indicated that the dominant genera in the CAP-mineralizing consortium all belong to Proteobacteria (especially Sphingobium with the relative abundance over 63%), and most bacteria could degrade aromatics including p-NBA, suggesting these genera involved in the upstream and downstream pathway of CAP degradation. Although the acclimated consortium has been successively passaged 152 times, the microbial community structure and core genera were not obviously changed, which was consistent with the stable CAP degradation efficiency observed under different generations. This is the first report that the acclimated consortium is able to mineralize CAP through an oxidative pathway with p-NBA as an intermediate product.

Spatiotemporal distributions, source apportionment and potential risks of 15 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Qinzhou Bay, South China

In the present study, we investigated the spatiotemporal distributions and risks of 15 non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface water collected from Qinzhou Bay, China during the summer and winter of 2017. Our results showed that 14 out of the 15 target PPCPs were detected, and they had higher concentrations in the winter than the summer, except for N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide and indomethacin. Furthermore, N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide and caffeine respectively were the dominant contaminants in the summer and winter, with their highest concentrations up to 33.7 ng/L and 26.8 ng/L. Generally, concentrations of PPCPs were higher in the inner bay than outer bays, with untreated sewage and effluents of sewage treatment plants (STPs) as main pollution sources. The results of the risk assessment indicate that diclofenac may pose risks to aquatic organisms. Overall, our results provided occurrence and important insights into the risk management of PPCPs in Qinzhou Bay.

Possible involvement of Fas/FasL-dependent apoptotic pathway in α-bisabolol induced cardiotoxicity in zebrafish embryos

α-Bisabolol, an unsaturated monocyclic sesquiterpene alcohol, is a common ingredient in many pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). Despite being widely used, little is known about its toxic effects on organisms and aquatic environment. In this study, we investigated the developmental toxicity of α-Bisabolol, especially its effects on the cardiac development using zebrafish embryos as a model. Embryos at 4 h post-fertilization (hpf) were exposed to 10, 30, 50, 70, 90, and 100 μM α-Bisabolol until 144 hpf. α-Bisabolol caused phenotypic defects and the most striking one is the heart malformation. Treatment of α-Bisabolol significantly increased the cardiac malformation rate, the SV-BA distance, as well as the pericardial edema area, and reduced heart rate in a concentration-dependent manner. Notably, considerable numbers of apoptotic cells were mainly observed in the heart region of zebrafish treated with α-Bisabolol. Further study on α-Bisabolol induced apoptosis in the zebrafsh heart suggested that an activation of Fas/FasL-dependent apoptotic pathway. Taken together, our study investigated the cardiotoxicity of α-Bisabolol on zebrafish embryonic development and its underlying molecular mechanism, shedding light on the full understanding of α-Bisabolol toxicity on living organisms and its environmental impact.

Occurrence and fate of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in typical urban water of Beijing, China

The pollution of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) has been highlighted on a global scale because of their serious threats to the environment and human health. Typical urban water in cities with high population density are ideal mediums for the acquisition and spread of antibiotics and ARGs. The pollution level of a broad range of antibiotics and ARGs in hospital wastewater, groundwater and the Wenyu River, and their fates through three sewage treatment plants (STPs) were investigated in this study. The concentrations of the 11 detected antibiotics ranged from not detected (ND)-16800 ng L^-1 in diverse water samples from Beijing, and fluoroquinolones were detected at the highest concentration, especially in the hospital samples. The maximum concentrations of antibiotics in STPs and hospital were 1-3 orders of magnitude higher than those in the surface water from Wenyu River and groundwater. Good removal efficiencies by treatment processes were observed for tetracyclines and quinolones, and low removal efficiencies were observed for sulfonamides and macrolides. These results also revealed that the sulfonamide resistance genes (sul1, sul2) and macrolide resistance genes (ermB) were detected at the highest relative abundances (7.11 × 10^-2-1.18 × 10^-1) in the water bodies of Beijing. It was worth noting that sul1 abundance was the highest in groundwater samples. The relative abundance of most ARGs in STPs exhibited a declining trend in the order of influent > secondary effluents > effluent. However, the relative abundance of sul 1, sul 2 and tetC in the effluent was higher than those in the influent. The incomplete removal of antibiotics and ARGs in STPs poses a serious threat to the receiving rivers, and affects ecosystem security. Overall, our findings provide favorable support for a further investigation of the spread and risk of antibiotics and ARGs from diverse sources (e.g., STPs and hospitals) to the aquatic environment.

