Bisphenol-A: a new diabetogenic factor?

Consensus on the key characteristics of metabolism disruptors

Metabolism-disrupting agents (MDAs) are chemical, infectious or physical agents that increase the risk of metabolic disorders. Examples include pharmaceuticals, such as antidepressants, and environmental agents, such as bisphenol A. Various types of studies can provide evidence to identify MDAs, yet a systematic method is needed to integrate these data to help to identify such hazards. Inspired by work to improve hazard identification of carcinogens using key characteristics (KCs), we developed 12 KCs of MDAs based on our knowledge of processes underlying metabolic diseases and the effects of their causal agents: (1) alters function of the endocrine pancreas; (2) impairs function of adipose tissue; (3) alters nervous system control of metabolic function; (4) promotes insulin resistance; (5) disrupts metabolic signalling pathways; (6) alters development and fate of metabolic cell types; (7) alters energy homeostasis; (8) causes inappropriate nutrient handling and partitioning; (9) promotes chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation in metabolic tissues; (10) disrupts gastrointestinal tract function; (11) induces cellular stress pathways; and (12) disrupts circadian rhythms. In this Consensus Statement, we present the logic that revealed the KCs of MDAs and highlight evidence that supports the identification of KCs. We use chemical, infectious and physical agents as examples to illustrate how the KCs can be used to organize and use mechanistic data to help to identify MDAs.

Individual and combined antagonism of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and estrogen receptors (ERs) offers distinct level of protection against Bisphenol A (BPA)-induced pancreatic islet cell toxicity in mice

Bisphenol A (BPA), a pervasive endocrine-disrupting chemical, is known to convey harmful impact on pancreatic islets through estrogen receptors (ERs). Conversely, BPA can activate aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in certain contexts and has raised concerns about potential toxicological effects. However, BPA-AhR interaction in the context of pancreatic islet toxicity is yet to be reported. We demonstrated the specific role of AhR and its interaction with ERs to mediate BPA toxicity in pancreatic islets. In vitro, isolated islet cells treated with BPA (1 nM), with or without CH22319 (10 mM) and ICI182780 (1 mM) and insulin release, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), cell viability, and pERK1/2 and pAkt expression were measured. In vivo, mice were treated with BPA (10 and 100 µg/kg body weight/day for 21 days) with or without intraperitonial co-treatment of CH22319 (AhR antagonist, 10mg/kg), and ICI182780 (ER antagonist, 500 µg/kg). Glucose homeostasis, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammatory markers were measured. In vitro data revealed the involvement of AhR in the BPA-mediated alteration in insulin secretion, GSIS, and pERK1/2 and pAkt expression which were counteracted by CH223191 (AhR antagonist) alone or with ICI182780 (ER antagonist). Further, CH223191 alone or with ICI182780 modulated BPA-induced oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines and alleviated islet cell dysfunction and impaired insulin secretion. In conclusion, therapeutic targeting of AhR and ER combined might be a promising target against diabetogenic action of BPA.

Centella asiatica mitigates the detrimental effects of Bisphenol-A (BPA) on pancreatic islets

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is widely used in food packaging and household products, leading to daily human exposure and potential health risks including metabolic diseases like type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Understanding BPA's mechanisms and developing intervention strategies is urgent. Centella asiatica, a traditional herbal medicine containing pentacyclic triterpenoids, shows promise due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, utilized for centuries in Ayurvedic therapy. We investigated the effect of Centella asiatica (CA) ethanol extract on BPA-induced pancreatic islet toxicity in male Swiss albino mice. BPA administration (10 and 100 μg/kg body weight, twice daily) for 21 days caused glucose homeostasis disturbances, insulin resistance, and islet dysfunction, which were partially mitigated by CA supplementation (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight). Additionally, heightened oxidative stress, elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), abnormal cell cycle, and increased apoptosis were implicated in the detrimental impact of BPA on the endocrine pancreas which were effectively counteracted by CA supplementation. In summary, CA demonstrated a significant ability to mitigate BPA-induced apoptosis, modulate redox homeostasis, alleviate inflammation, preserve MMP, and regulate the cell cycle. As a result, CA emerged as a potent agent in neutralizing the diabetogenic effects of BPA to a considerable extent.

Exploring aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) as a target for Bisphenol-A (BPA)-induced pancreatic islet toxicity and impaired glucose homeostasis: Protective efficacy of ethanol extract of Centella asiatica

The estrogenic impact of Bisphenol-A (BPA), a widely recognized endocrine disruptor, causes disruption of pancreatic β-cell function through estrogen receptors (ERs). While BPA's binding affinity for ERs is significantly lower than that of its natural counterpart, estrogen, recent observations of BPA's affinity for aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in specific cellular contexts have sparked a specific question: does AhR play a role in BPA's toxicological effects within the endocrine pancreas? To explore this question, we investigated BPA's (10 and 100 μg/ kg body weight/day for 21 days) potential to activate AhR within pancreatic islets and assessed the protective role of ethanol extract of Centella asiatica (CA) (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight/day for 21 days) against BPA-mediated toxicity in mouse model. Our results indicate that BPA effectively triggers the activation of AhR and modulates its target genes within pancreatic islets. In contrast, CA activates AhR but directs downstream pathways differentially and activates Nrf2. Additionally, CA was observed to counteract the disruption caused by BPA in glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, BPA-induced oxidative stress and exaggerated production of proinflammatory cytokines were effectively counteracted by CA supplementation. In summary, our study suggests that CA influenced AhR signaling to mitigate the disrupted pancreatic endocrine function in BPA exposed mice. By shedding light on how BPA interacts with AhR, our research provides valuable insights into the mechanisms involved in the diabetogenic actions of BPA.

