Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition

Exercise training modifies the whole blood DNA methylation profile in middle-aged and older women

This is a longitudinal single-arm clinical trial aimed to investigate whether exercise training would modify the whole blood methylation profile in healthy women. A total of 45 subjects were engaged in an exercise training protocol during a 14-wk follow up, consisting of aerobic cardiorespiratory and muscle strength exercises. Subjects were evaluated at baseline (PRE), after 7 wk of exercise training (POST 7), and after 14 wk of exercise training (POST 14). Functional primary outcomes included anthropometric, blood pressure, biochemical measurements, physical tests, and global health assessments. Blood samples were collected at each time point to determine the methylation profile using a DNA methylation array technique screening up to 850k different sites. Exercise training decreased blood pressure and triglyceride levels and enhanced physical performance, including upper- and lower-body maximum strength. Moreover, exercise training improved markers of quality of life. In the array analysis, 14 wk of exercise training changed the methylation of more than 800 sites. Across these differentially methylated sites, we found that differentially methylated sites in the promoter region were more hypermethylated after exercise training, suggesting that this hypermethylation process may affect the transcription process. When inputting the differentially methylated sites in pathway analysis, we found several metabolic pathways, including AMPK signaling, TGF-β signaling, and insulin signaling. This study demonstrates that exercise training promotes a robust change in the whole blood methylation profile and provides new insights into the key regulators of exercise-induced benefits.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have shown that exercise training lowers blood pressure and triglyceride levels, improves physical performance, and improves quality of life in middle-aged and elderly women. Regarding epigenetic data, we noticed that more than 800 sites are differentially methylated in whole blood after physical training. We emphasize that the differentially methylated sites in the promoter region are more hypermethylated after physical training. In addition, this study shows that key members of metabolic pathways, including AMPK signaling, TGF-β signaling, and insulin signaling, are among the genes hypermethylated after physical exercise in older women.

Outrunning a bad diet: interactions between exercise and a Western-style diet for adolescent mental health, metabolism and microbes

Adolescence is a period of biological, psychological and social changes, and the peak time for the emergence of mental health problems. During this life stage, brain plasticity including hippocampal neurogenesis is increased, which is crucial for cognitive functions and regulation of emotional responses. The hippocampus is especially susceptible to environmental and lifestyle influences, mediated by changes in physiological systems, resulting in enhanced brain plasticity but also an elevated risk for developing mental health problems. Indeed, adolescence is accompanied by increased activation of the maturing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, sensitivity to metabolic changes due to increased nutritional needs and hormonal changes, and gut microbiota maturation. Importantly, dietary habits and levels of physical activity significantly impact these systems. In this review, the interactions between exercise and Western-style diets, which are high in fat and sugar, on adolescent stress susceptibility, metabolism and the gut microbiota are explored. We provide an overview of current knowledge on implications of these interactions for hippocampal function and adolescent mental health, and speculate on potential mechanisms which require further investigation.

Exercise modifies hypothalamic connectivity and brain functional networks in women after bariatric surgery: a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a disease that may involve disrupted connectivity of brain networks. Bariatric surgery is an effective treatment for obesity, and the positive effects on obesity-related conditions may be enhanced by exercise. Herein, we aimed to investigate the possible synergistic effects of Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass (RYGB) and exercise training on brain functional networks.

METHODS

Thirty women eligible for bariatric surgery were randomly assigned to a Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB: n = 15, age = 41.0 ± 7.3 years) or RYGB plus Exercise Training (RYGB + ET: n = 15, age = 41.9 ± 7.2 years). Clinical, laboratory, and brain functional connectivity parameters were assessed at baseline, and 3 (POST3) and 9 months (POST9) after surgery. The 6-month, three-times-a-week, exercise intervention (resistance plus aerobic exercise) was initiated 3 months post-surgery (for RYGB + ET).

RESULTS

Exercise superimposed on bariatric surgery (RYGB + ET) increased connectivity between hypothalamus and sensorial regions (seed-to-voxel analyses of hypothalamic connectivity), and decreased default mode network (DMN) and posterior salience (pSAL) network connectivity (ROI-to-ROI analyses of brain networks connectivity) when compared to RYGB alone (all p-FDR < 0.05). Increases in basal ganglia (BG) network connectivity were only observed in the exercised training group (within-group analyses).

CONCLUSION

Exercise training is an important component in the management of post-bariatric patients and may improve the hypothalamic connectivity and brain functional networks that are involved in controlling food intake.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrial.gov: NCT02441361.

Distinct effect of exercise modes on mood-related behavior in mice

Exercise can afford several benefits to combat mood disorders in both rodents and humans. Engagement in various physical activities upregulates levels of neurotrophic factors in several brain regions and improves mental health. However, the type of exercise that regulates mood and the underlying mechanisms in the brain remain elusive. Herein, we performed two distinct types of exercise and RNA sequencing analyses to investigate the effect of exercise on mood-related behaviors and explain the distinct patterns of gene expression. Specifically, resistance exercise exhibited reduced immobility time in the forced swim test when compared with both no exercise and treadmill exercise (in the aerobic training [AT] group). Interestingly, anxiety-like behaviors in the open field and nest-building tests were ameliorated in the AT group when compared with those in the control group; however, this was not observed in the RT group. To elucidate the mechanism underlying these different behavioral changes caused by distinct exercise types, we examined the shift in the gene expression pattern in the hippocampus, a brain region that plays a critical role in regulating mood. We discovered that 38 and 40 genes were altered in the AT and RT groups, respectively, compared with the control group. Both exercises regulated 16 common genes. Compared with the control group, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was enriched in the AT group and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and neurotrophin signaling pathways were enriched in the RT group, as determined by bioinformatics pathway analysis. PCR results revealed that Cebpβ expression was increased in AT group, and Dcx expression was upregulated in both groups. Our findings indicate that different exercise types may exert substantially distinct effects on mood-like behaviors. Accordingly, appropriate types of exercise can be undertaken based on the mood disorder to be regulated.

TREM2 mediates physical exercise-promoted neural functional recovery in rats with ischemic stroke via microglia-promoted white matter repair

BACKGROUND

The repair of white matter injury is of significant importance for functional recovery after ischemic stroke, and the up-regulation of triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) after ischemic stroke is neuroprotective and implicated in remyelination. However, the lack of effective therapies calls for the need to investigate the regenerative process of remyelination and the role of rehabilitation therapy. This study sought to investigate whether and how moderate physical exercise (PE) promotes oligodendrogenesis and remyelination in rats with transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO).

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats (weighing 250-280 g) were subjected to tMCAO. AAV-shRNA was injected into the lateral ventricle to silence the Trem2 gene before the operation. The rats in the physical exercise group started electric running cage training at 48 h after the operation. The Morris water maze and novel object recognition test were used to evaluate cognitive function. Luxol fast blue staining, diffusion tensor imaging, and electron microscopy were used to observe myelin injury and repair. Immunofluorescence staining was applied to observe the proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). Expression of key molecules were detected using immunofluorescence staining, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively.

RESULTS

PE exerted neuroprotective efects by modulating microglial state, promoting remyelination and recovery of neurological function of rats over 35 d after stroke, while silencing Trem2 expression in rats suppressed the aforementioned effects promoted by PE. In addition, by leveraging the activin-A neutralizing antibody, we found a direct beneficial effect of PE on microglia-derived activin-A and its subsequent role on oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination mediated by the activin-A/Acvr axis.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study reveals a novel regenerative role of PE in white matter injury after stroke, which is mediated by upregulation of TREM2 and microglia-derived factor for oligodendrocytes regeneration. PE is an effective therapeutic approach for improving white matter integrity and alleviating neurological function deficits after ischemic stroke.