Characterization of antibiotic resistance genes in the sediments of an urban river revealed by comparative metagenomics analysis

The over-use of antibiotics causes growing concerns about human health risks induced by increasing rates of antimicrobial resistance. Riverine systems are considered generally as a natural reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). In this study, several methods including high-throughput sequencing-based metagenomics approach, statistical analysis and network analysis were applied jointly to characterize the wide-spectrum profile of ARGs in the sediments of an urban river in Beijing. Furthermore, contribution of human activities for the presence of ARGs was identified through comparative studies on the metagenomic profiling of ARGs between the river sediments and pristine niches (remote Antarctic soils and deep sea sediments). In total, 442 ARG subtypes belonging to 22 ARG types were detected in the human-impacted river sediments with an abundance range of 1.1 × 10^-1-8.1 × 10^-1 copy of ARG per copy of 16S-rRNA gene. The most abundant and diverse ARGs were commonly associated with antibiotics that have been extensively used in that area, likely indicating the spread of ARGs in river environments because of the selective pressure resulting from antibiotic use. As a whole, anthropogenic activities were the dominant contributor of major ARG types, for example, occupying 100% for sulfonamide-ARGs, 97% for beta-lactam-ARGs, 94% for aminoglycoside-ARGs and 64% for tetracycline-ARGs. This study provides insights into the role of human activities in accelerating the dissemination and proliferation of ARGs in urban river environment and draws attention to controlling the use and discharge of antibiotics for protection of public health.

Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in Surface Waters from the Inner City of Beijing, China: Influence of Hospitals and Reclaimed Water Irrigation

Surface waters from five districts in the inner city of Beijing were collected for analysis of 43 target compounds of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) to understand the spatial distribution patterns of different groups of PPCPs in the central urban area of a metropolitan city characterized by many hospitals and public parks. The total concentrations of PPCPs showed large spatial variability, ranging from 71.1 to 2400 ng/L. The x-ray contrast medium iopromide was the compound with the highest concentrations. Pharmaceuticals showed similar spatial distributional patterns with large hospitals. Positive correlations between iopromide and pharmaceuticals were observed. In contrast, in general there is no correlation between iopromide and personal care products. The concentrations of PPCPs in the landscape waters were not high but were characterized by high proportions of acidic, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with low or even negative removal efficiencies in the WWTP in Beijing, suggesting that the reclaimed water irrigation can be another source of PPCPs in surface waters in the inner city of Beijing.

Monitoring of the 17 EU Watch List contaminants of emerging concern in the Ave and the Sousa Rivers

The occurrence of micropollutants in the environment is a matter of high concern. Some regulations have been published in the last years and a Watch List of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) for European Union monitoring of surface water was launched in the Decision 2015/495, including three estrogens (estrone, E1; 17-β-estradiol, E2; and 17-α-ethinylestradiol, EE2), four pharmaceuticals (diclofenac and the macrolide antibiotics azithromycin, clarithromycin and erythromycin), an anti-oxidant (2,6-ditert-butyl-4-methylphenol, BHT), an UV filter (2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate, EHMC), some pesticides (methiocarb and the neonicotinoids imidacloprid, thiacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin and acetamiprid) and two herbicides (oxadiazon and triallate). This study provides the first spatial and seasonal monitoring campaign in the Ave and the Sousa Rivers for the all set of the 17 Watch List CECs (not reported yet for any country), in order to assess their occurrence, distribution, frequency and risk assessment. It also highlights the need of extend the study to other regions and environmental matrices to investigate the occurrence and possible sources of contamination of CECs, aiming to give insights for decision makers to define mitigation strategies for a more sustainable water policy.

