Organochlorine pesticides in soil, air, and vegetation at and around a contaminated site in southwestern China: Concentration, transmission, and risk evaluation

Linking pesticide exposure to neurodegenerative diseases: An in vitro investigation with human neuroblastoma cells

Although many organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been banned or restricted because of their persistence and linkage to neurodegenerative diseases, there is evidence of continued human exposure. In contrast, registered herbicides are reported to have a moderate to low level of toxicity; however, there is little information regarding their toxicity to humans or their combined effects with OCPs. This study aimed to characterize the mechanism of toxicity of banned OCP insecticides (aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, and lindane) and registered herbicides (trifluralin, triallate, and clopyralid) detected at a legacy contaminated pesticide manufacturing and packing site using SH-SY5Y cells. Cell viability, LDH release, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and caspase 3/7 activity were evaluated following 24 h of exposure to the biocides. In addition, RNASeq was conducted at sublethal concentrations to investigate potential mechanisms involved in cellular toxicity. Our findings suggested that aldrin and heptachlor were the most toxic, while dieldrin, lindane, trifluralin, and triallate exhibited moderate toxicity, and clopyralid was not toxic to SH-SY5Y cells. While aldrin and heptachlor induced their toxicity through damage to the cell membrane, the toxicity of dieldrin was partially attributed to necrosis and apoptosis. Moreover, toxic effects of lindane, trifluralin, and triallate, at least partially, were associated with ROS generation. Gene expression profiles suggested that decreased cell viability induced by most of the tested biocides was related to inhibited cell proliferation. The dysregulation of genes encoding for proteins with anti-apoptotic properties also supported the absence of caspase activation. Identified enriched terms showed that OCP toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells was mediated through pathways associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. In conclusion, this study provides a basis for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of pesticide-induced neurotoxicity. Moreover, it introduced SH-SY5Y cells as a relevant in vitro model for investigating the neurotoxicity of pesticides in humans.

Atmospheric emissions of hexachlorobutadiene in fine particulate matter from industrial sources

Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) is a concerning chemical that is included in the United States Toxic Substances Control Act, and the Stockholm Convention. Knowledge of the sources of HCBD is insufficient and is pivotal for accurate inventory and implementing global action. In this study, unintentional HCBD release and source emission factors of 121 full-scale industrial plants from 12 industries are investigated. Secondary copper smelting, electric arc furnace steelmaking, and hazardous waste incineration show potential for large emission reductions, which are found of high HCBD emission concentrations of > 20 ng/g in fine particulate matter in this study. The highest HCBD emission concentration is observed for the secondary copper smelting industry (average: 1380 ng/g). Source emission factors of HCBD for the 12 industries range from 0.008 kg/t for coal fire power plants to 0.680 kg/t for secondary lead smelting, from which an estimation of approximately 8452.8 g HCBD emissions annually worldwide achieved. The carcinogenic risks caused by HCBD emissions from countries and regions with intensive 12 industrial sources are 1.0-80 times higher than that without these industries. These results will be useful for formulating effective strategies of HCBD control.

Assessing pesticides in the atmosphere: A global study on pollution, human health effects, monitoring network and regulatory performance

Pesticides are widely used in agriculture, but their impact on the environment and human health is a major concern. While much attention has been given to their presence in soil, water, and food, there have been few studies on airborne pesticide pollution on a global scale. This study aimed to assess the extent of atmospheric pesticide pollution in countries worldwide and identify regional differences using a scoring approach. In addition to analyzing the health risks associated with pesticide pollution, we also examined agricultural practices and current air quality standards for pesticides in these countries. The pollution scores varied significantly among the countries, particularly in Europe. Asian and Oceanic countries generally had higher scores compared to those in the Americas, suggesting a relatively higher level of air pollution caused by pesticides in these regions. It is worth noting that the current pollution levels, as assessed theoretically, pose minimal health risks to humans. However, studies in the literature have shown that excessive exposure to pesticides present in the atmosphere has been associated with various health problems, such as cancer, neuropsychiatric disorders, and other chronic diseases. Interestingly, European countries had the highest overall pesticide application intensities, but this did not necessarily correspond to higher atmospheric pesticide pollution scores. Only a few countries have established air quality standards specifically for pesticides. Furthermore, pollution scores across states in the USA were investigated and the global sampling sites were mapped. The findings revealed that the scores varied widely in the USA and the current sampling sites were limited or unevenly distributed in some countries, particularly the Nordic countries. These findings can help global relevant environmental agencies to set up comprehensive monitoring networks. Overall, the present research highlights the need to create a pesticide monitoring system and increase efforts to enhance pesticide regulation, ensure consistency in standards, and promote international cooperation.

Role of nutraceutical against exposure to pesticide residues: power of bioactive compounds

Pesticides play a crucial role in modern agriculture, aiding in the protection of crops from pests and diseases. However, their indiscriminate use has raised concerns about their potential adverse effects on human health and the environment. Pesticide residues in food and water supplies are a serious health hazards to the general public since long-term exposure can cause cancer, endocrine disruption, and neurotoxicity, among other health problems. In response to these concerns, researchers and health professionals have been exploring alternative approaches to mitigate the toxic effects of pesticide residues. Bioactive substances called nutraceuticals that come from whole foods including fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices have drawn interest because of their ability to mitigate the negative effects of pesticide residues. These substances, which include minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, and polyphenols, have a variety of biological actions that may assist in the body's detoxification and healing of harm from pesticide exposure. In this context, this review aims to explore the potential of nutraceutical interventions as a promising strategy to mitigate the toxic effects of pesticide residues.