Stable Expression of dmiR-283 in the Brain Promises Positive Effects in Endurance Exercise on Sleep-Wake Behavior in Aging Drosophila

Sleep-wake stability is imbalanced with natural aging, and microRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and aging; however, the biological functions of miRNAs in regulating aging-related sleep-wake behavior remain unexplored. This study varied the expression pattern of dmiR-283 in Drosophila and the result showed that the aging decline in sleep-wake behavior was caused by the accumulation of brain dmiR-283 expression, whereas the core clock genes cwo and Notch signaling pathway might be suppressed, which regulate the aging process. In addition, to identify exercise intervention programs of Drosophila that promote healthy aging, mir-283^SP/+ and Pdf > mir-283^SP flies were driven to perform endurance exercise for a duration of 3 weeks starting at 10 and 30 days, respectively. The results showed that exercise starting in youth leads to an enhanced amplitude of sleep-wake rhythms, stable periods, increased activity frequency upon awakening, and the suppression of aging brain dmiR-283 expression in mir-283^SP/+ middle-aged flies. Conversely, exercise performed when the brain dmiR-283 reached a certain accumulation level showed ineffective or negative effects. In conclusion, the accumulation of dmiR-283 expression in the brain induced an age-dependent decline in sleep-wake behavior. Endurance exercise commencing in youth counteracts the increase in dmiR-283 in the aging brain, which ameliorates the deterioration of sleep-wake behavior during aging.

Students from a Public School in the South of Chile with Better Physical Fitness Markers Have Higher Performance in Executive Functions Tests-Cross-Sectional Study

In the past few years, the level of physical fitness in children has decreased globally. According to the SIMCE test carried out in 2015, 45% of 8th year students in Chile were overweight. Moreover, international studies have shown that being overweight is associated with the development of chronic illnesses, negatively affecting cognitive mechanisms and processes. Nevertheless, there is little to no evidence that analyzes the relationship between physical fitness and executive functions in students, at a national level. The aim was to analyze the relationship between cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and motor fitness, and performance in an executive functions test, in students from a public school in the south of Chile. A qualitative, descriptive -correlational, non-experimental, and cross-sectional approach was used. In total, 100 students between 9 and 12 and 11 months of age from a public school in the south of Chile completed the physical fitness assessments through the ALPHA fitness test, and 81 students completed the executive function assessments through the ENFEN test. It was evidenced that students who achieved a longer duration of time and a later stage in the Course Navette test, more centimeters in the standing broad jump (SBJ) test, and a shorter duration in the 4 × 10 shuttle run obtained a better score in the gray trail test. Additionally, students who presented a stronger dominant handgrip scored higher in the colored trail tests. We conclude that students who show a higher level of physical fitness also present a better development of executive functions such as working memory and inhibitory control. In addition, these results suggest physical condition is a factor to consider for better cognitive and school performance.

Circadian disruption and sleep disorders in neurodegeneration

Disruptions of circadian rhythms and sleep cycles are common among neurodegenerative diseases and can occur at multiple levels. Accumulating evidence reveals a bidirectional relationship between disruptions of circadian rhythms and sleep cycles and neurodegenerative diseases. Circadian disruption and sleep disorders aggravate neurodegeneration and neurodegenerative diseases can in turn disrupt circadian rhythms and sleep. Importantly, circadian disruption and various sleep disorders can increase the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, harnessing the circadian biology findings from preclinical and translational research in neurodegenerative diseases is of importance for reducing risk of neurodegeneration and improving symptoms and quality of life of individuals with neurodegenerative disorders via approaches that normalize circadian in the context of precision medicine. In this review, we discuss the implications of circadian disruption and sleep disorders in neurodegenerative diseases by summarizing evidence from both human and animal studies, focusing on the bidirectional links of sleep and circadian rhythms with prevalent forms of neurodegeneration. These findings provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and suggest a promising role of circadian-based interventions.

Do executive functions predict physical activity behavior? A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Executive functions (EFs) are important determinants of health behaviors. In the present study, a meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship between EFs and physical activity (PA) behavior.

METHODS

Systematic searches were carried out in PsycInfo, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus databases throughout April 2021. Prospective empirical studies conducted with general healthy populations across the lifespan, which reported the relationship between baseline EFs and later PA behavior were selected.

RESULTS

Eight studies were found eligible. Results of the multilevel meta-analysis revealed a small but significant total effect size for EFs on PA behavior of z = 0.12. High heterogeneity was observed among studies. When potential moderators were tested, residual heterogeneity remained significant and the effects of the moderators were not significant. The effect size dropped when accounted for publication bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite limitations, the study provided evidence for EFs' determinant role on PA behavior. More research is however encouraged to inform PA promotion programs that are well-prepared for individual differences in EFs.

Acute high-intensity interval exercise is less pro-oxidative/thrombotic compared to isovolumic moderate-intensity steady-state exercise

While high-intensity interval training (HIIT) has emerged as a more time-efficient alternative to moderate-intensity steady-state exercise (MISS), the impact on systemic free radical formation and link to activated coagulation remains unknown. We recruited sixteen healthy males aged 21 ± 3 y who performed incremental cycle ergometry to determine peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text] _PEAK). Participants were randomly assigned single blind to two separate groups (MISS: n = 8; HIIT: n = 8) matched for [Formula: see text] _PEAK. HIIT participants completed five exercise cycles, each consisting of 3 min at 80%[Formula: see text] _PEAK alternating with 3 min at 40% [Formula: see text] _PEAK, whereas MISS participants performed an isovolumic bout of 30 min at 60% [Formula: see text] _PEAK. Cephalic venous blood was assayed for ascorbate free radical (A^•-, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy) and clot fractal dimension (d_f, rheometry) at rest every hour over a 6-h period to determine critical difference (CD) and before/after submaximal/peak exercise. Submaximal MISS increased A^{• -} and d_f to a greater extent compared to HIIT (P = 0.039 to 0.057) although elevations generally fell within CD boundaries (54.2% and 5.5% respectively). No further elevations were observed during peak exercise (P = 0.508 to 0.827) and no relationships were observed between A^•- and d_f (r = 0.435 to - 0.121, P = 0.092 to 0.655). Collectively, these findings suggest that HIIT is less pro-oxidative/thrombotic compared to more traditional MISS, advocating its prescription in patients given the potential for superior vascular adaptive benefit.

The neurology of space flight; How does space flight effect the human nervous system?

RATIONALE AND HYPOTHESIS

Advancements in technology, human adaptability, and funding have increased space exploration and in turn commercial spaceflight. Corporations such as Space X and Blue Origin are exploring methods to make space tourism possible. This could lead to an increase in the number of patients presenting with neurological diseases associated with spaceflight. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of spaceflight stressors is required to manage neurological disease in high-risk individuals.

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to describe the neurological effects of spaceflight and to assess countermeasures such as pre-flight prophylaxis, training, and possible therapeutics to reduce long-term effects.

METHODOLOGY

A literature search was performed for experimental studies conducted in astronauts and in animal models that simulated the space environment. Many studies, however, only discussed these with scientific reasoning and did not include any experimental methods. Relevant studies were identified through searching research databases such as PubMed and Google Scholar. No inclusion or exclusion criteria were used.