Spatial and seasonal occurrence of micropollutants in four Portuguese rivers and a case study for fluorescence excitation-emission matrices

The European Union (EU) has recommended the monitoring of specific priority substances (PSs, Directive 2013/39) and some contaminants of emerging concern (CECs, Decision 2015/495) in surface waterbodies. The present study provides spatial distributions and temporal variations of a wide range of multi-class PSs and CECs in four stressed rivers in Portugal (Ave, Leça, Antuã, and Cértima). Thirteen micropollutants were found in all four rivers, including the priority pesticide isoproturon (up to 92 ng L^-1), various pharmaceuticals (up to 396 ng L^-1), and the UV-filter 2-ethyl-hexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC, up to 562 ng L^-1) identified in Decision 2015/495. The industrial priority compound perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) was found in three rivers (Antuã, Cértima, and Leça) below the method quantification limit, together with four pharmaceuticals not included in these EU guidelines. The already banned priority pesticide atrazine was detected in Ave, Antuã, and Leça (up to 41 ng L^-1) and simazine in Cértima and Leça (up to 26 ng L^-1). Acetamiprid and imidacloprid (included in Decision 2015/495) were only detected during the dry season in the Ave. Leça river was selected as a waterbody case study for assessment of fluorescence excitation-emission matrices (EEMs). These results matched the spatial distribution trend of micropollutants along the river, with stronger fluorescence response and higher concentrations being found downstream of industrial areas and urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Moreover, the fluorescence signature of surface water collected downstream of an urban WWTP aligned very well with that obtained for the respective WWTP effluent. Thus, actions are needed to preserve a good environmental status of these stressed European waterbodies.

'An investigation into the occurrence and removal of pharmaceuticals in Colombian wastewater'

In this work, the presence of 20 pharmaceuticals in wastewater from Colombia is investigated. Several widely consumed compounds have been detected in wastewater samples from different origins and geographical areas in Colombia. The studied pharmaceuticals included antibiotics, analgesics and anti-inflammatories, cholesterol lowering statin drugs, lipid regulators, and anti-depressants. The investigated samples were urban wastewater collected during one whole week before (influent) and after treatment (effluent) in the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) of Bogotá and Medellin. Raw wastewater from the Hospital of Tumaco and from the city of Florencia were also collected. Analyses performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) revealed that most of the target analytes were present in all the wastewater samples. The highest concentrations (up to 50 μg/L) corresponded to acetaminophen, but several antibiotics, such as azithromycin, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin, and antihypertensive drugs, such as losartan and valsartan, were commonly present in influent wastewater (IWW) at levels above 1 μg/L. Moreover, the treatment applied in WWTPs seemed to not efficiently remove the compounds under study, because most pharmaceuticals were also present in effluent wastewater (EWW) at concentrations close to those of the IWW. Special emphasis was made in this work on the quality of data reported, performing a detailed study of quality control (QC) samples. The analytical approach used -direct injection of 5-fold diluted samples without any additional treatment - is simpler and faster than the commonly applied solid phase extraction (SPE). The use of 12 isotope-labelled internal standards ensured the satisfactory correction of matrix effects for the corresponding analytes. For the remaining 8 compounds, no drastic matrix effects were observed, and only four compounds (cloxacillin, doxycycline, losartan, tetracycline) presented QC recoveries near or slightly below 60%, revealing ionization suppression, particularly in the IWW. Data on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals reported in this paper are the basis for current studies that aim to develop efficient systems for the degradation/removal of these compounds from the aquatic environment.