Understanding the driving mechanisms of site contamination in China through a data-driven approach

China currently faces significant environmental risks stemming from contaminated sites. The driving mechanism of site contamination, influenced by various drivers, remain obscured due to a dearth of quantitative methodologies and comprehensive data. Here, we used a data-driven causality inference approach to construct an interpretable random forest (RF) model. Results show that: (1) the trained RF model demonstrated remarkable predictive accuracy for identifying contaminated sites, with an accuracy rate of 0.89. In contrast to conventional correlation analysis, the RF model excels in discerning the key drivers through non-linear and genuine causal relationships between these drivers and site contamination. (2) Among the 25 potential drivers, we identified 18 key drivers of site contamination. These drivers encompass a broad spectrum of factors, including production and operational data, pollutant control level, site protection capability, pollutant characteristics, and physical-geographical conditions. (3) Each key driver exerts varying impacts on site pollution, with diverse directions, intensities, and underlying patterns. The partial dependence plots (PDPs) illuminate the role of each key driver, its critical value contributing to site pollution, and the interplay between these drivers. The key drivers facilitate the realization of three primary contamination processes: uncontrolled release, effective migration, and persistent accumulation. In light of our findings, environmental managers can proactively prevent site contamination by regulating single, dual, and multiple key drivers to disrupt critical pollution processes. This research offers valuable insights for devising targeted strategies and interventions aimed at mitigating environmental risks associated with contaminated sites in China.

Air pollutants in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and pulmonary tuberculosis: A mediation analysis of gene-specific methylation

Particulate matter (PM) exposure could alter the risk of tuberculosis, but the underlying mechanism is still unclear. We enrolled 132 pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients and 30 controls. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples were collected from all participants to detect organochlorine pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metal elements, and DNA methylation of immunity-related genes. We observed that γ-HCH, Bap, Sr, Ag, and Sn were related to an increased risk of PTB, while Cu and Ba had a negative effect. IFN-γ, IL-17A, IL-2, and IL-23 had a higher level in the PTB group, while IL-4 was lower. The methylation of 18 CpG sites was statistically associated with PTB risk. The methylation at the IL-4_06_121 site showed a significant mediating role on γ-HCH, Sr, and Sn. Our study suggests that PM exposure can increase the risk of tuberculosis by affecting DNA methylation and cytokine expression.

The rapid increase of urban contaminated sites along China's urbanization during the last 30 years

Contaminated sites pose serious threats to the soil environment and human health. However, the location and temporal changes of urban contaminated sites across China remain unknown due to data scarcity. Here, we developed a machine-learning model to identify the contaminated sites using public data. Results show that the trained model with 2,005 surveyed site samples and six variables can achieve a model performance evaluation value of 0.86. 43,676 contaminated sites were identified from 83,498 polluting enterprise plots in China. However, these contaminated sites have significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity, mainly located in economically developed provinces, urban agglomerations, and core urban areas. Moreover, the contaminated sites increased by 325% along with urban expansion from 1990 to 2018. The abandoned contaminated sites increased rapidly, but the contaminated sites in production decreased continuously. This methodological framework and our findings contribute to the precise management of contaminated sites and provide insights into urban sustainable development.

Airborne Pesticides-Deep Diving into Sampling and Analysis

The escalating utilization of pesticides has led to pronounced environmental contamination, posing a significant threat to agroecosystems. The extensive and persistent global application of these chemicals has been linked to a spectrum of acute and chronic human health concerns. This review paper focuses on the concentrations of airborne pesticides in both indoor and outdoor environments. The collection of diverse pesticide compounds from the atmosphere is examined, with a particular emphasis on active and passive air sampling techniques. Furthermore, a critical evaluation is conducted on the methodologies employed for the extraction and subsequent quantification of airborne pesticides. This analysis takes into consideration the complexities involved in ensuring accurate measurements, highlighting the advancements and limitations of current practices. By synthesizing these aspects, this review aims to foster a more comprehensive and informed comprehension of the intricate dynamics related to the presence and measurement of airborne pesticides. This, in turn, is poised to significantly contribute to the refinement of environmental monitoring strategies and the augmentation of precise risk assessments.

Airborne Pesticides from Agricultural Practices: A Critical Review of Pathways, Influencing Factors, and Human Health Implications

This critical review examines the release of pesticides from agricultural practices into the air, with a focus on volatilization, and the factors influencing their dispersion. The review delves into the effects of airborne pesticides on human health and their contribution to anthropogenic air pollution. It highlights the necessity of interdisciplinary research encompassing science, technology, public policy, and agricultural practices to effectively mitigate the risks associated with pesticide volatilization and spray dispersion. The text acknowledges the need for more research to understand the fate and transport of airborne pesticides, develop innovative application technologies, improve predictive modeling and risk assessment, and adopt sustainable pest management strategies. Robust policies and regulations, supported by education, training, research, and development, are crucial to ensuring the safe and sustainable use of pesticides for human health and the environment. By providing valuable insights, this review aids researchers and practitioners in devising effective and sustainable solutions for safeguarding human health and the environment from the hazards of airborne pesticides.