FINDINGS

Analysis of these studies provided a holistic understanding of the acute and chronic neurological changes that occur during space flight. Astronauts are exposed to hazards that include microgravity, cosmic radiation, hypercapnia, isolation, confinement and disrupted circadian rhythms. Microgravity, the absence of a gravitational force, is linked to disturbances in the vestibular system, intracranial and intraocular pressures. Furthermore, microgravity affects near field vision as part of the spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome. Exposure to cosmic radiation can increase the risk of neurodegenerative conditions and malignancies. It is estimated that cosmic radiation has significantly higher ionising capabilities than the ionising radiation used in medicine. Space travel also has potential benefits to the nervous system, including psychological development and effects on learning and memory. Future work needs to focus on how we can compare a current astronaut to a future space tourist. Potentially the physiological and psychological stresses of space flight might lead to neurological complications in future space travellers that do not have the physiological reserve of current astronauts.

Factors influencing seniors' willingness to pay intention for exercise in the civil sports and recreation centers

Background

The increasing trend for an older population is a phenomenon that is well recognized around the world. The percentage of senior citizens participating in sports, recreation, and leisure activities is also increasing in order to sustain a healthier society. As long as seniors recognize the importance and benefits of keeping healthy, they would prefer to be active in various sports and fitness activities. The seniors could engage in making decisions about their own health by exercising regularly and by encouraging their similar-age peers. The civil sports and recreation centers (CSRCs) in Taiwan have adopted operating transfer (OT) and are located mainly in metropolitan areas, with programs consisting of indoor sports offering people daily exercise. The major aims of the CSRC are to keep the citizens in good health and not to be the city government's financial burden. The extant literature examines the determinants of general consumer behavior, neglecting studies on older adults. This study aims to explore the factors influencing seniors' willingness to pay (WTP) more for exercise in CSRCs outside of free hours.

Methods

This mixed-method study consists of quantitative and qualitative analyses. For the quantitative component, we invited five experts in the sports industry from the industry and academia to evaluate the validity of the questionnaire. A questionnaire consisting of motivation, exercise involvement, and constraint constructs in the quantitative method was administered to 193 older adults in CSRCs. The collected data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, t-test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and structural equation model (SEM).

Results

Empirical results indicate that WTP in groups of people aged 75-79, 70-74, and 65-69 years is higher than in the group of people aged 85 years and above. Exercise involvement and motivation had more of a positive impact on seniors' WTP.

Discussions

Developing a regular exercise habits and having social interaction in exercise courses drive female seniors to pay more for body health. The results of this study provide managers of CSRCs with decision-making recommendations: (1) initiate entry-level sports courses, such as quick chair exercise, to cultivate among seniors the habit of exercise; (2) motivate seniors to participate in sports with other seniors in order to enhance their social activity and raise their WTP more for sports consumption outside of free scheduled periods; and (3) recruit seniors as exercise coaches or personal trainers to pass their experiences with other people of their age. In addition to expanding seniors' social connections, it encourages peers to exercise. Managerial implications and future research are also discussed.

Conclusion

This study contributes to exploring the determinants of seniors' WTP intention. Motivation and exercise involvement had a significantly positive impact on seniors' WTP intention.

Exercising is good for the brain but exercising outside is potentially better

It is well known that exercise increases cognitive function. However, the environment in which the exercise is performed may be just as important as the exercise itself. Time spent in natural outdoor environments has been found to lead to increases in cognition similar to those resulting from acute exercise. Therefore, the benefits of both exercise and nature exposure suggest an additive impact on brain function when both factors are combined. This raises the question: what is the interaction between acute exercise and environment on cognition? We answered this question using electroencephalography to probe cognitive function using the oddball task before and after brief indoor and outdoor walks on 30 participants (average 21 years old, 95% CI [20, 22]). Our results demonstrate improved performance and an increase in the amplitude of the P300, an event-related neural response commonly associated with attention and working memory, following a 15-min walk outside; a result not seen following a 15-min walk inside. Importantly, this finding indicates that the environment may play a more substantial role in increasing cognitive function such as attention than exercise, at least in terms of acute exercise (i.e., a brief walk). With the world's growing urbanization and the associated increase in sedentary time indoors, a deeper understanding of how these factors interact and influence cognition may be critical to combat adverse health effects.

Orienteering experts report more proficient spatial processing and memory across adulthood

The closest surrogate to hunter-gather activity is the sport of orienteering, which naturally and simultaneously combines high-intensity interval exercise with navigation. Although human cognition can be improved across the lifespan through exercise and cognitive training, interventions like orienteering may be especially effective because they resemble activities engaged in by prehistoric humans during evolution. The present study tested whether orienteering experts have better hippocampal-dependent cognitive function than active, non-orienteering controls. One-hundred and fifty-eight healthy adults between the ages of 18 and 87 years old with varying experience in orienteering (none, intermediate, advanced, elite) reported on their spatial processing, spatial memory and episodic memory using the Navigational Strategy Questionnaire and the Survey of Autobiographical Memory. Orienteering experts reported greater use of allocentric and egocentric spatial processing and better spatial memory than controls. In contrast, episodic memory was not associated with orienteering expertise. Notably, the significant effects of orienteering on spatial cognition remained even after controlling for age, sex, and physical activity, suggesting that orienteering may be an effective intervention to prevent age-related cognitive decline in spatial navigation and memory.

The Endocannabinoid System and Physical Exercise

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is involved in various processes, including brain plasticity, learning and memory, neuronal development, nociception, inflammation, appetite regulation, digestion, metabolism, energy balance, motility, and regulation of stress and emotions. Physical exercise (PE) is considered a valuable non-pharmacological therapy that is an immediately available and cost-effective method with a lot of health benefits, one of them being the activation of the endogenous cannabinoids. Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are generated as a response to high-intensity activities and can act as short-term circuit breakers, generating antinociceptive responses for a short and variable period of time. A runner's high is an ephemeral feeling some sport practitioners experience during endurance activities, such as running. The release of eCBs during sustained physical exercise appears to be involved in triggering this phenomenon. The last decades have been characterized by an increased interest in this emotional state induced by exercise, as it is believed to alleviate pain, induce mild sedation, increase euphoric levels, and have anxiolytic effects. This review provides information about the current state of knowledge about endocannabinoids and physical effort and also an overview of the studies published in the specialized literature about this subject.

Loneliness and Death Anxiety: Differences Between Active and Bedridden Older Men

Physical activity might be impact on death anxiety and loneliness in adult people. Accordingly, the present study examined loneliness and death anxiety in two groups of active and bedridden older men living in nursing homes in Yazd. This descriptive-analytical and cross-sectional study was conducted on older men living in nursing homes in Yazd, Iran. The participants were 148 older men who were randomly selected. The instruments used to collect the data were the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA-S) and the Death Anxiety Scale One-way ANOVA was also used. The findings indicated the active older men scored lower in loneliness and death compared to the bedridden older men. Loneliness and death anxiety are important psychological components that are more common in inactive older than their active counterparts. Therefore, physical activity in old age can improve older adults' quality of life.

Effects of Physical Activity on Inhibitory Function in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to systematically evaluate the effect of physical activity (PA) on inhibitory function in children with ADHD. Experimental studies on the effect of PA on the inhibitory function of children with ADHD were retrieved. The data were obtained from PubMed, The Cochrane Library, Web of Science, EBSCO (MEDLINE, APA Psyclnfo, ERIC), Embase, Scopus, and ProQuest. The search period was from the date of inception of the respective databases to 4 May 2022, and Reviewer Manager software (version 5.3) was used for analysis. Eleven articles and 713 samples were included in the meta-analysis. Results revealed that PA can significantly improve the inhibitory function of children with ADHD (SMD = 0.78, 95% CI: 0.45−1.10, p < 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed that the effectiveness of PA as an intervention in improving the inhibitory function of children with ADHD was moderated by the frequency, intensity, duration, type, and length of intervention. Based on the findings, PA can effectively improve interference suppression inhibitory function in children with ADHD. Longitudinal open-skill exercise for 60 min or more, two times/week has the best effect on improving inhibitory function in children with ADHD.