Exploring New Drug Targets for Type 2 Diabetes: Success, Challenges and Opportunities

There are substantial shortcomings in the drugs currently available for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The global diabetic crisis has not abated despite the introduction of new types of drugs and targets. Persistent unaddressed patient needs remain a significant factor in the quest for new leads in routine studies. Drug discovery methods in this area have followed developments in the market, contributing to a recent rise in the number of molecules. Nevertheless, troubling developments and fresh challenges are still evident. Recently, metformin, the most widely used first-line drug for diabetes, was found to contain a carcinogenic contaminant known as N-nitroso dimethylamine (NDMA). Therefore, purity and toxicity are also a big challenge for drug discovery and development. Moreover, newer drug classes against SGLT-2 illustrate both progress and difficulties. The same was true previously in the case of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors. Furthermore, researchers must study the importance of mechanistic characteristics of novel compounds, as well as exposure-related hazardous aspects of current and newly identified protein targets, in order to identify new pharmacological molecules with improved selectivity and specificity.

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Infectious Diseases: From Endocrine Disruption to Immunosuppression

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are hormonally active compounds in the environment that interfere with the body's endocrine system and consequently produce adverse health effects. Despite persistent public health concerns, EDCs remain important components of common consumer products, thus representing ubiquitous contaminants to humans. While scientific evidence confirmed their contribution to the severity of Influenza A virus (H1N1) in the animal model, their roles in susceptibility and clinical outcome of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) cannot be underestimated. Since its emergence in late 2019, clinical reports on COVID-19 have confirmed that severe disease and death occur in persons aged ≥65 years and those with underlying comorbidities. Major comorbidities of COVID-19 include diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, cancer, and kidney and liver diseases. Meanwhile, long-term exposure to EDCs contributes significantly to the onset and progression of these comorbid diseases. Besides, EDCs play vital roles in the disruption of the body's immune system. Here, we review the recent literature on the roles of EDCs in comorbidities contributing to COVID-19 mortality, impacts of EDCs on the immune system, and recent articles linking EDCs to COVID-19 risks. We also recommend methodologies that could be adopted to comprehensively study the role of EDCs in COVID-19 risk.

Role of Antioxidants in Alleviating Bisphenol A Toxicity

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an oestrogenic endocrine disruptor widely used in the production of certain plastics, e.g., polycarbonate, hard and clear plastics, and epoxy resins that act as protective coating for food and beverage cans. Human exposure to this chemical is thought to be ubiquitous. BPA alters endocrine function, thereby causing many diseases in human and animals. In the last few decades, studies exploring the mechanism of BPA activity revealed a direct link between BPA-induced oxidative stress and disease pathogenesis. Antioxidants, reducing agents that prevent cellular oxidation reactions, can protect BPA toxicity. Although the important role of antioxidants in minimizing BPA stress has been demonstrated in many studies, a clear consensus on the associated mechanisms is needed, as well as the directives on their efficacy and safety. Herein, considering the distinct biochemical properties of BPA and antioxidants, we provide a framework for understanding how antioxidants alleviate BPA-associated stress. We summarize the current knowledge on the biological function of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, and discuss their practical potential as BPA-detoxifying agents.

Bisphenol A-induced metabolic disorders: From exposure to mechanism of action

Bisphenol A (BPA) is considered as ubiquitous xenooestrogen and an endocrine disrupting chemical which has deleterious effects on endocrine functions. Human populations are continuously exposed to BPA as it is abundant in daily life. It has been found to be associated with wide range of metabolic disorders notably type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). Numerous epidemiological studies have been conducted to find its role in development of DM. Experimental studies have found that BPA exposure is associated with pathogenesis of DM and also considered as a risk factor for gestational diabetes. Being a lipophilic compound, BPA is preferably accumulated in adipose tissues where it alters the production of adipokines that play important roles in insulin resistance. BPA induces apoptosis by caspase activation after mitochondrial damage and it impairs insulin signaling pathways by altering associated ion channel activity especially potassium channels. Perinatal exposure of BPA makes offspring more susceptible to develop DM in early years. Epigenetic modifications are the key mechanisms for BPA-induced metabolic re-programming, where BPA alters the expression of DNA methyltransferases involved in methylation of various genes. In this way, DNA methyltransferase controls the expression of numerous genes including genes important for insulin secretion and signaling. Furthermore, BPA induces histone modifications and alters miRNA expression. In this article, we have briefly described the sources of BPA exposure to human being and summarized the evidence from epidemiological studies linking DM with BPA exposure. Additionally, we have also highlighted the potential molecular pathways for BPA-induced DM.

Bisphenol A, Bisphenol AF, di-n-butyl phthalate, and 17β-estradiol have shared and unique dose-dependent effects on early embryo cleavage divisions and development in Xenopus laevis

Bisphenol A (BPA), Bisphenol AF (BPAF), and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) are widespread compounds used in the production of plastics. We used Xenopus laevis to compare their effects on early embryo cell division and development. Directly after in vitro fertilizations, embryos were exposed to BPA, BPAF, DBP, or 17β-estradiol (E2) for up to 96 h. BPA (1-50 μM) and BPAF (0.003-25 μM) caused disrupted cleavage divisions, slowed cytokinesis, and cellular dissociation within 1-6 h. Flexures of the spinal cord, shorter body axis/tail, craniofacial malformations, and significant mortality occurred with environmentally relevant doses of BPAF (LC₅₀ = 0.013 μM). DBP (10-200 μM) showed similar effects, but with severe ventral edema. There were both shared and unique effects of all compounds, with BPAF having the greatest potency and toxicity (BPAF > BPA > estradiol > DBP). These findings underscore the pleiotropic effects of widespread toxicants on early development and highlight the need for better toxicological characterization.