New and legacy pesticidal persistent organic pollutants in the agricultural region of the Sultanate of Oman

Comprehensive air and surface soil monitoring was conducted for new and legacy organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) to fill the knowledge and data gap on the sources and fate of pesticidal persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the Sultanate of Oman. DDTs in agricultural soil samples ranged from 0.013 to 95.80 ng/g (mean: 8.4 ± 25.06 ng/g), with a median value of 0.07 ng/g. The highest concentration was observed at Shinas, where intensive agricultural practice is prevalent. The dominance of p,p'-DDT in soil and air reflected technical DDT formulation usage in Oman. Among newly enlisted POPs, pentachlorobenzene had the maximum detection frequency in air (47%) and soil (41%). Over 90% of sites reflected extensive past use of hexachlorobenzene. Major OCP isomers and metabolites showed net volatilisation from the agricultural soil, thereby indicating concurrent emission and re-emission processes from the soil of Oman. However, the cleansing effect of oceanic air mass is the possible reason for relatively lower atmospheric OCP levels from a previous study. Although DDT displayed maximum cancer risk, the level is below the permissible limit. DDT primarily stemmed from obsolete stock and inadequate management practices. Hence, we suggest there is a need for DDT regulation in Oman.

Empirical model to assess leaching of pesticides in soil under a steady-state flow and tropical conditions

Abstract

An empirical model of leaching of pesticides was developed to simulate the concentration of fungicides throughout unsaturated soil. The model was based on chemical reactions and the travel time of a conservative tracer to represent the travel time required for water to flow between soil layers. The model's performance was then tested using experimental data from dimethomorph and pyrimethanil applied to the soil under field and laboratory conditions. The empirical model simulated fungicide concentration on soil solids and in soil solution at different depths over time (mean square error between 2.9 mg2 kg-2 and 61mg2 kg-2) using sorption percentages and degradation rates under laboratory conditions. The sorption process was affected by the organic carbon, clay, and the effective cation exchange capacity of the soil. The degradation rate values of dimethomorph (0.039 d-1-0.009 d-1) and pyrimethanil (0.053 d-1-0.004 d-1) decreased from 0 to 40 cm and then remained constant in deeper soil layers (60-80 cm). Fungicide degradation was a critical input in the model at subsurface layers. The model was determined to be a reliable mathematical tool to estimate the leachability of pesticides in tropical soil under a steady-state flow. It may be extended to other substances and soils for environmental risk assessment projects.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13762-023-05038-w.

Target and non-target analysis of organochlorine pesticides and their transformation products in an agrochemical-contaminated area

Organochlorine pesticides show biological toxicity and their degradation typically takes many years. Previous studies of agrochemical-contaminated areas have mainly focused on limited target compounds, and emerging pollutants in soil have been overlooked. In this study, we collected soil samples from an abandoned agrochemical-contaminated area. Target analysis and non-target suspect screening by gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry were combined for qualitative and quantitative analysis of organochlorine pollutants. Target analysis showed that dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) were the main pollutants. With concentrations between 3.96 × 10⁶ and 1.38 × 10⁷ ng/g, these compounds posed significant health risks at the contaminated site. Non-target suspect screening identified 126 organochlorine compounds, most of which were chlorinated hydrocarbons and 90% of the compounds contained a benzene ring structure. The possible transformation pathways of DDT were inferred from proven pathways and the compounds identified by non-target suspect screening that had similar structures to DDT. This study will be useful for studies of the degradation mechanism of DDT. Semi-quantitative and hierarchical cluster analysis of compounds in soil showed that the distribution of contaminants in soil was influenced by the types of pollution sources and distance to them. Twenty-two contaminants were found in the soil at relatively high concentrations. The toxicities of 17 of these compounds are currently not known. These results improve our understanding of the environmental behavior of organochlorine contaminants in soil and are useful for further risk assessments of agrochemical-contaminated areas.

Outdoor Atmospheric Micro-/Nanomineral-Mediated Organochlorine Pesticides in Sichuan Basin, China: Adsorption, Occurrence, and Risk Assessment

Atmospheric micro-/nanominerals play an important role in the adsorption, enrichment, and migration of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). In the present study, the correlations between OCPs and minerals in outdoor atmospheric dustfall were investigated, and the correlations were used to speculate the source of p,p'-(dicofol+dichlorobenzophenone [DBP]), which is the sum of p,p'-dicofol and p,p'-DBP. Atmospheric dustfall samples were collected from 53 sites in the Chengdu-Deyang-Mianyang economic region in the Sichuan basin. In this region, 24 OCPs were analyzed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The average concentration of 24 OCPs was 51.2 ± 27.4 ng/g. The results showed that the concentration of Σ₂₄ OCPs in urban areas was higher than that in suburban areas (p < 0.05). Minerals in atmospheric dustfall were semiquantitatively analyzed by X-ray diffraction. The primary minerals were quartz, calcite, and gypsum. A Spearman correlation analysis of OCPs and minerals showed that low-volatility OCPs could be adsorbed by minerals in atmospheric dustfall. A density functional theory simulation verified that p,p'-(dicofol+DBP) in atmospheric dustfall was primarily derived from the p,p'-dicofol adsorbed by gypsum. Isomeric ratio results suggested that the samples had weathered lindane and chlordane profiles and confirmed that residents in the Sichuan basin used technical dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Finally, the OCPs were evaluated to determine the potential risk of cancer in adults and children from OCP exposure. Exposure to OCPs via atmospheric dustfall was safe for adults. The cancer risk for children exposed to OCPs was slightly lower than the threshold value (10^-6 ) under a high dust ingestion rate, which poses a concern. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:594-604. © 2022 SETAC.