The association between muscle strength and executive function in children and adolescents: Based on survey evidence in rural areas of China

Background

In recent years, muscle strength in children and adolescents has continued to decline, especially in rural areas. Executive function as a higher function of the brain, is closely related to the future achievement of children and adolescents. For this reason, this study analyzed the correlation between muscle strength and executive function in children and adolescents in rural areas of China to better promote the development of muscle strength and executive function.

Methods

Demographic factors, muscle strength, and executive function were tested in 1,335 children and adolescents in rural China using a three-stage stratified whole-group sampling method. One-way ANOVA and chi-square test were used to compare the differences in executive function among children and adolescents with different muscle strengths. Multiple linear regression analysis and logistic regression analysis were used to analyze the association that exists between muscle strength and executive function.

Results

When comparing the inconsistently, congruent, 1back, 2back, conversion, size parity, and cognitive flexibility response times of children and adolescents with different muscle strength indexes in rural China, the differences were statistically significant (F = 46.592, 45.610, 10.809, 32.068, 24.095, 19.260, 11.501, p < 0.001). Logistic regression analysis was performed using children and adolescents with muscle strength index >P80 as the control group. The results showed that the risk of 1back dysfunction was higher (OR = 1.764, 95% CI:1.094, 2.843) in children and adolescents with muscle strength index <P20 (p < 0.05). The risk of 2back dysfunction was higher in children and adolescents with a muscle strength index <P20 (OR = 2.129, 95% CI:1.329, 3.410) (p < 0.01). Compared with children and adolescents with muscle strength index >P80. The muscle strength index <P20 group had a higher risk of cognitive flexibility dysfunction (OR = 1.820, 95% CI:1.111, 2.982) (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

There is a association between muscle strength and executive function in children and adolescents in rural areas of China. Those with higher muscle strength have shorter executive function reaction times and are at lower risk of developing executive dysfunction. Future measures should be taken to improve muscle strength and executive function levels in children and adolescents in rural areas to promote healthy physical and mental development.

Prison and the brain

Imprisonment is a common punishment in most countries. Goals of imprisonment are often not only retribution, but also prevention. Specific prevention aims to reduce the risk of reoffending of the imprisoned offender. The question is whether the goals of retribution and specific prevention contradict each other. Retribution is not only expressed in taking away ones freedom, but also in the prison environment itself. Prisoners live in a sober regime, with a minimal amount of autonomy. There are few cognitive challenges, meaningful social interaction is reduced significantly, and many prisoners are highly sedentary. In other words, prison can be viewed as an impoverished environment. In the last few decades, much knowledge has been gained on the influence of enriched versus impoverished environment on the brain. In this chapter, we discuss the influence of the impoverished prison environment on brain functions of prisoners, with an emphasis on self-regulation and executive functions, since these functions are (1) often impaired in offenders, (2) highly sensitive to environmental influences, and (3) crucial for successful resocialization. We conclude this chapter by discussing possibilities for and potential effects of enriching prison environments.

Effects of APOEɛ4 genotype on age-associated change in cognitive functions among Japanese middle-aged and older adults: A 20-year follow-up study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Carriers of the apolipoprotein E ε4 allele (APOEɛ4) have an increased risk of developing dementia (e.g., Alzheimer's disease). However, it is less clear whether the APOEɛ4 might also be involved in cognitive aging among the non-clinical population of older adults. While some studies have suggested that the APOEɛ4 is related to accelerated cognitive decline in the normal aging process, others have failed to provide compelling evidence of such an impact. Notably, these discrepancies may depend on methodological shortcomings, including short time spans, few assessments, and small sample sizes. The present study overcomes the above limitations and aims to clarify the impact of the APOEɛ4 genotype on long-term longitudinal changes in cognitive functions in middle-aged and older adults in Japan.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The data were retrieved from the National Institute for Longevity Sciences-Longitudinal Study of Aging (NILS-LSA) survey (N = 1832; 40 to 79 years of age at baseline). The participants were tested over nine waves covering a period of approximately 20 years. Latent Growth Curve (LGC) modeling was employed to test the impact of the interaction between APOEɛ4 status and age on several cognitive functions. Four tests of the WAIS-R were administered: Information, Similarities, Picture completion, and Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). The results showed that the APOEɛ4 carriers experienced a more pronounced decline in the DSST (p = 0.001) and Similarities (p = 0.022) tests. A similar tendency was found in the Information test (p = 0.034). By contrast, no effect was found in the Picture completion test (p = 0.563).

CONCLUSIONS

APOEɛ4 carriers seem to exhibit a steeper cognitive decline, which becomes apparent in old age. This effect is more robust in fluid cognitive skills (DSST) than crystallized cognitive skills (Information and Similarities). Overall, the APOEɛ4 genotype may be a significant risk factor in normal (i.e., non-clinical) cognitive aging.

The impact of moderate physical activity and student interaction on retention at a community college

Objective: The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of a voluntary walking program that combined moderate physical activity and student interaction on student retention at a community college. Methods: A sample of 69 students at a suburban community college voluntarily joined a walking program and logged the number of minutes they walked and the number of people they spoke to each day. Using a Chi-Squared Test of Independence, the study sample was compared to a matched sample of nonparticipating students. Results: There was a significant difference in these groups relative to retention. A Fisher's Exact Test was used to consider (a) the difference between participants who walked at least 150 minutes per week Reference (1) and those who did not relative to retention and (b) the difference between participants who interacted while walking and those who did not relative to retention. These tests showed no significant differences. Conclusions: Participation in the walking program was significantly associated with retention, but amount of moderate activity or interaction was not.

Association between driving a car and retention of brain volume in Japanese older adults

BACKGROUND

Driving cessation is a major negative life event that has been associated with a decline in health conditions including dementia. The increase in activity owing to the expansion of life space is a possible explanation for the positive relationship between driving and brain health. The present study examined the association between driving, life space, and structural brain volume in older individuals.

METHODS

High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging was employed to examine the brain volume in 1063 older adults. Participants were classified as non-drivers, those who drove <7 days a week, and everyday drivers. They were further classified into a non-driving group, an active group (drove 10 km at least once a week), and a less-active group (drove 10 km less than once a week).

RESULTS

The hippocampal volume was greater in drivers than in non-drivers. Occipital cortex volume was greater in low-frequency drivers than in non-drivers and high-frequency drivers. Active drivers exhibited larger temporal cortex volumes than less-active drivers, larger cingulate cortex volumes than non-drivers and less-active drivers, and larger hippocampal volumes than non-drivers.

CONCLUSION

Driving was associated with hippocampal brain atrophy attenuation, with active drivers exhibiting decreased brain atrophy in the temporal and cingulate cortices.