Pharmaceuticals residues in selected tropical surface water bodies from Selangor (Malaysia): Occurrence and potential risk assessments

This study investigated the occurrence of nine pharmaceuticals (amoxicillin, caffeine, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, dexamethasone, diclofenac, nitrofurazone, sulfamethoxazole, and triclosan) and to evaluate potential risks (human health and ecotoxicological) in Lui, Gombak and Selangor (Malaysia) rivers using commercial competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kit assays. Physicochemical properties of these rivers showed the surface samples belong to Class II of Malaysian National Water Quality Standards which requires conventional treatment before consumption. All the pharmaceuticals were detected in all three rivers except for triclosan, dexamethasone and diclofenac which were not detected in few of sampling locations in these three rivers. Highest pharmaceutical concentrations were detected in Gombak river in line of being as one of the most polluted rivers in Malaysia. Ciprofloxacin concentrations were detected in all the sampling locations with the highest at 299.88 ng/L. While triclosan, dexamethasone and diclofenac concentrations were not detected in a few of sampling locations in these three rivers. All these nine pharmaceuticals were within the levels reported previously in literature. Pharmaceutical production, wastewater treatment technologies and treated sewage effluent were found as the potential sources which can be related with pharmaceuticals occurrence in surface water samples. Potential human risk assessment showed low health risk except for ciprofloxacin and dexamethasone. Instead, ecotoxicological risk assessment indicated moderate risks were present for these rivers. Nevertheless, results confirmation using instrumental techniques is needed for higher degree of specificity. It is crucial to continuously monitor the surface water bodies for pharmaceuticals using a cost-effective prioritisation approach to assess sensitive sub-populations risk.

Application of advanced oxidation processes and toxicity assessment of transformation products

Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) are the techniques employed for oxidation of various organic contaminants in polluted water with the objective of making it suitable for human consumption like household and drinking purpose. AOPs use potent chemical oxidants to bring down the contaminant level in the water. In addition to this function, these processes are also capable to kills microbes (as disinfectant) and remove odor as well as improve taste of the drinking water. The non-photochemical AOPs methods include generation of hydroxyl radical in absence of light either by ozonation or through Fenton reaction. The photochemical AOPs methods use UV light along with H₂O₂, O₃ and/or Fe⁺² to generate reactive hydroxyl radical. Non-photochemical method is the commonly used whereas, photochemical method is used when conventional O₃ and H₂O₂ cannot completely oxidize organic pollutants. However, the choice of AOPs methods is depended upon the type of contaminant to be removed. AOPs cause loss of biological activity of the pollutant present in drinking water without generation of any toxicity. Conventional ozonation and AOPs can inactivate estrogenic compounds, antiviral compounds, antibiotics, and herbicides. However, the study of different AOPs methods for the treatment of drinking water has shown that oxidation of parent compound can also lead to the generation of a degradation/transformation product having biological activity/chemical toxicity similar to or different from the parent compound. Furthermore, an increased toxicity can also occur in AOPs treated drinking water. This review discusses various methods of AOPs, their merits, its application in drinking water treatment, the related issue of the evolution of toxicity in AOPs treated drinking water, biocatalyst, and analytical methods for identification of pollutants /transformed products and provides future directions to address such an issue.

Semi-continuous pharmaceutical and human tracer monitoring by POCIS sampling at the watershed-scale in an agricultural rural headwater river

Pharmaceutical monitoring (37 pharmaceuticals and 3 human tracers) was conducted in a headwater streams in southwest France, an area characterized by a low population density with an elderly population (30% > 60 years old) and extensive agriculture (cow cattle breeding). Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) were exposed for 14-day consecutive periods in 2016 at three sampling points. Three human wastewater tracers and 20 pharmaceuticals commonly used for human and/or cattle were quantified in headwaters. Succession of small Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), non-collective sanitation, discharges of untreated effluents as well as the river ability to dilute discharged wastewater, mainly explain the pharmaceuticals and human tracers concentrations. Pharmaceutical loads were time-dependent and were higher during cold season due to increase of pharmaceutical consumption. In contrast, better degradation and/or sorption onto river biofilms in warm season induced the decrease of headwater pharmaceutical content. The headwaters streams were contaminated by compounds found in other type of watershed, but β-blocker were the compounds quantified in higher concentration with frequencies of 100%, which was consistent with the elderly population living in the watershed. Specific compounds (sulfamerazine and sulfamethoxazole) used to cattle medical care were detected in waters, but at a low content.