Coming ecological risks of organochlorine pesticides and novel brominated flame retardants in the Yellow River Basin

To conduct ecological risk assessment, food, water and soil samples were collected from five densely populated irrigation areas in the Yellow River Basin (YRB), and analyzed for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs). The results showed that the OCP residues (∑₁₄OCP were 0.748 ng L^-1, 13.1 ng g^-1 dw and 3.22 ng g^-1 dw in water, soil and maize) were generally within moderate levels in the YRB. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) residues dominated the OCPs, and potential ecological risks to aquatic and terrestrial organisms likely stemmed from dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) pollution in the upper reaches of the YRB in the Ningxia and Hetao Plain. The NBFR concentrations in the YRB were 90.9 pg L^-1 in water, 21.1 pg g^-1 dw in soil and 3.81 pg g^-1 dw in maize. Positive correlations were observed between soil and maize contamination in the five irrigated districts, indicating a potential threat to grain security and human health risks caused by OCPs and NBFRs. Pollutants detected in soil and maize primarily originated from historical use (36.3 %), while the sources in water were more complex (64.4 %) and new inputs could not be excluded. Integrated health risks of human exposure to agricultural products and water from the YRB were acceptable. However, the ecological risk of the Ningxia Plain would further deteriorate to the medium risk after 2032. The increasing ecological risk of DDT in water indicates that regular monitoring should strengthen to ensure grain and water safety in the YRB.

Past, present and future trends of selected pesticidal and industrial POPs in Kuwait

Given the background of current global initiatives for controlling persistent organic pollutants (POPs), an overview of the scientific knowledge about the POPs issues in Kuwait is presented in this study. Both acute and chronic exposure to POPs can be associated with a wide range of deleterious health effects, including illness and death. POPs have drawn significant political and scientific interest in their fate and actions, particularly where local releases have resulted in dispersed contamination far from the source regions. These concerns inevitably led to the establishment of the Stockholm Convention (SC) on POPs. In recent years, Kuwait has carried out a wide variety of environmental research, in particular, on the monitoring of POPs in different matrices. The technological development facilitated to achieve the opposite monitoring of pesticidal and industrial POPs. The majority of these POPs are from a point source. Kuwait does not have pesticide manufacturing facilities and has not produced pesticides for POPs in the past. In the agriculture sector, Kuwait primarily imports pesticides for pest and disease control. This review encompasses the historical presence and current status of (pesticidal) organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and (industrial POPs) PCBs and PBDEs in Kuwait based on the export, import, consumption and usage. This research also contrasts pesticide and industrial POP data from various Kuwaiti environmental matrices with data from other parts of Asia, the EU, the USA and Africa.

Characteristics and Residual Health Risk of Organochlorine Pesticides in Fresh Vegetables in the Suburb of Changchun, Northeast China

In this study, eleven organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in fresh vegetables in the Changchun suburb were investigated, and their potential health risks were evaluated. The average concentrations of OCPs in edible parts of vegetables were found in the following descending order: Σhexachlorocyclohexanes (ΣHCHs) (6.60 µg·kg^-1) > Σdichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (ΣDDTs) (5.82 µg·kg^-1) > ΣChlordanes (2.37 µg·kg^-1) > heptachlor (0.29 µg·kg^-1). Moreover, OCPs in different types of vegetables exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs), and the exceeding rates in various vegetables decreased in the following order: leafy vegetables (19.12%) > root vegetables (18.75%) > fruit vegetables (3.85%). The proportions of OCPs exceeding MRL in different vegetables were found in the following descending order: Welsh onion (22.50%) > radish (18.75%) > Chinese cabbage (14.29%) > pepper (6.90%) > cucumber (3.23%) > eggplant (2.94%) > tomato (2.78%). The sources' identification results showed that DDTs in vegetables came mainly from newly imported technical DDTs and dicofol, while HCHs originated mainly from lindane. For both adults and children, the average target hazard quotients (avg. THQ) were all less than 1, and the average hazard index (avg. HI) values were 0.043 and 0.036, respectively. There were no significant health risks associated with OCP exposure for the inhabitants of the study area.

Past and future pesticide losses to Chinese waters under socioeconomic development and climate change

Increasing pesticide use pollutes Chinese surface waters. Pesticides often enter waters through surface runoff from agricultural fields. This occurs especially during heavy rainfall events. Socio-economic development and climate change may accelerate future loss of pesticides to surface waters due to increasing food production and rainfall events. The main objective of this study is to model past and future pesticide losses to Chinese waters under socio-economic development and climate change. To this end, we developed a pesticide model with local information to quantify the potential pesticide runoff from near-stream agriculture to surface waters after heavy rainfall. We project future trends in potential pesticide runoff. For this, we developed three scenarios: Sustainability, "Middle of the Road" and Economy-first. These scenarios are based on combined Shared Socio-economic Pathways and Representative Concentration Pathways. We identified hotspots with high potential pesticide runoff. The results show that the potential pesticide runoff increased by 45% from 2000 to 2010, nationally. Over 50% of the national pesticide runoff in 2000 was in five provinces. Over 60% of the Chinese population lived in pesticide polluted hotspots in 2000. For the future, trends differ among scenarios and years. The largest increase is projected for the Economy-first scenario, where the potential pesticide runoff is projected to increase by 85% between 2010 and 2099. Future pesticide pollution hotspots are projected to concentrate in the south and south-east of China. This is the net-effect of high pesticide application, intensive crop production and high precipitation due to climate change. In our scenarios, 58%-84% of the population is projected to live in pesticide polluted hotspots from 2050 onwards. These projections can support the development of regional management strategies to control pesticide pollution in waters in the future.