Using bisphenol A and its analogs to address the feasibility and usefulness of the CALUX-PPARγ assay to identify chemicals with obesogenic potential

Environmental chemical exposures have been implicated in the obesity epidemic as potential mis-regulators of a variety of metabolic pathways. As agonism of the peroxisome proliferator-activated nuclear hormone receptor γ (PPARγ) is one of the suspected mechanisms involved, a PPARγ screening assay may have relevance for the biodetection of such effects of environmental chemicals. To test this hypothesis, we established the PPARγ₂-CALUX® assay in-house and tested it against a number of known and suspected PPARγ modulators. Furthermore, we added a rat liver S9 metabolizing system to the protocol to introduce metabolic competence to the assay. Our results confirmed the responsiveness of the cell line to the known PPARγ agonists and antagonists: rosiglitazone, tributyltin, 15-deoxy-Δ^12,14-prostaglandin J2, GW9662 and diclofenac. These data are in agreement with previous studies in various models. Seven bisphenol analogs tested induced little to no agonist activity, but all demonstrated antagonistic properties. These findings were contrary to both our assumptions and literature reports. Addition of the S9-metabolizing system to each of these tests did not alter any of the measured activities. Taken together, it seems probable that there are additional obesogenic effects of these chemicals which would not be detected by this assay.

Highly Sensitive Detection of Bisphenol A by NanoAptamer Assay with Truncated Aptamer

For the sensitive quantification of bisphenol A (BPA), we have developed NanoAptamer assay, which employs aptamer and complementary signaling DNA, a set of quantum dots (QD), and magnetic beads (MBs). Signaling DNA-QD₆₅₅ was tethered to MB-QD₅₆₅ via the aptamer. The affinity of the aptamer to BPA resulted in the release of the signaling DNA-QD₆₅₅ from the complex and hence the corresponding decrease in the QD₆₅₅ fluorescence measurement signal. Three new aptamers (23, 58, and 24-mer) were designed via truncation of the reference aptamer (73-mer). The sensitivity and selectivity of each aptamer for BPA detection via NanoAptamer assay were investigated. One of the truncated aptamers (24-mer) has shown a significantly better performance (limit of detection, LOD, 0.17 pg/mL) than the reference 73-mer aptamer (LOD, 570 pg/mL). It has also shown the best selectivity for BPA detection over BPA analogues (i.e., bisphenol B, bisphenol C, and diethylstilbestrol). It corresponded to a normalized fluorescence change of 33.7% at the environmentally relevant concentration of 1 ng/mL (1 ppb) BPA; however, the analogues remained unchanged (2.3-3.9%).

Trimester-Specific Urinary Bisphenol A Concentrations and Blood Glucose Levels Among Pregnant Women From a Fertility Clinic

CONTEXT

Women with a history of infertility are at increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance during pregnancy. Studies suggest higher urinary bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations are associated with diabetes in nonpregnant populations, but the association between BPA and glucose levels among pregnant women is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To assess trimester-specific urinary BPA concentrations in relation to blood glucose levels among subfertile women.

DESIGN

Environment and Reproductive Health Study, an ongoing prospective cohort study.

SETTING

A fertility center in a teaching hospital.

PATIENTS

A total of 245 women contributed at least one urine sample during first and/or second trimesters, delivered a singleton or twin pregnancy, and had available blood glucose data (2005 to 2015).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Blood glucose levels after a nonfasting 50-g glucose challenge test at 24 to 28 weeks of gestation.

RESULTS

The specific gravity-adjusted geometric mean urinary BPA concentrations during first and second trimesters were 1.39 and 1.27 µg/L, respectively. Second-trimester BPA concentrations were positively associated with blood glucose (P, trend = 0.01). Specifically, the adjusted mean glucose levels (95% confidence interval) for women in the highest quartile of second-trimester BPA concentrations was 119 (112, 126) mg/dL compared with 106 (100, 112) mg/dL for women in the lowest quartile. No associations were observed between first-trimester BPA concentrations and glucose levels.

CONCLUSIONS

BPA exposure during the second trimester may have adverse effect on blood glucose levels among subfertile women. As the findings represent the first report suggesting a potential etiologically relevant window for BPA and glucose in humans, further studies are needed.

Bisphenol a induces steatosis in HepaRG cells using a model of perinatal exposure

Human exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) could favor obesity and related metabolic disorders such as hepatic steatosis. Investigations in rodents have shown that these deleterious effects are observed not only when BPA is administered during the adult life but also with different protocols of perinatal exposure. Whether perinatal BPA exposure could pose a risk in human is currently unknown, and thus appropriate in vitro models could be important to tackle this major issue. Accordingly, we determined whether long-term BPA treatment could induce steatosis in human HepaRG cells by using a protocol mimicking perinatal exposure. To this end, the kinetics of expression of seven proteins differentially expressed during liver development was determined during a 4-week period of cell culture required for proliferation and differentiation. By analogy with data reported in rodents and humans, our results indicated that the period of cell culture around day 15 and day 18 after seeding could be considered as the "natal" period. Consequently, HepaRG cells were treated for 3 weeks with BPA (from 0.2 to 2000 nM), with a treatment starting during the proliferating period. BPA was able to induce steatosis with a nonmonotonic dose response profile, with significant effects on neutral lipids and triglycerides observed for the 2 nM concentration. However, the expression of many enzymes involved in lipid and carbohydrate homeostasis was unchanged in exposed HepaRG cells. The expression of other potential BPA targets and enzymes involved in BPA biotransformation was also determined, giving answers as well as new questions regarding the mechanisms of action of BPA. Hence, HepaRG cells provide a valuable model that can prove useful for the toxicological assessment of endocrine disruptors on hepatic metabolisms, in particular in the developing liver. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 1024-1036, 2017.

Environmental Contaminants and Pancreatic Beta-Cells

Despite health policies as well as clinical and research efforts, diabetes prevalence is still rising around the world. A multitude of causes have been suggested for this increase, mostly related to familial background, the occidental diet which is rich in fat/carbohydrates, and sedentary life style. Type 2 diabetes involves malfunctions of the primary pancreatic beta-cells, usually attributed to local damage; however, it can be associated with other stressful environmental agents, such as chemical contaminants from food, plastic and air, among others. Indeed, exposure to these chemical agents during perinatal and adolescent life can increase the risk of developing cardiometabolic diseases later in life. This review explores data showing which environmental chemical agents may produce injury in beta-cells and further impair the insulinotropic process of type 2 diabetes. Additionally, it points the need to also consider unusual causes of metabolic diseases, such as environmental contaminants.