Photodegradation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in water treatment using carbonaceous-TiO2 composites: A critical review of recent literature

The high concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP) that found in water in many locations are of concern. Among the available water treatment methods, heterogeneous photocatalysis using TiO₂ is an emerging and viable technology to overcome the occurrence of PPCP in natural and waste water. The combination of carbonaceous materials (e.g., activated carbon, carbon nanotubes and graphene nanosheets) with TiO₂, a recent development, gives significantly improved performance. In this article, we present a critical review of the development and fabrication of carbonaceous-TiO₂ and its application to PPCP removal including its influence on water chemistry, and the relevant operational parameters. Finally, we present an analysis of current priorities in the ongoing research and development of carbonaceous-TiO₂ for the photodegradation of PPCP.

Can white-rot fungi be a real wastewater treatment alternative for organic micropollutants removal? A review

Micropollutants are a diverse group of compounds that are detected at trace concentrations and may have a negative effect on the environment and/or human health. Most of them are unregulated contaminants, although they have raised a concern in the scientific and global community and future regulation might be written in the near future. Several approaches have been tested to remove micropollutants from wastewater streams. In this manuscript, a focus is placed in reactor biological treatments that use white-rot fungi. A critical review of white-rot fungal-based technologies for micropollutant removal from wastewater has been conducted, several capabilities and limitations of such approaches have been identified and a range of solutions to overcome most of the limitations have been reviewed and/or proposed. Overall, this review argues that white-rot fungal reactors could be an efficient technology to remove micropollutants from specific wastewater streams.

Impacts of irrigation water sources and geochemical conditions on vertical distribution of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in the vadose zone soils

Groundwater pollution by emerging contaminants, such as pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), has caused increasing concerns around the world. The vadose zone is an active zone where lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere interact. It is an important medium for PPCPs removal and entry into groundwater from irrigation using wastewater or polluted surface water. In the present study, the occurrence and distribution of eleven PPCPs in areas with a vadose zone (up to 16 m) was investigated from wastewater irrigated farmland, groundwater irrigated farmland and a seasonal river course in Beijing (China). Nine out of eleven PPCPs were detectable, and carbamazepine and caffeine had the highest detection frequencies, above 50%. The PPCPs were detectable deep in 16 m below ground level (bgl), and their concentrations ranged from <LOD (limit of detection) to 12.5 μg/kg. Compared to the vadose zone soils irrigated with groundwater, wastewater-irrigated vadose zone soils had significantly higher PPCPs detection frequencies and contamination levels, suggesting the important roles of irrigation water sources on PPCPs accumulation and transport in the vadose zone. Additionally, PPCPs vertical distribution presented a bell-shape pattern in the vadose zone soils with wastewater irrigation, peaking at 3-6 m bgl. Redundancy analysis (RDA) indicated a significant correlation between PPCPs concentrations in the vadose zone soils and geochemical variables, including available potassium and silt content. This study provides important evidence on the influential factors of PPCPs accumulation and migration in the vadose zone soils resulted from wastewater irrigation. The incomplete removal of PPCPs poses certain risks in subsurface environment, potentially challenging groundwater quality and drinking water safety.