Quantifying the Magnitude and Longevity of the Effect of Repetitive Head Impacts in Adolescent Soccer Players: Deleterious Effect of Long Headers Extend Beyond a Month

There is growing interest in the effects of sports-related repetitive head impacts (RHIs) on athletes' cognitive capabilities. This study examines the effect of RHIs in data collected from adolescent athletes to estimate the magnitude and longevity of RHIs on sensorimotor and cognitive performance. A non-linear regression model estimated the longevity of RHI effects by adding a half-life parameter embedded in an exponential decay function. A model estimate of this parameter allows the possibility of RHI effects to attenuate over time and introduces a mechanism to study the cumulative effect of RHIs. The posterior distribution of the half-life parameter associated with short-distance headers (<30 m) is centered around 6 days, whereas the posterior distribution of the half-life parameter associated with long-distance headers extends beyond a month. Additionally, the magnitude of the effect of each short header is around 3 times smaller than that of a long header. The results indicate that, on both tasks, response time (RT) changes after long headers are bigger in magnitude and last longer compared to the effects of short headers. Most important, we demonstrate that deleterious effects of long headers extend beyond 1 month. Although estimates are based on data from a relatively short-duration study with a relatively small sample size, the proposed model provides a mechanism to estimate long-term behavioral slowing from RHIs, which may be helpful to reduce the risk of additional injury. Finally, differences in the longevity of the effects of short and long RHIs may help to explain the large variance found between biomechanical input and clinical outcome in studies of concussion tolerance.

Los efectos neurofisiológicos de la actividad física en los niños: revisión sistemática

La práctica de actividad física regular proporciona varios beneficios relacionados principalmente con la mejora de la salud y la calidad de vida, así como con el control de los factores de riesgo de enfermedades, un tema ampliamente reconocido en la actualidad. Sin embargo, estudios recientes han demostrado que la relación entre actividad física y cognición está permitiendo grandes avances y resultados positivos. En el presente trabajo y mediante una revisión sistemática, se recopila la evidencia actual que estable la causalidad sobre los cambios neurofisiológicos en la estructura cerebral de niños sanos y con patologías. Un total de 23 estudios fueron seleccionados y analizados mediante los que se pudo concluir que existe una asociación beneficiosa entre la actividad física a largo plazo y los cambios en las funciones neurofisiológicas.

Cognitive Enhancement through Differential Rope Skipping after Math Lesson

Numerous studies have shown cognitive enhancement through sport and physical exercise. Despite the variety of studies, the extent to which physical activity before or after a cognitive learning session leads to more effective cognitive enhancement remains largely unresolved. Moreover, little attention has been paid to the dependence of the motor learning approach then applied. In this study, we compare the influence of differential with uniformly rope skipping directly succeeding an acquisition phase in arithmetic mathematics. For three weeks 26 pupils, 14 female, 12 male, and 13.9 ± 0.7 years old, completed nine 15 min exercises in arithmetic math, each followed by 3 min rope skipping with heart rate measurement. Arithmetic performance was tested in a pre-, post- and retention test design. The results showed a statistically significant difference between the differential and the control groups within the development of arithmetic performance, especially in the retention test. There was no statistical difference in heart rate. It is suggested that the results provide evidence for sustainable improvements of cognitive learning performance by means of highly variable rope skipping.

Effect of Electrical Muscle Stimulation and Resistance Exercise Intervention on Physical and Brain Function in Middle-Aged and Older Women

This study investigated the effectiveness of electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) with resistance exercise training (ERT) and resistance exercise training (RT) on physical and brain function in middle-aged and older women. Method: Forty-eight participants were randomly allocated into three groups: (i) ERT (n = 16), (ii) RT (n = 16), and (iii) control group (n = 16). The intervention session was 50 min long and performed three times/week for four weeks. The ERT group performed quadriceps setting, straight leg raises, and ankle pump exercises while constantly receiving EMS on their quadriceps muscle on both legs. The RT group performed the same exercise without EMS. Physical function was measured using skeletal muscle mass index (SMI), handgrip strength, gait speed, five times sit-to-stand test (FTSS) and timed up-and-go test (TUG). Brain function was assessed with electroencephalogram measurement of whole brain activity. Results: After four-week intervention, significant improvements were observed in SMI (p < 0.01), phase angle (p < 0.05), and gait speed (p < 0.05) in the ERT group compared to the control group. ERT also increased muscle strength (p < 0.05) and mobility in lower limbs as observed in FTSS and TUG tests (p < 0.05) at post-intervention compared to the baseline. In the ERT group, significant positive changes were observed in Beta1 band power, Theta band power, and Alpha1 band whole brain connectivity (p < 0.005) compared to the control group. Conclusions: Our findings showed that ERT can improve muscle and brain function in middle-aged and older adults during a four-week intervention program whereas significant improvements were not observed with RT. Therefore might be one of the feasible alternative intervention to RT for the prevention of muscle loss whilst improving brain function for middle-aged and older population.

Cognitive Coaching in Special Operations: Design Principles and Best Practices

Cognitive enhancement platforms have received growing interest as a means to improve workplace performance. Among the many commercial and professional organizations exploring cognitive training, the United States military has begun exploring the potential added value of cognitive enhancement tools. Whereas most platforms offer automated or algorithm-based solutions to support cognitive training, special operations have developed the role of a cognitive coach to support training. The current discussion provides several lessons learned when trying to bridge cognitive systems and enhancement tools within military operations that should apply to any organization seeking to improve cognitive performance among already high-performing personnel.

Factors Influencing the Executive Functions of Male and Female Cadets

Executive functions (EFs) are related to human abilities that allow individuals to achieve planned goals, contribute to creativity and the analysis of new ideas, and allow for adaptation to new situations in daily life. Thorough analyses of the factors affecting EFs can aid in the development of appropriate training programs for various social and professional groups, including the military. The purpose of this study was to determine the factors affecting the EFs of cadets (18 women and 108 men) studying at a military academy in Poland after the first and second terms of military training, and to investigate gender differences in the level of EFs, shooting performance (SP), and components of physical fitness (PF). The Neuropsychological Color Trails Test (CTT-2) was used to determine some of the EFs of the test subjects. Meanwhile, the level of SP was represented by the score achieved during marksmanship training implemented during military training. Assessment of the subjects' PF was guided by the principles of the Health-Related Fitness assessment concept, i.e., health-related fitness. Differences between men and women in specific variables were calculated using the Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples, whilst the relationship between variables was analyzed using the best subset regression method. The results revealed that cadets' EFs were influenced by their SP and their level of strength. However, there were no significant differences between male and female cadets in the levels of EFs or SP.

Occupational Burnout Is Linked with Inefficient Executive Functioning, Elevated Average Heart Rate, and Decreased Physical Activity in Daily Life - Initial Evidence from Teaching Professionals

Burnout is becoming a global pandemic jeopardizing brain health, with a huge impact on quality of life, available workforce, and the economy. Knowledge of the impact of burnout on cognition, physiology, and physical activity (PA) in daily life allows for an improved understanding of the health consequences and everyday ramifications of burnout. Twenty-eight volunteers participated in a three-day recording of daily physiology and PA, including heart rate (HR) and daily steps, with a wearable device. They filled in questionnaires screening for burnout (BBI-15), depression (BDI), and executive functions (EFs) in daily life (BRIEF-A). The subjects with burnout had more challenges in EFs, higher average HRs and lower numbers of steps in daily life than those without it. The BBI-15 scores correlated positively with the BDI scores and BRIEF-A indices and negatively with the awake HR variability (HRV) and daily steps. The metacognition index correlated negatively with the HRV. In conclusion, burnout is linked with compromised EFs along with alterations in cardiac physiology and PA in daily life. Such alterations may be easily detected with wearable devices, opening possibilities for novel biomarkers of burnout and other neuropsychiatric disorders. We suggest that physical activity and heart and brain health are intimately intertwined and that burnout interacts with each of them bidirectionally.