Applying the Global Monitoring Plan and analysis of POPs results in atmospheric air in Mexico (2017-2018)

Air is one of the target matrices of the Global Monitoring Plan (GMP) of the Stockholm Convention to determine concentrations and transport of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Mexico participates in the GMP for POPs in ambient air through the AIR-Global Environment Facility (GEF) program. The objective of this study was to analyze the results of POPs monitoring of air samples collected in Los Mochis, Sinaloa, Mexico, between 2017 and 2018. Passive samplers were used for the determination of chlorinated basic POPs, indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (Ind. PCBs), polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs). A principal component analysis was applied to determine relationships between pollutants and groups present in the ambient air of the rural study area. Of the total POPs analyzed, 85.56% were detected in ambient air samples from Mexico. Organochlorine compounds, as DDT derivatives, were identified mainly, as well as PBDEs, PCDDs, and PCDFs. The prevalence of compounds differed according to the seasonality of sampling, with no change in average concentration between monitoring years.

Combining Soil Vapor Extraction and Electrokinetics for the Removal of Hexachlorocyclohexanes from Soil

This paper focuses on the evaluation of the mobility of four hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers by soil vapor extraction (SVE) coupled with direct electrokinetic (EK) treatment without adding flushing fluids. SVE was found to be very efficient and remove nearly 70 % of the four HCH in the 15-days of the tests. The application of electrokinetics produced the transport of HCH to the cathode by different electrochemical processes, which were satisfactorily modelled with a 1-D transport equation. The increase in the electric field led to an increase in the transport of pollutants, although 15 days was found to be a very short time for an efficient transportation of the pollutants to the nearness of the cathode. Loss of water content in the vicinity of the cathode warns about the necessity of using electrokinetic flushing technologies instead of simple direct electrokinetics. Thus, results point out that direct electrokinetic treatment without adding flushing fluids produced low current intensities and ohmic heating that contributes negatively to the performance of the SVE process. No relevant differences were found among the removal of the four isomers, neither in SVE nor in EK processes.

Spatiotemporal evaluation of organochlorine pesticide residues in bottom sediments of the Rio de Ondas hydrographic basin, western Bahia, Brazil

The Rio de Ondas Hydrographic Basin (ROHB), Bahia state, Brazil, is located in a region with abundant water resources and is highly impacted by intense agricultural activity. In such a scenario, the use of organochlorine pesticides can represent a potential risk to the aquatic environments, due to their persistence, high bioaccumulation capacity, and high toxicity. Thus, organochlorine pesticide residues in bottom sediment samples from rivers on eighteen sites distributed along the ROHB in the dry and rainy periods were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The validated method showed no matrix effect, recoveries ranging from 82% (β-HCB) to 118% (DDD), limits of detection between 0.003 ng g^-1 (α-HCH) and 0.011 ng g^-1 (DDT), limits of quantification of 0.010 ng g^-1 (α-HCH) to 0.036 ng g^-1 (DDT), repeatability with the highest relative standard deviation of 0.97% (α-hexachlorocyclohexane at 2.000 ng g^-1), and inter-day precision ranging from 10% (aldrin at 0.050 ng g^-1 and 0.600 ng g^-1 and α-endosulfan at 0.600 ng g^-1) to 25% (β-endosulfan at 0.050 ng g^-1). Although most compounds were banned since 1985, it was observed that their residues were widely distributed in the ROHB, with the total concentrations varying from 3.242 ng g^-1 (P02) to 12.052 ng g^-1 (P17) and from 0.313 ng g^-1 (P14) to 30.861 ng g^-1 (P13) in the dry and rainy periods, respectively, which may be related to historical contamination and/or prohibited use. Moreover, the spatiotemporal variation showed the highest concentrations of organochlorine pesticide residues in the rainy season, coinciding with the planting period.

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in high mountain lakes, Mexico

Pollution levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were investigated in the El Sol and the La Luna alpine lakes. The lakes are located in central Mexico, in the crater of the Nevado de Toluca volcano. The El Sol and the La Luna lakes are extremely relevant in Mexico and in the world because they are recognized as pristine regions and environmental reservoirs. Samples of atmospheric aerosol, sediment, plankton, and Tubifex tubifex (sludge worm) were collected at three different sample locations for three years (2017, 2018, and 2019) at three different times of year, meaning that the weather conditions at the time of sampling were different. Pollutants were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with negative chemical ionisation (GC-MS/NCI). Endosulfan was the most frequent and abundant pollutant, showing the highest peaks of all. Atmospheric aerosol revealed Σ₂ = 45 pg/m³, including α and β, while sediment lakes displayed α, β and endosulfan sulfate as Σ₃ = 1963 pg/g, whereas plankton and Tubifex tubifex showed Σ₂ = 576 pg/g and 540 pg/g for α and β respectively. Results of endosulfan ratios (α/β) and (α-β/endosulfan sulfate) suggest that both fresh and old discharges continue to arrive at the lakes. This study shows for the first time the pollution levels of OCP and PCB in high mountain lakes in Mexico. These results that must be considered by policy makers to mitigate their use in the various productive activities of the region.

Enhancing soil vapor extraction with EKSF for the removal of HCHs

This paper evaluates the combination of electrokinetic soil flushing (EKSF) with soil vapor extraction (SVE) for the removal of four hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers contained in a real matrix. Results demonstrate that the combination of EKSF and SVE can be positive, but it is required the application of high electric fields (3 V cm^-1) in order to promote a higher temperature in the system, which improves the volatilization of the HCH contained in the system. Electrokinetic transport is also enhanced with the application of higher electric gradients, but these transport processes are slower than the volatilization processes, which are the primary in this system. Hence collection of species in the electrolyte wells is negligible as compared to the compound dragged with air by the SVE but the temperature increase demonstrates a good performance. Combination of EKSF with SVE can efficiently exhaust the four HCH isomers reaching a removal of more than 90% after 15 days of treatment (20% more than values attained by SVE) but it is required the application of high electric fields to promote a higher temperature in the system (to improve the volatilization) and EK transport (to improve the dragging). 1-D transport model can be easily used to estimate the average pore water velocity and the effective diffusion of each compound under the different experimental conditions tested.