Multimedia fate modeling and risk assessment of antibiotics in a water-scarce megacity

As a result of the widespread use of antibiotics, a large amount of excretion from human and animals containing antibiotic residues was discharged into the environment with wastewaters and manures, leading to potential adverse effects on ecosystem health. To understand the environmental fate of antibiotics, a dynamic level IV fugacity model was established here by introducing the novel process of nondiffusive wastewater irrigation from water to soil, and applied to a large-scale water-scarce region, the megacity Beijing. Furthermore, a Monte-Carlo based risk assessment approach was employed to evaluate the potential risks posed by antibiotics in water, sediment and soil, combined with the soil-water equilibrium partitioning method. Model validation, sensitivity and uncertainty analysis suggests that the fugacity model can successfully simulate the reported concentration data within an average difference of 0.2 logarithmic units. Results showed that more than one hundred tonnes of antibiotics were estimated to be discharged into the environment of Beijing in 2013, and, resulted in high antibiotics levels and posed high potential risks on the aquatic environment. On the other hand, although wastewater irrigation increased the antibiotics concentrations in soil and even dominated the total transfer fluxes, the overall risk levels of antibiotics in the soil were acceptable.

Characterization of antibiotics in a large-scale river system of China: Occurrence pattern, spatiotemporal distribution and environmental risks

Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in the river system have received growing attention in recent years due to their potential threat to aquatic ecosystems and public health. Recognizing the occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in river environment and assessing their ecological risks are of important precondition for proposing effective strategies to protect basin safety. In this study, a comprehensive investigation was conducted to identify the contamination and risk characteristics of antibiotics in the aquatic environment of Hai River system (HRS) which is the largest water system in northern China. To attain this objective, several tools and methods were considered on the data set of water and sediment samples collected in the past ten years. The occurrence pattern, concentration levels and spatiotemporal distribution of antibiotics in the HRS were characterized utilizing statistical and comparative analysis. Risk quotients were employed to assess the adverse ecology effects caused by single antibiotic or their mixtures. Screening tool with priority factor and accumulation growth factor was used auxiliarily to prioritize antibiotics that should be of highly concern. Results indicated that the occurrence frequencies and concentration levels of 16 representative antibiotics in HRS were generally higher than those reported in global waters. Most antibiotics showed significant seasonal and spatial variations. Comparatively speaking, sulfamethoxazole, norfloxacin, erythromycin and roxithromycin posed higher risks to aquatic organisms in the HRS individually, and the combination of tetracycline and enrofloxacin indicated synergistical actions. Overall, due to their potential risks, considerable levels or quick increasing trends, 13 antibiotics were identified as priority contaminants in the HRS and should be paid special attention to be strictly regulated in the future.

Targeted eco-pharmacovigilance for ketoprofen in the environment: Need, strategy and challenge

Implementing "targeted" eco-pharmacovigilance(EPV) which focuses on individual or specific pharmaceuticals on a prioritised basis is a feasible, economical and customized approach to reduce the environmental concentrations and risks of pharmaceuticals. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(NSAIDs) remaining in environment are a kind of priority hazard substances, due to a notable case that diclofenac residues caused the loss of more than 99% of vultures across the Indian sub-continent. Ketoprofen, as another widely used NSAID with comparable or even higher global consumption than diclofenac, in the environment has been shown to present a potential risk to non-target terrestrial and aquatic species. Based on the review of 85 articles reporting the analyses of ketoprofen residues in environment since 2010, we found that this NSAID frequently present in various environmental compartments around the world. Therefore, it is urgent to implement EPV targeting ketoprofen pollution. Here, we provide some recommendations for implementing the targeted EPV for ketoprofen, including: Closely monitoring ketoprofen in the natural environment; Reducing the residues of ketoprofen through source control; Encouraging urine source separation and treatment; Limiting the application of veterinary ketoprofen; Designing and constituting a framework system of targeted EPV. But some challenges, such as ambiguity in the accountability of the main bodies responsible for continued monitoring of ketoprofen residues, the lack of optimized urine source separation scenarios and procedure, the need for detailed design and application schemes of the framework system of targeted EPV, etc. should be addressed.