Sex-dependent neuro-deconvolution analysis of Alzheimer's disease brain transcriptomes according to CHI3L1 expression levels

Glial activation and related neuroinflammatory processes play a key role in the aging and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). CHI3L1/ YKL40 is a widely investigated chitinase in neurodegenerative diseases and recent studies have shown its involvement in aging and AD. Nevertheless, the biological function of CHI3L1 in AD is still unknown. Here, we collected microarray datasets from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) brain samples of not demented healthy controls (NDHC) who died from causes not attributable to neurodegenerative disorders (n = 460), and of deceased patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease (AD) (n = 697). The NDHC and AD patients were stratified according to CHI3L1 expression levels as a cut-off. We identified two groups both males and females, subsequently used for our statistical comparisons: the high CHI3L1 expression group (HCEG) and the low CHI3L1 expression group (LCEG). Comparing HCEG to LCEG, we attained four signatures according to the sex of patients, in order to identify the healthy and AD brain cellular architecture, performing a genomic deconvolution analysis. We used neurological signatures (NS) belonging to six neurological cells populations and nine signatures that included the main physiological neurological processes. We discovered that, in the brains of NDHC the high expression levels of CHI3L1 were associated with astrocyte activation profile, while in AD males and females we showed an inflammatory profile microglia-mediated. The low CHI3L1 brain expression levels in NDHC and AD patients highlighted a neuronal activation profile. Furthermore, using drugs opposing CHI3L1 transcriptomic signatures, we found a specific drug profile for AD males and females characterized by high levels of CHI3L1 composed of fostamatinib, rucaparib, cephaeline, prednisolone, and dinoprostone. Brain levels of CHI3L1 in AD patients represent a biological signature that allows distinguishing between males and females and their likely cellular brain architecture.

The effect of physical activity breaks, including motor-cognitive coordination exercises, on employees’ cognitive functions in the workplace

BACKGROUND: The findings of the effectiveness of physical activity on adults’ cognitive abilities have not yet been transferred into corresponding fields of application. OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluates a motor-cognitive coordination programme in a company to improve employees’ cognitive performance in the short and medium term. METHODS: A total of 67 employees — 32 men and 35 women aged between 19 and 61 years — participated in this study, and 55 completed the study. The sample was randomly divided into an experimental group, which received a motor-cognitive coordination training, and a control group, which received a relaxation and mobility training. Both groups met for 15-minute sessions three times a week for eight weeks. Before and after the intervention, working memory, attention, information-processing capacity, divergent thinking, and mood were measured. In addition, acute effects regarding attention and mood were tested. RESULTS: The results showed that the motor-cognitive coordination break improves working memory and divergent thinking after eight weeks of intervention, whereas neither the mood nor the information processing speed improved more for the experimental group compared to the control group. The results on the acute increase in attention performance failed to reach significance. CONCLUSION: The new approach of this study was not only the derivation and development of targeted exercises, but also their testing and evaluation in the field of application. Motor-cognitive coordination exercise in the workplace might play an important role in both occupational health management and personnel development, especially for companies that are under highly competitive and innovative pressure.

Effects of Acute Resistance Exercise on Executive Function: A Systematic Review of the Moderating Role of Intensity and Executive Function Domain

BACKGROUND

Research has demonstrated that there is a beneficial effect of acute exercise on cognitive function; however, the moderators of the acute resistance exercise (RE) effect on executive function (EF) are underestimated. This systematic review aims to clarify the effects of acute RE on EF by examining the moderating effect of exercise intensity (light, moderate, and vigorous) and EF domains (inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility), as well as their interactions.

METHODS

The search strategy was conducted in four databases (PubMed, Scopus, PsycARTICLES, and Cochrane Library) prior to January 29, 2022. Included studies had to: (1) investigate acute RE in adults with normal cognition and without diagnosed disease; (2) include a control group or control session for comparison; (3) include outcomes related to the core EF domains; and (4) be published in English. The methodological quality of the included studies was judged according to the PEDro scale guidelines.

RESULTS

Nineteen studies were included which included a total of 692 participants. More than half of the outcomes (24/42, 57.14%) indicate that acute RE had a statistically significant positive effect on overall EF. In terms of RE intensity and EF domain, moderate intensity acute RE benefited EF more consistently than light and vigorous intensity acute RE. Acute RE-induced EF benefits were more often found for inhibitory control than for working memory and cognitive flexibility. When considering moderators simultaneously, measuring inhibitory control after light or moderate intensity RE and measuring working memory or cognitive flexibility after moderate intensity RE most often resulted in statistically significant positive outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Acute RE has a beneficial effect on EF, observed most consistently for inhibitory control following moderate intensity RE. Future studies should include all exercise intensities and EF domains as well as investigate other potential moderators to enable a better understanding of the benefits of acute RE on EF.

Walking, Running, Swimming: An Analysis of the Effects of Land and Water Aerobic Exercises on Cognitive Functions and Neural Substrates

In the brain and cognitive reserves framework, aerobic exercise is considered as a protective lifestyle factor able to induce positive effects on both brain structure and function. However, specific aspects of such a beneficial effect still need to be completely clarified. To this aim, the present narrative review focused on the potential brain/cognitive/neural reserve-construction mechanisms triggered by different aerobic exercise types (land activities; such as walking or running; vs. water activities; such as swimming), by considering human and animal studies on healthy subjects over the entire lifespan. The literature search was conducted in PubMed database. The studies analyzed here indicated that all the considered kinds of activities exert a beneficial effect on cognitive/behavioral functions and on the underlying brain neurobiological processes. In particular, the main effects observed involve the cognitive domains of memory and executive functions. These effects appear related to structural and functional changes mainly involving the fronto-hippocampal axis. The present review supports the requirement of further studies that investigate more specifically and systematically the effects of each type of aerobic activity, as a basis to plan more effective and personalized interventions on individuals as well as prevention and healthy promotion policies for the general population.

The Relation of Having Experienced a Fall in the Past to Lower Cognitive Functioning in Old Age Is Mediated via Less Physical Activity Engagement as Cognitive Reserve Contributor

Physical activity and exercise contribute to the accumulation of cognitive reserve, which is instrumental for preserving cognitive health in old age. In a large sample of 701 older adults (mean age = 70.36 years), we investigated whether the relationship between having experienced a fall in the past and lower performance in cognitive functioning was mediated via less physical activity engagement as a cognitive reserve contributor. General cognition was assessed using the mini-mental state examination (MMSE), long-term memory using a word-pair delayed recall test and working memory using a backward digit-span test. In face-to-face interviews, individuals reported information on falls during the past 12 months and their habitual physical activity engagement. Our analyses demonstrated that the relationship between having experienced a fall in the past and lower performance in the cognitive functioning measures was partly mediated (by 16.3% for general cognition, 30.6% for long-term memory, and 33.1% for working memory, respectively) via less physical activity engagement. In conclusion, we suggest as a core bio-psychological mechanism that experiencing a fall at an older age is a critical life event that hinders sufficient physical activity engagement and thereby impedes cognitive reserve build-up, resulting in lower cognitive functioning outcomes.