Removal of lindane using electrokinetic soil flushing coupled with air stripping

This paper evaluates the remediation of soil spiked with lindane using a combined treatment consisting of electrokinetic soil flushing (EKSF) with air stripping to elucidate the main processes occurring in the soil when electric fields of 0.75 V cm−1 and 1.50 V cm−1 are applied. The results demonstrate that lindane is efficiently transported to the anodic and cathodic wells using flushing fluids containing sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Additionally, an important amount is volatilized and stripped with the injected air. In the cathodic well, lindane is rapidly transformed into other species because of the strongly alkaline media. These other species are also found in the portions of soil next to this well, confirming the efficient transport of chlorinated organics with SDS. After 14 days of operation, nearly 50% of the spiked lindane can be removed from the soil. Operation with large electric fields does not improve the performance of the treatment technology and results in lower current intensities and electro-osmotic fluxes and in higher evaporated water, despite the water content in the soil matrix, indicating the coexistence of multiple inputs in these processes.

Graphical abstract

Effectiveness of predicting the spatial distributions of target contaminants of a coking plant based on their related pollutants

The prediction accuracy of the spatial distribution of soil pollutants at a site is relatively low. Related pollutants can be used as auxiliary variables to improve the prediction accuracy. However, little relevant research has been conducted on site soil pollution. To analyze the prediction accuracy of target pollutants combined with auxiliary pollutants, Cu, toluene, and phenanthrene were selected as the target pollutants for this study. Based on geostatistical analysis and spatial analysis, the following results were obtained. (1) The reduction in the root mean square errors (RMSEs) for Cu, toluene, and phenanthrene with multivariable cokriging was 68.4%, 81.6%, and 81.2%, respectively, which are proportional to the correlation coefficient of the relationship between the auxiliary pollutants and the target pollutants. (2) The RMSEs calculated for the multivariable cokriging were lower than those obtained by only combining one related pollutants, and two co-variables should be better. (3) The predicted results for Cu, phenanthrene, and toluene and their corresponding related pollutants are more accurate than the results obtained not using the related pollutants. (4) In the interpolation process, the RMSEs for Cu, toluene, and phenanthrene with multivariable cokriging basically increase as the neighborhood sample data increases, and then they become stable. (5) When 84, 61, and 34 sample points were removed, the RMSEs for Cu, toluene, and phenanthrene, respectively, with multivariable cokriging were close to the RMSEs of the target pollutants based on the total samples. The results are of great significance to improving the prediction accuracy of the spatial distribution of soil pollutants at coking plant sites.

Natural dynamics and residues of pymetrozine for typical rice-growing areas of China

Pymetrozine has replaced toxic organophosphate pesticides previously used for controlling pests of rice crops in China. Existing data on its environmental behavior are usually related to studies on artificial plots that do not adequately address the natural dynamics and residues in actual field conditions. Therefore, studies under field conditions were carried out to investigate the natural dynamics and residues of pymetrozine in two typical rice-growing areas in China - Hunan and Guangxi provinces. Samples of paddy soil and water were collected in relation to spraying events in the study areas. The quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method was used to extract pymetrozine residues from the samples by a Waters ACQUITY UPLC (Milford, MA, USA) system interfaced with a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer (Xevo TQ-D, Waters Corp., USA). The initial deposition of pymetrozine in paddy soils was higher than in paddy waters in both areas. The decay of pymetrozine followed an exponential trend consistent with the first order kinetics. The half-life of pymetrozine in paddy water was determined to be 3.0 and 3.8 days, whereas the half-life in soil was 3.8 and 3.5 days in the Guangxi and Hunan samples, respectively. The decline rates of pymetrozine in paddy soil and paddy water in this field study were faster than those conducted under non-field conditions reported in previous studies. Compared to other pesticides used in China as reported in previous studies, the environmental persistence of pymetrozine in both paddy water and soils in Guangxi and Hunan provinces is very low. This has important implications for the use of pymetrozine in agricultural systems globally.

Glutamatergic transmission associated with locomotion-related neurotoxicity to lindane over generations in Caenorhabditis elegans

Organochlorine pesticide lindane in the environment and biota results in the potential risks on ecosystem and human health. Lindane can adversely affect the locomotion and nervous system, yet the potential neurotoxicity of lindane over generations remains uncertain. In this study, the neurotoxicity and underlying mechanisms in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) were investigated after parental (P0) exposure to lindane at environmentally relevant concentrations over generations. Exposure to lindane at concentrations of 10-100 ng/L significantly decreased body bends and head thrashes in P0 generation. Significant decrease of fluorescence labeled different neurotransmitters, and clear morphological changes by exposure to lindane at 10-100 ng/L suggested that lindane could induce the neuronal damage in C. elegans. During the transgenerational process, decreased locomotive behaviors were also observed in F1-F3 generations, and head thrashes returned to normal levels in F4 generation. Moreover, lindane exposure down-regulated the expression of dat-1, dop-1, glr-1 and mod-1genes, while up-regulated unc-30 gene in P0 generation, which recovered to normal levels in F4 generation. Interestingly, eat-4 continued to be regulated from inhibition to stimulation in P0-F4 generations, suggesting that glutamatergic transmission may more contribute to the neurotoxicity of lindane over generations.