Obesogen effects after perinatal exposure of 4,4'-sulfonyldiphenol (Bisphenol S) in C57BL/6 mice

Bisphenol A were removed from consumer products and replaced by chemical substitutes such as Bisphenol S (BPS). Based on their structural similarity, BPS may be obesogen like Bisphenol A in mice. Our objective was to determine the impact of BPS on lipid homeostasis in C57Bl/6 mice after perinatal and chronic exposure. Pregnant mice were exposed to BPS via the drinking water (0.2; 1.5; 50μg/kg bw/d). Treatment began at gestational day 0 and continued in offspring up to 23-weeks old. Then, offspring mice were fed with a standard or high fat diet. The body weight, food consumption, fat mass and energy expenditure were measured. A lipid load test was performed to check the postprandial triglyceridemia. Plasma parameters and mRNA gene expression in adipose tissues were also analysed. BPS induced overweight in male mice offspring fed with a HFD at the two highest doses. There was no change in food intake and energy expenditure. The overweight was correlated to the fat mass, hyperinsulinemia and hyperleptinemia. The plasma triglyceride clearance was significantly increased with BPS and tyloxapol(®) (triglyceride clearance inhibitor) reversed this phenomenon. BPS induced alteration in mRNA expression of marker genes involved in adipose tissue homeostasis: hormone sensitive lipase, PPARγ, insulin receptor, SOCS3 and adiponectin. This is the first time that BPS is described as obesogenic at low doses and after perinatal and chronic exposure in male mice. BPS potentiated the obesity induced by a HFD by inducing the lipid storage linked to faster lipid plasma clearance.

Interrelation of Glycemic Status and Neuropsychiatric Disturbances in Farmers with Organophosphorus Pesticide Toxicity

BACKGROUND

Diverse group of agro-chemicals are indiscriminately sprayed by the farmers for pest control to enhance crop yield. About 25 million agricultural workers in the developing world suffer from at least one episode of poisoning each year, mainly by anticholinesterase- like organophosphates (OPs).

OBJECTIVE

The present study was aimed to establish the OP toxicity in 187 occupationally exposed pesticide sprayers of mango plantation in rural Malihabad, Lucknow, in terms of neuro-cognitive impairment, mental health status, clinical symptoms, diabetes, and hematological factors.

METHOD

The exposed group was compared to 187 pesticides-unexposed normal healthy persons engaged in normal usual agricultural work (age, sex and education corresponding to age group of selected subject group) from Rural Malihabad, Lucknow (India). Neuro-cognitive impairment was measured using the Subjective Neurocognition Inventory and mental health status using the General Health questionnaire-28. The subjects were also tested for biochemical and enzymatic parameters.

RESULTS

The exposed farmers showed alterations in enzymatic and clinical parameters. While the rates of anxiety / insomnia and severe depression were also significantly higher in the pesticide sprayers, disorders affecting psychomotor speed, selective attention, divided attention, verbal memory, nonverbal memory, prospective memory, spatial functioning, and initiative/energy were all lower in the sprayers. Pesticide sprayers showed a number of clinical symptoms like eczema, saliva secretion, fatigue, headache, sweating, abdominal pain, nausea, superior distal muscle weakness, inferior distal muscle weakness, hand tingling and etc. which all significantly correlated with the number of working years.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that farmers who work with OPs are prone to neuro-psychological disorders and diabetes.

Evaluation of low doses BPA-induced perturbation of glycemia by toxicogenomics points to a primary role of pancreatic islets and to the mechanism of toxicity

Epidemiologic and experimental studies have associated changes of blood glucose homeostasis to Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure. We took a toxicogenomic approach to investigate the mechanisms of low-dose (1 × 10⁻⁹M) BPA toxicity in ex vivo cultures of primary murine pancreatic islets and hepatocytes. Twenty-nine inhibited genes were identified in islets and none in exposed hepatocytes. Although their expression was slightly altered, their impaired cellular level, as a whole, resulted in specific phenotypic changes. Damage of mitochondrial function and metabolism, as predicted by bioinformatics analyses, was observed: BPA exposure led to a time-dependent decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, to an increase of ROS cellular levels and, finally, to an induction of apoptosis, attributable to the bigger Bax/Bcl-2 ratio owing to activation of NF-κB pathway. Our data suggest a multifactorial mechanism for BPA toxicity in pancreatic islets with emphasis to mitochondria dysfunction and NF-κB activation. Finally, we assessed in vitro the viability of BPA-treated islets in stressing condition, as exposure to high glucose, evidencing a reduced ability of the exposed islets to respond to further damages. The result was confirmed in vivo evaluating the reduction of glycemia in hyperglycemic mice transplanted with control and BPA-treated pancreatic islets. The reported findings identify the pancreatic islet as the main target of BPA toxicity in impairing the glycemia. They suggest that the BPA exposure can weaken the response of the pancreatic islets to damages. The last observation could represent a broader concept whose consideration should lead to the development of experimental plans better reproducing the multiple exposure conditions.

Ubiquitous occurrence of chlorinated byproducts of bisphenol A and nonylphenol in bleached food contacting papers and their implications for human exposure