Physical Activity Levels of Medical Students: a global issue to be addressed

Aim: Regular physical activity has been shown to have positive effects on general health, cognitive functions, and mental health. The vast majority of university students do not meet the physical activity recommendations of well-accepted guidelines. In this study, we aimed to determine the physical activity levels (PALs) of medical school students and the related factors. Materials and Methods: This is a cross-sectional, observational survey study. The survey was conducted with an online Google survey tool. Five hundred and twenty-eight students who approved the voluntary consent form were included in the study. A questionnaire including sociodemographic data and questions about personal lifestyle were used. The physical activity levels of the participants were determined with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-short form (IPAQ-SF), depression and anxiety levels were determined with Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), respectively. Results: The mean total IPAQ-SF scores of the participants were 1658±1793.91 METs. A statistically significant negative correlation was found between BDI scores and PALs (r=-0.102, p=0.019). The PALs of those who had active hobbies and those who participated in regular sports activities were statistically significantly higher (p

Sport Participation and Academic Performance in Young Elite Athletes

Strong evidence supports physical activity and fitness levels being positively associated with cognitive performance and overall academic performance in youth. This also applies to sports participation. However, whether participation in sports at the elite level is associated with greater academic performance remains unknown. Thus, the present study aimed to compare the academic performance of young elite athletes to that of control students, as well as to analyze whether the type of sport mediates these results. Between 2010 and 2019, all students from the last Baccalaureate course of the Spanish Elite Sport High School-which also includes non-elite athletes and recreational athlete students, who were categorized as controls-participated in this study. Academic performance was assessed through both the grade point average of the two last Baccalaureate courses and through the average grades from the University Entrance Examinations. Athletes were categorized attending to different sport classifications. A total of 1126 adolescents (570 girls, 18.2 ± 0.6 years) participated in the study, of which 483 and 643 were categorized as elite athletes and control students, respectively. Elite athletes attained a lower overall academic performance than controls (p < 0.001), which was confirmed for both sexes (p < 0.001). These differences were separately confirmed for most academic subjects (p < 0.05), as well as when attending to different sport classifications (all p > 0.05). Young elite athletes attained a lower academic performance than their non-elite peers, regardless of their type of sport. These findings highlight the importance of programs aimed at facilitating dual careers among young elite athletes.

Aquatic Exercise on Brain Activity in Type 2 Diabetic: Randomized Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

A water-based physical exercise program is extremely important for the rehabilitation of type 2 diabetes. Little is known about its action on cerebral electrical activity.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of a water-based physical exercise protocol on electroencephalographic activity, blood glucose levels, and functional capacity, as well as their correlation, in type 2 diabetics.

METHODS

Study design: Randomized Clinical Trial. Forty volunteers were randomized into two groups: control (n = 20) and study (n = 20). A water-based physical exercise program comprising 50 min sessions was conducted three times a week for five weeks. Assessments were performed at the pre- and post-intervention and follow-up phases. The qualitative data were compared using the Mann-Whitney test and Chi-Square. Quantitative data were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis, Independent t, and ANOVA mixed tests. The Spearman correlation coefficient was used to correlate the data.

RESULTS

The data were similar when comparing the groups. Six-minute walk test data increased in the comparison between times (p = 0.01-PrexPos). EEG data decreased in comparison between times (prexfollow-up-p < 0.05), except AF3. EEG data decreased in the timexgroup comparison (prexfollow-up and postxfollow-up-p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The water-based exercise protocol maintained electroencephalographic activity, glucose levels, and functional capacity in people with type 2 diabetes, and there was no relationship between brain electrical activity and capillary blood glucose.

Late-life physical activity relates to brain tissue synaptic integrity markers in older adults

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity (PA) is widely recommended for age-related brain health, yet its neurobiology is not well understood. Animal models indicate PA is synaptogenic. We examined the relationship between PA and synaptic integrity markers in older adults.

METHODS

Four hundred four decedents from the Rush Memory and Aging Project completed annual actigraphy monitoring (Mean visits = 3.5±2.4) and post mortem evaluation. Brain tissue was analyzed for presynaptic proteins (synaptophysin, synaptotagmin-1, vesicle-associated membrane proteins, syntaxin, complexin-I, and complexin-II), and neuropathology. Models examined relationships between late-life PA (averaged across visits), and timing-specific PA (time to autopsy) with synaptic proteins.

RESULTS

Greater late-life PA associated with higher presynaptic protein levels (0.14 < β < 0.20), except complexin-II (β = 0.08). Relationships were independent of pathology but timing specific; participants who completed actigraphy within 2 years of brain tissue measurements showed largest PA-to-synaptic protein associations (0.32 < β < 0.38). Relationships between PA and presynaptic proteins were comparable across brain regions sampled.

DISCUSSION

PA associates with synaptic integrity in a regionally global, but time-linked nature in older adults.

Extreme emotional disturbance: Legal frameworks and considerations for forensic evaluation

A significant minority of jurisdictions in the United States offer extreme emotional disturbance (EED) as a partial defense to murder. The form of this defense, as established by statute and case law, varies widely among jurisdictions. Empirical research on EED is scant with little guidance to forensic mental health professionals on how to approach and conceptualize potential EED cases. This paper addresses these issues by being the first known published work to (1) set forth a contemporary map of the varying definitions and scope of EED across the United States, (2) translate legal terminology into constructs accessible to forensic evaluators, and (3) provide legal and clinical analyses of sample EED cases to highlight key differences in the form of the defense and the admissibility of evidence between jurisdictions.

Effects of exercise on the sleep microarchitecture in the aging brain: A study on a sedentary sample

Having a healthy sleep pattern plays a vital role in one's overall health. Sleep in the elderly is characterized by decreased slow-wave sleep and an increase of REM sleep. Furthermore, quantitative electroencephalographic (qEEG) studies have shown an age-related attenuation of total EEG power in sleep. However, exercise has been shown to improve sleep across all age groups. In this study, we used the Sleep Profiler™ EEG Sleep Monitor to observe EEG changes occurring during sleep following an aerobic exercise intervention. This study was done on older adults (N = 18, with only five subjects containing both pre- and post-data of sufficient quality for analysis) with an age range 60-85 years. The aerobics regimen was performed three times weekly for 12-weeks commencing with 20-min sessions. The time of each session progressed by 1-2 min/session as needed to a maximum time of 45 min per session. The macro-architecture (sleep stages) and microarchitecture (EEG) results were analyzed using MATLAB. For the microarchitecture, our results showed more deep sleep following the aerobic exercise regimen. Furthermore, for the microarchitecture, out results shows an increase in total EEG power post-exercise in both light (N1 and L1) and deep sleep (N2 and N3). These preliminary changes in sleep the microarchitecture suggest that non-pharmacologic methods might mitigate age-related EEG changes with potential implications for neurocognitive health.

Brief report: Free-living physical activity levels and cognitive control in multi-problem young adults

Previous studies indicate a positive association between physical activity and cognitive control in sedentary but healthy adults, yet not much is known about physical activity levels in multi-problem young adults. We examined the level of self-reported free-living physical activity (i.e., MET minutes per week) in an ecologically valid sample of young adults facing multiple problems, including unemployment, lack of education, frequent substance use, and history of delinquency. We compared cognitive control with an age- and sex-matched control sample. Additionally, the association between physical activity and cognitive control (i.e., response inhibition, error processing, interference effect) in the multi-problem group was examined. Physical activity and cognitive control were measured with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Long Form and three cognitive control experiments (i.e., Flanker, Go/NoGo, Stroop), respectively. With M = 4428 Metabolic Equivalents (METs), our multi-problem sample (n = 63) showed physical activity levels similar to the age- and sex-matched control sample from the general population (n = 62). The multi-problem young adults also showed impaired cognitive control indexed as decreased response inhibition and decreased Flanker correctness effect compared to their peers. We could not find an association between self-reported physical activity and cognitive control in the multi-problem sample. Due to the small sample size, results should be interpreted with caution. However, future dose-response studies could still use these results to further examine if within-individual increased physical activity may possibly lead to improved cognitive control in (already relatively active) multi-problem young adults.