A review on environmental monitoring of water organic pollutants identified by EU guidelines

The contamination of fresh water is a global concern. The huge impact of natural and anthropogenic organic substances that are constantly released into the environment, demands a better knowledge of the chemical status of Earth's surface water. Water quality monitoring studies have been performed targeting different substances and/or classes of substances, in different regions of the world, using different types of sampling strategies and campaigns. This review article aims to gather the available dispersed information regarding the occurrence of priority substances (PSs) and contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) that must be monitored in Europe in surface water, according to the European Union Directive 2013/39/EU and the Watch List of Decision 2015/495/EU, respectively. Other specific organic pollutants not considered in these EU documents as substances of high concern, but with reported elevated frequency of detection at high concentrations, are also discussed. The search comprised worldwide publications from 2012, considering at least one of the following criteria: 4 sampling campaigns per year, wet and dry seasons, temporal and/or spatial monitoring of surface (river, estuarine, lake and/or coastal waters) and ground waters. The highest concentrations were found for: (i) the PSs atrazine, alachlor, trifluralin, heptachlor, hexachlorocyclohexane, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate; (ii) the CECs azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin, diclofenac, 17α-ethinylestradiol, imidacloprid and 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate; and (iii) other unregulated organic compounds (caffeine, naproxen, metolachlor, estriol, dimethoate, terbuthylazine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, ketoprofen, atenolol, Bisphenol A, metoprolol, carbofuran, malathion, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine and ofloxacin). Most frequent substances as well as those found at highest concentrations in different seasons and regions, together with available risk assessment data, may be useful to identify possible future PS candidates.

Source estimation of pharmaceuticals based on catchment population and in-stream attenuation in Yodo River watershed, Japan

Fifty-five pharmaceuticals were monitored at four rivers and inlets and/or outlets of three sewage treatment plants (STPs) in Yodo River watershed, Japan over 17 sampling events. Twenty-six quantified pharmaceuticals were classified by source and fate. The load per person (LPP) of nine pharmaceuticals, including six with observed mass balance in studied river stretch of <80%, was appreciably lower in river water (RW) than in the effluent (EF) of STPs (RW/EF <0.5), indicating that they were susceptible to in-stream attenuation in the study area, while the others were relatively conservative. The LPP of 12 pharmaceuticals in RW were within ±50% of that in EF. Because their mass loadings in rivers were correlated with human population in the catchment and most people use the sewer system, the major source of the 12 pharmaceuticals was considered to be STPs. The LPP of the three most labile pharmaceuticals in STPs (caffeine, theophylline, and acetaminophen) was >1.5 in RW/EF and <1.0 in RW/influent (IF) of STPs. Poorly treated sewage discharged from households without using the sewer system was considered to be influential source of the three pharmaceuticals. The LPP (RW/EF) of caffeine, a pharmaceutical contained in food and beverage, was considerably higher than that of the other two, and this is attributable to untreated gray water discharged at households using the night-soil treatment system. The LPP of two veterinary drugs (sulfamonomethoxine and lincomycin) were >1.5 (RW/EF) and >1.0 (RW/IF). Their mass loadings in rivers showed a positive correlation with swine population in the catchment, although sulfamonomethoxine is equally used in both cattle and swine farming. This was attributable to application of cattle excrement as manure, and lability of sulfamonomethoxine during composting processes. The major source of the two veterinary drugs was considered to be on-site treatment facilities of swine urine.

Study of pharmaceuticals in surface and wastewater from Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico: Occurrence and environmental risk assessment