Occurrence of pyrethroids in the atmosphere of urban areas of Southeastern Brazil: Inhalation exposure and health risk assessment

The occurrence of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) used decades ago for vector control in urban areas is still reported as a threat to human health. Pyrethroids emerged as a replacement for OCPs in sanitary campaigns and are currently the main insecticides used for vector control worldwide, with prominent use as agricultural and household insecticides, for veterinary and gardening purposes, and as wood preservative. This study aimed to assess the occurrence, seasonal variation, and potential sources of pyrethroids in ambient air of two urban regions of Southeastern Brazil, along with the potential health risks to local populations via inhalation exposure. Pyrethroids were sampled by polyurethane foam passive air samplers and their concentrations were determined by gas chromatography coupled with electron capture negative ionization mass spectrometry (GC/ECNI-MS). Atmospheric pyrethroid concentrations (hereinafter reported in pg m^-3) were considerably higher than those reported by previous studies worldwide. Cypermethrin (median: 2446; range: 461-15 125) and permethrin (655; 19-10 328) accounted for 95% of the total measured pyrethroids in ambient air. The remaining fraction comprised smaller amounts of bifenthrin (46; <limit of detection (LOD)-5171), deltamethrin (58; <LOD-564), phenothrin (7; <LOD-22) and fenvalerate (0.3; <LOD-3). Bifenthrin, deltamethrin and permethrin were linked to local sources, while cypermethrin, fenvalerate and phenothrin had more prominent regional contributions. In broad terms, most pyrethroids showed no clear seasonal trend. The concentrations and hazard quotients (HQs) showed the following order of occurrence and magnitude: urban > urban-industrial > background areas. HQs increased with decreasing age group, but deterministic and probabilistic estimates did not identify direct health risks for any group. Nevertheless, since only inhalation exposure was considered in this work, other pathways should be investigated to provide a more comprehensive risk assessment of the human exposure to pyrethroids.

Pharmaceuticals, pesticides and metals/metalloids in Lake Guaíba in Southern Brazil: Spatial and temporal evaluation and a chemometrics approach

Compiling and reporting data related to the presence of pharmaceuticals and pesticides are crucial means of assessing the risk those chemicals pose to human health and environment. Data sets from different sources were combined using a data fusion approach to produce a spatial and temporal variation of contaminants presents in water from Lake Guaíba (29°55'-30°24' S; 51°01'-51°20' W). Lake Guaíba is a 496 km² water body situated in the geological depression of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil; that is fed by several rivers from the metropolitan area, the 5th largest metro area in Brazil, with approximately 5 million inhabitants. Analytical methodology to quantify pharmaceuticals and pesticides by LC-QTOF-MS and GC-MS/MS was validated for 41 pharmaceutical and 62 pesticides. Furthermore, 27 chemical elements were analyzed by ICP-MS, and physical chemical parameters were determined using established methodologies. All validation parameters were in accordance with the National Institute of Metrology, Standardization, and Industrial Quality. Thirty-five water samples were analyzed from January to August 2019, and 15 pharmaceuticals and 25 pesticides were present in concentrations ranging from 6.00 ng L^-1 to 580.00 ng L^-1. Twenty-seven elements were analyzed during the same period, and 18 were present in concentrations ranging from 0.2 μg L^-1 to 7060 μg L^-1. Samples were tagged according to the points and months of collection to identify temporal and spatial patterns. The main findings show that the compounds are distributed throughout the studied area without an apparent regular pattern, suggesting that events in a specific point affect the entire ecosystem. Conversely, temporal variations were well defined, as samples were grouped according to the climatic conditions of the months of collection. Considering the calculated quotient risks, atrazine, cyproconazole, diuron, and simazine showed the highest risk levels for algae; acetaminophen, diclofenac, and ibuprofen showed the highest risk levels for aquatics invertebrates.

Serum concentrations of organochlorine pesticides, biomarkers of oxidative stress, and risk of breast cancer

Studies have documented that exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) is linked with breast cancer, but the underlying biological mechanisms are still unknown. This study included 313 women diagnosed with breast cancer and 313 controls in Wuhan, China, and measured 18 OCPs in serum and 3 oxidative stress biomarkers in urine. Multivariable adjusted regression models were used to evaluate the associations among OCPs, oxidative stress biomarkers, and breast cancer. The mediating effect of oxidative stress was assessed by mediation analysis. We observed that most OCPs were positively associated with risk of breast cancer (all FDR-P values < 0.05 or 0.10). Moreover, we found that p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, dieldrin, heptachlor, and heptachlor epoxide were positively associated with 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-mercapturic acid (HNE-MA) and 8-iso-prostaglandin F_2α (8-isoPGF_2α), which in turn were positively associated with risk of breast cancer. Mediation analysis indicated that HNE-MA and 8-isoPGF_2ɑ mediated the positive associations between these OCPs and risk of breast cancer, with mediating proportion ranging from 6.23% to 19.9%. Our results suggest that lipid peroxidation may mediate the positive associations between OCP exposures and risk of breast cancer.

Health risk assessment of hexachlorocyclohexane in soil, water and plants in the agricultural area of Potohar region, Punjab, Pakistan

In this study analysis of soil, water and plant residue samples is presented to evaluate the contamination levels and possible health risks. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) is a persistent organic pollutant used as a pesticide in agricultural sector for pest control in order to obtain higher productivity. For analysis soil, water and crop residue samples were collected from different agricultural areas of the northern Punjab region of Pakistan. The investigation of the samples shows significant levels of HCH residues in all types of samples. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis was used to assess the higher residue levels of HCH in the samples. The concentration of HCH residues detected in samples ranged from 2.43 to 8.88 µg/g in soil, nd -5.87 µg/l in water and nd - 4.87 µg/g in plants. The presence of HCH residues in soil, water and plant samples was beyond the recommended quality guidelines. Human health risk was evaluated for cancer and non-cancer risks through dietary and non-dietary exposure routes. The hazard index was HI > 1 in children and HI < 1 in adults, while the non-dietary incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCR) were beyond the internationally acceptable limit of 1 × 10^-5. Hence, results of the present investigation concluded the presence of high levels of HCH residues in samples and pose high health risk to the inhabitants. These findings are alarming and apprise the concerned departments for the remediation of contamination and proper implementation of environmental laws in the area.