Physical activity and exercise alter cognitive abilities, and brain structure and activity in obese children

The prevalence of childhood obesity is increasing to such an extent that it has become a major global public health problem in the 21st century. Obesity alters children’s brain structure and activity and impairs their cognitive abilities. On the basis of these findings, it is necessary for educational and healthcare institutions to combat childhood obesity through preventive and therapeutic strategies. In general, exercise and physical activity are considered common but effective methods for improving physical, psychological, and brain health across the life span. Therefore, this review article mainly focuses on existing neuroimaging studies that have used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)to assess children’s brain anatomy and neural activity. We intended to explore the roles of physical activity and exercise in modulating the associations among childhood obesity, cognitive abilities, and the structure and activity of the brain.

Aerobic fitness and fine motor skills are related to switching and updating in typically developing children

Movement is essential for everyday life and closely related to cognitive skills. The aim of the current research was to investigate whether different aspects of physical activity, i.e., aerobic fitness and motor skills, contribute above and beyond each other to the variance in children's executive functioning. Children aged 8-13 years (N = 129, 58 females, M_age = 10.7 years, SD_age = 1.6 years) participated in the current cross-sectional study. Aerobic fitness was assessed by the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER). Motor skills were assessed using the standardized Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd edition (M-ABC-2), including fine motor skills, balance skills, and object control. Components of executive functions (inhibition, switching, updating) were assessed using the following tasks: an animal Stroop task, a local-global task, and a 2n-back task. Hierarchical regressions were conducted to analyze the relative importance of aerobic fitness and motor skills for children's executive functions. Results indicated that aerobic fitness and fine motor skills were significantly related to switching and updating, whereas relations to inhibition were non-significant. Furthermore, it was found that fine motor skills explained additional variance above aerobic fitness in switching and updating whereas aerobic fitness did not add additional variance above fine motor skills in switching and updating. Balance and object control skills were not related to the three core executive functions. Results support the notion that aerobic fitness and fine motor skills are differently related to executive functions and highlight the importance of considering multiple components of constructs in future research.

How pom cheerleading improves the executive function of preschool children: the mediating role of speed and agility

Physical exercises can improve individuals’ physical health and cognition, but the internal influence path is unclear. This study aims to examine the influence of pom cheerleading training on physical fitness and executive function of preschool children and explore the relationship between sports training, physical fitness, and executive function. We selected seventy-one preschool children and divided them into the experimental group (n = 36) and the control group (n = 35). The experimental group kept a 12-week pom cheerleading training, and the exercises of the control group remained normal. Children’s physical fitness and executive function were tested, in one week before and after the experiment, respectively. Results of repeated measurements analysis of variance and structural equation model test showed: (1) after 12-week pom cheerleading training, in terms of physical fitness, the experimental group has a significant improvement over the control group on agility and speed; in terms of executive function, the inhibitory control and working memory of the experimental group were significantly enhanced over the control group. (2) Speed quality plays a partial mediating role between pom cheerleading training and inhibitory control; agility plays a major mediating role between pom cheerleading training and working memory. It is concluded that physical exercise can directly improve preschool children’s executive function, and indirectly enhance executive function mediated by physical fitness. Furthermore, structured and systematic physical education should be adopted for preschool children to cultivate their interest in sports and enhance their cognition.

Individual differences in dissonance arousal/reduction relate to physical exercise: Testing the action-based model

INTRODUCTION

The present research was designed to test predictions derived from the action-based model of cognitive dissonance theory. These predictions were that dissonance arousal would be negatively related to effective behavior, and that dissonance reduction would be positively related to effective behavior.

METHOD

Dissonance arousal and reduction were measured using an individual differences questionnaire. Effective behavior was measured as amount of physical exercise obtained from an exercise app that measures exercise using GPS (cycling kilometers over one year; Study 1) and from self-reports (number of days during the previous week; Study 2-3).

RESULTS

Results suggested that individual differences in dissonance arousal relate to less exercise and that individual differences in dissonance reduction relate to more exercise. Statistically controlling for trait approach and avoidance motivation as well as satisfaction with life revealed that dissonance processes predicted exercise behavior over these traits. This pattern of results was generally consistent across the three studies. Moreover, results from Studies 2-3 suggested possible statistical mediators from the exercise commitment literature of the relationship between trait dissonance arousal/reduction and exercise behavior.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These results highlight the importance of considering dissonance processes as adaptive ones, and they suggest possible ways of increasing exercise behavior.

Does cognitive aging follow an orchid and dandelion phenomenon?

Cognitive reserve reflects the brain’s intrinsic adaptive capacity against the neurodegenerative effects of aging. The maintenance or enhancement of the brain’s cognitive reserve plays a crucial role in mitigating the severity of pathologies associated with aging. A new movement, social prescribing, which focuses on prescribing lifestyle activities as a treatment for patients, is growing in popularity as a solution against aging pathologies. However, few studies have demonstrated a clear impact of lifestyle activities on individual cognitive health, outside of floor and ceiling effects. Understanding who benefits from which lifestyle factors remains unclear. Here, we investigated the potential effects of lifestyle activities on individuals’ cognitive health from more than 3,530 older adults using a stratification method and advanced analysis technique. Our stratification methods allowed us to observe a new result: older adults who had relatively average cognitive scores were not impacted by lifestyle factors. By comparison, older adults with very high or very low cognitive scores were highly impacted by lifestyle factors. These findings expand the orchid and dandelion theory to the aging field, regarding the biological sensitivity of individuals to harmful and protective environmental effects. Our discoveries demonstrate the role of individual differences in the aging process and its importance for social prescribing programs.

The Effects of a Cognitively Challenging Physical Activity Intervention on School Children's Executive Functions and Motivational Regulations

This study examined the effects of a physical education intervention consisting of cognitively challenging physical activity games on school children's executive functions and motivational regulations. Ninety-nine fourth- and fifth-grade children participated in this two-group, repeated measures, quasi-experimental study with a cross-over design. Children's executive functions (measured with the design fluency and Stroop and flanker tests) and motivational regulations were measured pre- and post-intervention and one month later. At post-test, the experimental group children outperformed the waiting-list control group children in all design fluency test conditions and accuracy in the Stroop and flanker tests. Both groups improved from pre- to post-intervention their speed (reaction time) in the Stroop and flanker tests. The waiting-list control group children, after receiving the intervention, improved their performance in the executive function tests except for Stroop test accuracy and flanker test speed. The positive effects were reduced significantly one month after the end of the intervention but remained significantly higher compared to pre-intervention. No intervention effects were found for the motivational regulations. These results showed that the intervention had positive effects on children's executive functions and supported the new shift of designing physical activity programs for developing combinedly children's physical and cognitive development.

Relations between physical activity and hippocampal functional connectivity: Modulating role of mind wandering

Physical activity is critical for maintaining cognitive and brain health. Previous studies have indicated that the effect of physical activity on cognitive and brain function varies between individuals. The present study aimed to examine whether mind wandering modulated the relations between physical activity and resting-state hippocampal functional connectivity. A total of 99 healthy adults participated in neuroimaging data collection as well as reported their physical activity in the past week and their propensity to mind wandering during typical activities. The results indicated that mind wandering was negatively related to the resting-state functional connectivity between hippocampus and right inferior occipital gyrus. Additionally, for participants with higher level of mind wandering, physical activity was negatively related to hippocampal connectivity at left precuneus and right precentral gyrus. In contrast, such relations were positive at right medial frontal gyrus and bilateral precentral gyrus for participants with lower level of mind wandering. Altogether, these findings indicated that the relations between physical activity and hippocampal functional connectivity vary as a function of mind wandering level, suggesting that individual differences are important to consider when we aim to maintain or improve cognitive and brain health through increasing physical activity.