The occurrence of bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenol (NP), and their six chlorinated byproducts were investigated in 74 food contacting papers (FCPs) from China, the U.S.A., Japan, and Europe using a sensitive dansylation LC-MS/MS method. BPA (<LOQ-83 ng/g) and NP (<LOQ-5.4 ng/g) were widely detected in FCPs, while the six chlorinated byproducts were detected in less than half of the samples. The concentrations of chlorinated BPAs and chlorinated NPs in FCPs were significantly correlated with the concentrations of BPA and NP, respectively, and their concentrations mainly depended on bleaching processes in paper production. The mean concentrations of monochloro-BPA (MCBPA), dichloro-BPA (DCBPA), trichloro-BPA (TCBPA), tetrachloro-BPA (TeCBPA), monochloro-NP (MCNP), and dichloro-NP (DCNP) in bleached FCPs were 0.019 ± 0.025, 0.0033 ± 0.0059, 0.0030 ± 0.0045, 0.0081 ± 0.019, 0.23 ± 0.46, and 0.066 ± 0.11 ng/g, respectively, much higher than those (0.0021 ± 0.0020 ng/g for MCBPA, 0.00068 ± 0.00076 ng/g for DCBPA, <LOQ for TCBPA and TeCBPA, 0.006 ± 0.003 ng/g for MCNP, and <LOQ for DCNP) in unbleached FCPs. Furthermore, it was shown that BPA, NP, and some of their chlorinated byproducts could migrate from coffee filters into coffee solution with migration rates of 71 ± 10% for BPA, 2.4 ± 0.33% for NP, 47 ± 1.4% for MCBPA, and 0.35 ± 0.11% for MCNP. This is the first report on the occurrence of chlorinated derivatives of BPA and NP in FCPs and their migration, which provides important information to comprehensively understand human exposure to BPA, NP, and their chlorinated derivatives.

Bisphenol A and the risk of cardiometabolic disorders: a systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence

Bisphenol A (BPA) is suspected to be associated with several chronic metabolic diseases. The aim of the present study was to review the epidemiological literature on the relation between BPA exposure and the risk of cardiometabolic disorders. PubMed and Embase databases were searched up to August 2014 by two independent investigators using standardized subject terms. We included observational studies (cohort, case-control and cross-sectional studies) carried out in children or adults, measuring urinary BPA (uBPA), including at least 100 participants and published in English. The health outcomes of interest were diabetes, hyperglycemia, measures of anthropometry, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and hypertension. Data were extracted and meta-analyzed when feasible, using a random-effects model. Thirty-three studies with sample size ranging from 239 to 4811 met the inclusion criteria, including five with a prospective design. Twelve studies reported on diabetes or hyperglycemia, 16 on anthropometry, 6 on CVD and 3 on hypertension. Evidence for a positive association between uBPA concentrations and diabetes, overweight, obesity, elevated waist circumference (WC), CVD and hypertension was found in 7/8, 2/7, 6/7, 5/5, 4/5 and 2/3 of the cross-sectional studies, respectively. We were able to conduct outcome-specific meta-analyses including 12 studies. When comparing the highest vs. the lowest uBPA concentrations, the pooled ORs were 1.47 (95% CI: 1.21-1.80) for diabetes, 1.21 (95% CI: 0.98-1.50) for overweight, 1.67 (95% CI: 1.41-1.98) for obesity, 1.48 (95% CI: 1.25-1.76) for elevated WC, and 1.41 (95% CI: 1.12-1.79) for hypertension. Moreover, among the five prospective studies, 3 reported significant findings, relating BPA exposure to incident diabetes, incident coronary artery disease, and weight gain. To conclude, there is evidence from the large body of cross-sectional studies that individuals with higher uBPA concentrations are more likely to suffer from diabetes, general/abdominal obesity and hypertension than those with lower uBPA concentrations. Given the potential importance for public health, prospective cohort studies with proper adjustment for dietary characteristics and identification of critical windows of exposure are urgently needed to further improve knowledge about potential causal links between BPA exposure and the development of chronic disease.

Relationship of serum bisphenol A with diabetes in the Thai population, National Health Examination Survey IV, 2009

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological studies of the association between bisphenol A (BPA) exposure and diabetes have been inconsistent. The present study determined serum BPA concentrations in the Thai population and their association with hyperglycemia and diabetes.

METHODS

In all, 2581 serum samples from the Thai National Health Examination Survey (2009) were used to determine BPA levels. Impaired fasting glucose (IFG) was defined as fasting plasma glucose ≥100 and <126 mg/dL. Diabetes was defined as a history of a physician's diagnosis or fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the association of serum BPA with IFG and diabetes.

RESULTS

Of 2581 samples tested, BPA was detected in 2135 samples (weighted percentage 78.1%), with a geometric mean concentration of 0.34 ng/mL BPA. Serum BPA levels were significantly higher among those with diabetes or IFG compared with normoglycemic individuals (0.52 and 0.38 vs 0.33 ng/mL, respectively; P < 0.001). After adjusting for potential confounders, compared with the first quartile (≤0.071 ng/mL), the overall adjusted odds ratios (OR) of serum BPA concentration in the third and fourth quartiles (0.319-0.745 and ≥0.746 ng/mL, respectively) for IFG were 1.72 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.19, 2.49) and 1.23 (95% CI 0.80, 1.89), respectively; for diabetes, the adjusted OR were 1.88 (95% CI 1.18, 2.99) and 1.83 (95% CI 1.12, 2.95), respectively, with a slightly stronger association among men than in women.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum BPA concentrations were not associated with IFG, but were positively associated with diabetes in the Thai population. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm the relationship.

Early-life risk factors for chronic nonrespiratory diseases

We have witnessed a change in disease patterns contributing to the global burden of disease, with a shift from early childhood deaths due to the classic infectious communicable diseases to years lived with disability from chronic noncommunicable diseases. In both developing and developed countries, the years lived with disability attributable to chronic disease have increased: cardiovascular diseases by 17.7%; chronic respiratory disease by 8.5%; neurological conditions by 12.2%; diabetes by 30.0%; and mental and behavioural disorders by 5.0% over the past 20 years. Recognition of the contribution made by adverse environmental exposures in early life to noncommunicable diseases in later life is increasing. These early-life exposures appear to contribute to both chronic respiratory and chronic nonrespiratory diseases. In this State of the Art article, we aim to examine early-life environmental exposures that have an epidemiological association with chronic nonrespiratory diseases, such as obesity and type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurocognitive and behavioural problems. We will highlight the potential overlap in environmental risks with respiratory diseases, and point out knowledge gaps and research opportunities.

Dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in human blood: causes or consequences of diabetic nephropathy?