The present work describes the first known study to date on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in surface water and wastewater of Cuernavaca, the capital of the state of Morelos (México). Selected pharmaceuticals (a total of 35) were extracted from the collected water samples with a generic solid phase extraction (SPE) protocol and determined in the sample extracts by means of high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). A screening level risk assessment combining the measured environmental concentrations (MECs) with dose-response data based on predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) was also applied to estimate Hazard Quotients (HQs) for the pharmaceuticals detected in the investigated area. A total of twelve pharmaceuticals were found in the water samples analyzed, with detection frequencies above 78% and in most cases of 100%. Overall, the most abundant pharmaceuticals in surface water were the analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs naproxen (732-4880ng/L), acetaminophen (354-4460ng/L), and diclofenac (258-1398ng/L), and the lipid regulator bezafibrate (286-2100ng/L). On the contrary, other compounds like the β-blocker atenolol and the psychiatric drug carbamazepine were found at only a few ng or tens of ng per liter in the Apatlaco River. Despite the fact that some of the most abundant compounds showed good removal (>97%) during wastewater treatment, concentrations downstream the WWTP were only slightly lower than upstream. This indicates the existence of additional inputs of untreated wastewater into the river. Based on the obtained HQ-values, the concentrations of ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole, diclofenac and naproxen present in the river could pose a high toxicity risk for the aquatic ecosystem. These findings highlight these pharmaceuticals as relevant organic contaminants in the area of study and the need to further monitor them in order to adopt appropriate measures to safeguard the ecosystem, and eventually human health.

Implementing ecopharmacovigilance (EPV) from a pharmacy perspective: A focus on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Environmental experts have made great efforts to control pharmaceutical pollution. However, the control of emerged environmental problems caused by medicines should draw more attention of pharmacy and pharmacovigilance researchers. Ecopharmacovigilance (EPV) as a kind of pharmacovigilance for the environment is recognized worldwide as crucial to minimize the environmental risk of pharmaceutical pollutants. But continuing to treat the pollution of pharmaceuticals as a group of substances instead of targeting individual pharmaceuticals on a prioritized basis will lead to a significant waste of resources. Considering vulture population decline caused by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) residues, we presented a global-scale analysis of 139 reports of NSAIDs occurrence across 29 countries, in order to provide a specific context for implementing EPV. We found a heavy regional bias toward research in Europe, Asia and America. The top 5 most frequently studied NSAIDs included ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, acetaminophen and ketoprofen. The profile of NSAIDs was dominated by acetaminophen in wastewater influents and effluents. Ibuprofen was the most abundant NSAID in surface water. Only 9 NSAIDs were reported in groundwater samples. And majority of NSAIDs were detected in solid matrices at below 1μg/g except for ketoprofen, diclofenac and ibuprofen. From a pharmacy perspective, we get some implication and propose some management practice options for EPV implementation. These include: Further popularizing and applying the concept of EPV, together with developing relevant regulatory guidance, is necessary; More attention should be paid to how to implement EPV for the pollution control of older established drugs; Triggering "a dynamic watch-list mechanism" in conjunction with "source control"; Implementing targeted sewage treatment technologies and strengthening multidisciplinary collaboration; Pharmaceutical levels in aquatic organisms as biological indicators for monitoring pharmaceutical pollution within the water environment; Upgrading drinking water treatment plants with the aim of removing pharmaceutical residues; Paying more attention to EPV for pharmaceuticals in solid matrices.

Shadow prices of emerging pollutants in wastewater treatment plants: Quantification of environmental externalities

Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are designed to remove mainly the organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds and suspended solids from wastewater but are not capable of removing chemicals of human origin, such as pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs). The presence of PPCPs in wastewater has environmental effects on the water bodies receiving the WWTP effluents and renders the effluent as unsuitable as a nonconventional water source. Considering PPCPs as non-desirable outputs, the shadow prices methodology has been implemented using the output distance function to measure the environmental benefits of removing five PPCPs (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen, carbamazepine and trimethoprim) from WWTP effluents discharged to three different ecosystems (wetland, river and sea). Acetaminophen and ibuprofen show the highest shadow prices of the sample for wetland areas. Their values are 128.2 and 11.0 €/mg respectively. These results represent a proxy in monetary terms of the environmental benefit achieved from avoiding the discharge of these PPCPs in wetlands. These results suggest which PPCPs are urgent to remove from wastewater and which ecosystems are most vulnerable to their presence. The findings of this study will be useful for the plant managers in order to make decisions about prioritization in the removal of different pollutants.