Nephropathy, or kidney disease, is a major, potential complication of diabetes. We assessed the association of 6 chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, 9 chlorinated dibenzofurans and 8 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in blood with diabetic nephropathy in the 1999-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (unweighted N=2588, population estimate=117,658,357). Diabetes was defined as diagnosed or undiagnosed (glycohemoglobin ≥ 6.5%) and nephropathy defined as urinary albumin to creatinine ratio >30 mg/g, representing microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria. For the 8 chemicals analyzed separately, values above the 75th percentile were considered elevated, whereas for the other 15 compounds values above the maximum limit of detection were considered elevated. Seven of 8 dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, analyzed separately, were found to be associated with diabetic nephropathy. The chemicals associated with diabetic nephropathy were: 1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran; PCB 126; PCB 169; PCB 118; and PCB 156. Three of the 8 dioxins and dioxin-like compounds; 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran and PCB 118; expressed as log-transformed continuous variables; were associated with diabetes without nephropathy. When 4 or more of the 23 chemicals were elevated the odds ratios were 7.00 (95% CI=1.80-27.20) for diabetic nephropathy and 2.13 (95% CI=0.95-4.78) for diabetes without nephropathy. Log-transformed toxic equivalency (TEQ) was associated with both diabetic nephropathy, and diabetes without nephropathy, the odds ratios were 2.35 (95% CI=1.57-3.52) for diabetic nephropathy, and 1.44 (95% CI=1.11-1.87) for diabetes without nephropathy. As the kidneys function to remove waste products from the blood, diabetic nephropathy could be either the cause or the consequence (or both) of exposure to dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs.

Perinatal BPA exposure induces hyperglycemia, oxidative stress and decreased adiponectin production in later life of male rat offspring

The main object of the present study was to explore the effect of perinatal bisphenol A (BPA) exposure on glucose metabolism in early and later life of male rat offspring, and to establish the potential mechanism of BPA-induced dysglycemia. Pregnant rats were treated with either vehicle or BPA by drinking water at concentrations of 1 and 10 µg/mL BPA from gestation day 6 through the end of lactation. We measured the levels of fasting serum glucose, insulin, adiponectin and parameters of oxidative stress on postnatal day (PND) 50 and PND100 in male offspring, and adiponectin mRNA and protein expression in adipose tissue were also examined. Our results showed that perinatal exposure to 1 or 10 µg/mL BPA induced hyperglycemia with insulin resistance on PND100, but only 10 µg/mL BPA exposure had similar effects as early as PND50. In addition, increased oxidative stress and decreased adiponectin production were also observed in BPA exposed male offspring. Our findings indicated that perinatal exposure to BPA resulted in abnormal glucose metabolism in later life of male offspring, with an earlier and more exacerbated effect at higher doses. Down-regulated expression of adiponectin gene and increased oxidative stress induced by BPA may be associated with insulin resistance.

Bisphenol A and human chronic diseases: current evidences, possible mechanisms, and future perspectives

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is one of the highest volume chemicals produced worldwide, with over 6billion pounds produced and over 100t released into the atmosphere each year. Recent extensive literature has raised concerns about its possible implication in the etiology of some human chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, reproductive disorders, cardiovascular diseases, birth defects, chronic respiratory and kidney diseases and breast cancer. In this review, we present the highlighted evidences on the relationship between BPA exposure and human chronic diseases and we discuss its eventual mechanisms of action, especially genetic, epigenetic and endocrine disruption mechanisms with the possible involvement of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and cell signaling.

An investigation into bisphenol-A leaching from orthodontic materials

OBJECTIVE

To quantitatively determine the bisphenol-A (BPA) leached from orthodontic materials during simulated intraoral exposure.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples of orthodontic materials were subjected to simulated abrasion, immersion in artificial saliva, thermal shock via temperature cycling, and simulated intraoral exposure. Sample aliquots were collected for up to 2 weeks after artificial saliva immersion, derivatized, then analyzed for BPA by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Quantifiable amounts of leached BPA were observed from a thermoformed orthodontic retainer material (7.63 µg/g of material) and an orthodontic adhesive (2.75 µg/g of material). BPA leaching was only observed within the first 3 days of artificial saliva immersion.

CONCLUSIONS

Under the test conditions, BPA was observed to leach from two orthodontic materials. While the quantities of leached BPA were below the reference dose for daily intake, existing data of low-dose effects and medical disorders associated with elevated urinary BPA levels suggest that BPA exposure, and thus the use of the leaching materials identified in this study, should be reduced or eliminated.

Bisphenol A and human health: a review of the literature

There is growing evidence that bisphenol A (BPA) may adversely affect humans. BPA is an endocrine disruptor that has been shown to be harmful in laboratory animal studies. Until recently, there were relatively few epidemiological studies examining the relationship between BPA and health effects in humans. However, in the last year, the number of these studies has more than doubled. A comprehensive literature search found 91 studies linking BPA to human health; 53 published within the last year. This review outlines this body of literature, showing associations between BPA exposure and adverse perinatal, childhood, and adult health outcomes, including reproductive and developmental effects, metabolic disease, and other health effects. These studies encompass both prenatal and postnatal exposures, and include several study designs and population types. While it is difficult to make causal links with epidemiological studies, the growing human literature correlating environmental BPA exposure to adverse effects in humans, along with laboratory studies in many species including primates, provides increasing support that environmental BPA exposure can be harmful to humans, especially in regards to behavioral and other effects in children.

Hepatic and renal functions in growing male rats after bisphenol A and octylphenol exposure

This study aimed to determine the effects of 13-week bisphenol A (BPA) and octylphenol (OP) exposure on the liver, kidney, and spleen of growing male rats. A total of 29 male Wistar rats aged 4–5 weeks were divided into five groups. The treatment groups were given low-dose (125 mg/kg bw/day) or high-dose (250 mg/kg bw/day) BPA or OP. These compounds were dissolved in corn oil and given via oral route for 13 weeks. Rats in the control group received corn oil for 13 weeks, as well. After 13 weeks of treatment, blood samples were analyzed for biochemical parameters. Tissue samples from the liver, kidney, and spleen were histopathologically and histomorphometrically examined. Liver tissue specimens were also stained by immunohistochemically; the number of apoptotic cells was counted, and the apoptotic indices were calculated. There were significant differences between the control and treatment groups with respect to the following parameters: body weight, relative left kidney weight, and total protein, glucose, and alkaline phosphatase levels. Edema and parenchymal degeneration in the liver and tubular degeneration in the kidney were more frequent in the treatment groups. The control and treatment groups were comparable with respect to the frequency of histopathological lesions in the spleen. Glomerular histomorphometry revealed no significant differences between the control and treatment groups. No significant differences existed between the control and treatment groups with respect to the number of apoptotic cells and apoptotic indices. Subchronic exposure to BPA and OP induced functional and structural changes in the liver, kidney, and spleen of growing male rats.

Evaluation of the INS-1 832/13 cell line as a beta-cell based screening system to assess pollutant effects on beta-cell function

Environmental pollutants have recently emerged as potential risk factors for metabolic diseases, urging systematic investigation of pollutant effects on metabolic disease processes. To enable risk assessment of these so-called metabolic disruptors the use of stable, robust and well-defined cell based screening systems has recently been encouraged. Since beta-cell (dys)functionality is central in diabetes pathophysiology, the need to develop beta-cell based pollutant screening systems is evident. In this context, the present research evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of the INS-1 832/13 pancreatic beta-cell line as diabetogenic pollutant screening system with a focus on beta-cell function. After optimization of exposure conditions, positive (exendin-4, glibenclamide) and negative (diazoxide) control compounds for acute insulin secretion responses were tested and those with the most profound effects were selected to allow potency estimations and ranking of pollutants. This was followed by a first explorative screening of acute bisphenol A and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate effects. The same approach was applied for chronic exposures, focusing primarily on evaluation of acknowledged chronic stimulators (diazoxide, T0901317, exendin-4) or inhibitors (glibenclamide) of insulin secretion responses to select the most responsive ones for use as control compounds in a chronic pollutant testing framework. Our results showed that INS-1 832/13 cells responded conform previous observations regarding acute effects of control compounds on insulin secretion, while bisphenol A and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate had limited acute effects. Furthermore, chronic exposure to known beta-cell reactive compounds resulted in deviating insulin secretion and insulin content profiles compared to previous reports. In conclusion, this INS-1 subclone appears to lack certain characteristics needed to respond appropriately to acute pollutant exposure or long term exposure to known beta-cell reactive compounds and thus seems to be, in our setting, inadequate as a diabetogenic pollutant screening system.

Early life factors and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a multifactorial disease, and its aetiology involves a complex interplay between genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. In recent years, evidences from both human and animal experiments have correlated early life factors with programming diabetes risk in adult life. Fetal and neonatal period is crucial for organ development. Many maternal factors during pregnancy may increase the risk of diabetes of offsprings in later life, which include malnutrition, healthy (hyperglycemia and obesity), behavior (smoking, drinking, and junk food diet), hormone administration, and even stress. In neonates, catch-up growth, lactation, glucocorticoids administration, and stress have all been found to increase the risk of insulin resistance or T2DM. Unfavorable environments (socioeconomic situation and famine) or obesity also has long-term negative effects on children by causing increased susceptibility to T2DM in adults. We also address the potential mechanisms that may underlie the developmental programming of T2DM. Therefore, it might be possible to prevent or delay the risk for T2DM by improving pre- and/or postnatal factors.

Is bisphenol-A exposure during pregnancy associated with blood glucose levels or diagnosis of gestational diabetes?

Recent epidemiological studies indicate bisphenol A (BPA), an estrogenic chemical used in production of epoxy, polycarbonate, and plastic may increase risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Exposure to BPA during pregnancy may contribute to development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), a precursor to type 2 diabetes in women. This pilot study examined the association between BPA exposure, fasting blood glucose levels (FBG), and GDM diagnosis during pregnancy. Banked urine samples from 22 cases of GDM and 72 controls were analyzed for total (free BPA + conjugates) urinary BPA concentrations (μg/L). FBG levels (mg/dl) were obtained from 1-h 50-g glucose tolerance tests (GTT) that women underwent for routine GDM screening (mean gestational age = 26.6 weeks, SD = 3.8). Those with an initial screening value ≥ 135 mg/dl underwent 3-h 100 g oral GTT. GDM diagnoses were made when the initial screening value was ≥ 200 mg/dl or when values at ≥ 2 time points exceeded 3-h oral GTT thresholds. Among controls, median FBG levels (mg/dL) did not differ across exposure tertiles, defined according to the distribution of total specific-gravity-adjusted urinary BPA concentrations. Logistic regression models controlling for race/ethnicity did not provide evidence of association between BPA exposure and case status across increasing tertiles of BPA exposure (number of GDM cases/controls in tertile1: 13/24; in tertile 2: 6/24; in tertile 3: 3/24). Findings do not support a relationship between total urinary BPA concentrations and altered glucose metabolism during pregnancy. However, due to study limitations, findings need to be interpreted with caution.

Low-level phenolic estrogen pollutants impair islet morphology and β-cell function in isolated rat islets

Phenolic estrogen pollutants, a class of typical endocrine-disrupting chemicals, have attracted public attention due to their estrogenic activities of imitating steroid hormone 17β-estradiol (E(2)) effects. Exposure to these pollutants may disrupt insulin secretion and be a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. In this study, we investigated the direct effects of phenolic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES), octylphenol (OP), nonylphenol (NP), and bisphenol A (BPA) on rat pancreatic islets in vitro, whose estrogenic activities were DES>NP>OP>BPA. Isolated β-cells were exposed to E(2), DES, OP, NP, or BPA (0, 0.1, 0.5, 2.5, 25, and 250 μg/l) for 24 h. Parameters of insulin secretion, content, and morphology of β-cells were measured. In the glucose-stimulated insulin secretion test, E(2) and DES increased insulin secretion in a dose-dependent manner in a 16.7 mM glucose condition. However, for BPA, NP, or OP with lower estrogenic activity, the relationship between the doses and insulin secretion was an inverted U-shape. Moreover, OP, NP, or BPA (25 μg/l) impaired mitochondrial function in β-cells and induced remarkable swelling of mitochondria with loss of distinct cristae structure within the membrane, which was accompanied by disruption of mRNA expression of genes playing a key role in β-cell function (Glut2 (Slc2a2), Gck, Pdx1, Hnf1α, Rab27a, and Snap25), and mitochondrial function (Ucp2 and Ogdh). Therefore, these phenolic estrogens can disrupt islet morphology and β-cell function, and mitochondrial dysfunction is suggested to play an important role in the impairment of β-cell function.

Immunomodulatory effects of environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals

During recent decades more than 100,000 new chemicals have been introduced as common consumer products into our environment. Among these chemicals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are of particular concern owing to their toxicity in animal studies and their impacts on human health. EDCs are ubiquitous in the environment, including the air, water, and soil. The endocrine-disrupting effect of EDCs has been found to imitate the action of steroid hormones and promote several endocrine and reproductive disorders in both animal and human studies. In the present review, we focus on the effects of EDCs on the immune system. EDCs interfere with the synthesis of cytokines, immunoglobulins, and inflammatory mediators, and they also affect the activation and survival of immune cells. The dysfunction of the immune system caused by EDCs may lead to the attenuation of immunity (immunodeficiency) against infection or hyperreactivity of immune responses (allergy and autoimmune disease). In this review, we summarize epidemiologic, animal, and cell studies to demonstrate the potential effects of EDCs on immunity, allergy, and autoimmune diseases. We also address the impact of EDCs on epigenetic regulation.

Ultrasensitive one-step rapid visual detection of bisphenol A in water samples by label-free aptasensor

A simple, one-step, rapid method to detect bisphenol A (BPA) using a label-free aptasensor is presented. A high selective anti-BPA aptamer was added to gold nanoparticles (GNPs) to prepare the label-free aptasensor for BPA, which maintains good tolerance of GNPs under aqueous conditions with high salt concentrations. With the presence of BPA in the aptasensor system, the GNPs would aggregate by competitive binding of BPA and aptamer. Detection results can be visualized by the aggregation-induced color change of GNPs without the use of any instrumentation. The limit of visual detection (LOD) was found to be 0.1ng/mL by naked-eye observation, which was competitive to some current rapid BPA detection methods, even some instrumental based methods. Besides the obvious advantages, including reduced detection time and operation procedures, the results of this method meet the various detection requirements for BPA and are comparable to the traditional ELISA and instrument-based methods. The proposed one-step, label-free method was successfully used to determine BPA in actual water samples.

Bisphenol S in urine from the United States and seven Asian countries: occurrence and human exposures

As concern regarding the toxic effects of bisphenol A (BPA) grows, BPA in many consumer products is gradually being replaced with compounds such as bisphenol S (BPS). Nevertheless, data on the occurrence of BPS in human specimens are limited. In this study, 315 urine samples, collected from the general populations in the United States, China, India, Japan, Korea, Kuwait, Malaysia, and Vietnam, were analyzed for the presence of total BPS (free plus conjugated) concentrations by high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). BPS was detected in 81% of the urine samples analyzed at concentrations ranging from below the limit of quantitation (LOQ; 0.02 ng/mL) to 21 ng/mL (geometric mean: 0.168 ng/mL). The urinary BPS concentration varied among countries, and the highest geometric mean concentration [1.18 ng/mLor 0.933 μg/g creatinine (Cre)] of BPS was found in urine samples from Japan, followed by the United States (0.299 ng/mL, 0.304 μg/g Cre), China (0.226 ng/mL, 0.223 μg/g Cre), Kuwait (0.172 ng/mL, 0.126 μg/g Cre), and Vietnam (0.160 ng/mL, 0.148 μg/g Cre). Median concentrations of BPS in urine samples from the Asian countries were 1 order of magnitude lower than the median concentrations reported earlier for BPA in the same set of samples, with the exception of samples from Japan. There were no significant differences in BPS concentrations between genders (male versus female), or among age groups (categorized as ≤ 19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, and ≥ 50 years), or races (Caucasian versus Asian). The daily intake (EDI) of BPS was estimated on the basis of urinary concentrations using a simple pharmacokinetic approach. The median EDI values of BPS in Japan, China, United States, Kuwait, Vietnam, Malaysia, India, and Korea were 1.67, 0.339, 0.316, 0.292, 0.217, 0.122, 0.084, and 0.023 μg/person, respectively. This is the first study to report the occurrence of BPS in human urine.

Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses

For decades, studies of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have challenged traditional concepts in toxicology, in particular the dogma of "the dose makes the poison," because EDCs can have effects at low doses that are not predicted by effects at higher doses. Here, we review two major concepts in EDC studies: low dose and nonmonotonicity. Low-dose effects were defined by the National Toxicology Program as those that occur in the range of human exposures or effects observed at doses below those used for traditional toxicological studies. We review the mechanistic data for low-dose effects and use a weight-of-evidence approach to analyze five examples from the EDC literature. Additionally, we explore nonmonotonic dose-response curves, defined as a nonlinear relationship between dose and effect where the slope of the curve changes sign somewhere within the range of doses examined. We provide a detailed discussion of the mechanisms responsible for generating these phenomena, plus hundreds of examples from the cell culture, animal, and epidemiology literature. We illustrate that nonmonotonic responses and low-dose effects are remarkably common in studies of natural hormones and EDCs. Whether low doses of EDCs influence certain human disorders is no longer conjecture, because epidemiological studies show that environmental exposures to EDCs are associated with human diseases and disabilities. We conclude that when nonmonotonic dose-response curves occur, the effects of low doses cannot be predicted by the effects observed at high doses. Thus, fundamental changes in chemical testing and safety determination are needed to protect human health.