Decade-scale change in testate amoebae community primarily driven by anthropogenic disturbance than natural change in a large subtropical reservoir

Understanding the extent of human activities leading to an influx of chemical pollutants that cause substantial environmental transformations is the focus of much ongoing research. In this study, we present a multi-proxy record based on a sediment core from a large subtropical reservoir (Xinfengjiang Reservoir) in south China with an emphasis on the changes in testate amoebae community, in combination with sedimentological (radioactivity, physicochemistry, nutrient and organochlorine pesticides) and climatological (air temperature and precipitation) data over the last three decades. Twenty-seven testate amoebae species belonging to seven genera (Arcella, Centropyxis, Cyclopyxis, Difflugia, Netzelia, Euglypha and Pseudodifflugia) were observed. Species richness, abundance and biomass of testate amoebae were in ranges of 18-26 species, 616-825 ind. ml^-1 and 9.0-19.4 μg C ml^-1, respectively. Two development stages of the reservoir, dated to 1978-1993 (stage 1) and 1993-2006 (stage 2), were distinguished based on testate amoebae communities. Stage 1 was characterized by elevated dry bulk density, carbon-to‑nitrogen ratio and p,p'-DDE in the sediment core and an impact of nitrogen and sulfur deficiency on testate amoebae. Stage 2 was marked by a decrease of dry bulk density, elevated concentrations of aluminum, iron and carbon, low carbon-to‑nitrogen ratio and organochlorine pesticides, fluctuations in rainfall on shorter and yearly timescales, and a stronger influence of the organochlorine pesticides on testate amoebae. Testate amoebae community change and the identified two-stage development were consistent with atmospheric deposition of organochlorine pesticides from anthropogenic sources inside and outside the reservoir watershed, nutrient influx and sediment physicochemistry. The testate amoebae community dynamics and a strong community-environment relationship in stage 2 were linked with non-random patterns in the biotic neighborhoods of species (deterministic processes). The results suggest a stronger impact of anthropogenic disturbance than natural environmental change on testate amoebae community variation of Xinfengjiang Reservoir over time.

Keystone taxa shared between earthworm gut and soil indigenous microbial communities collaboratively resist chlordane stress

Chlordane is an organochlorine pesticide that is applied extensively. Residual concentrations that remain in soils after application are highly toxic to soil organisms, particularly affecting the earthworm gut and indigenous soil microorganisms. However, response mechanisms of the earthworm gut and indigenous soil microorganism communities to chlordane exposure are not well known. In this study, earthworms (Metaphire guillelmi) were exposed to chlordane-contaminated soils to investigate their response mechanisms over a gradient of chlordane toxicity. Results from high-throughput sequencing and network analysis showed that the bacterial composition in the earthworm gut varied more significantly than that in indigenous soil microbial communities under different concentrations of chlordane stress (2.3-60.8 mg kg^-1; p < 0.05). However, keystone species of Flavobacterium, Candidatus Nitrososphaera, and Acinetobacter remained stable in both the earthworm gut and bacterial communities despite varying degrees of chlordane exposure, and their relative abundance was slightly higher in the low-concentration treatment group (T1, T2) than in the high-concentration treatment group (T3, T4). Additionally, network analysis demonstrated that the average value of the mean degree of centrality, closeness centrality, and eigenvector centrality of all keystone species screened by four methods (MetagenomeSeq, LEfSe, OPLS-DA, Random Forest) were 161.3, 0.5, and 0.63, respectively, and that these were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than values for non-keystone species (84.9, 0.4, and 0.2, respectively). Keystone species had greater network connectivity and a stronger capacity to degrade pesticides and transform carbon and nitrogen than non-keystone species. The keystone species, which were closely related to the microbial community in soil indigenous flora and earthworm intestinal flora, could resist chlordane stress and undertake pesticide degradation. These results have increased understanding of the role of the earthworm gut and indigenous soil bacteria in resisting chlordane stress and sustaining microbial equilibrium in soil.

Pesticides in a case study on no-tillage farming systems and surrounding forest patches in Brazil

With the growing global concern on pesticide management, the relationship between its environmental recalcitrance, food security and human health has never been more relevant. Pesticides residues are known to cause significant environmental contamination. Here, we present a case study on long-term no-tillage farming systems in Brazil, where Glyphosate (GLY) has been applied for more than 35 years. GLY and its main breakdown product, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) were determined in topsoil (0-10 cm) samples from no-tillage fields and nearby subtropical secondary forests by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector. In addition, the presence of carbamates, organochlorines, organophosphates and triazines were also screened for. GLY and AMPA were present in all soil samples, reaching values higher than those described for soils so far in the literature. A significant decrease for AMPA was observed only between the secondary forest and the farm's middle slope for site B. GLY and AMPA were observed respectively at peak concentrations of 66.38 and 26.03 mg/kg soil. GLY was strongly associated with forest soil properties, while AMPA associated more with no-tillage soil properties. Soil texture was a significant factor contributing to discrimination of the results as clay and sand contents affect GLY and AMPA retention in soils. This was the first study to report DDT and metabolites in consolidated no-tillage soils in Brazil (a pesticide fully banned since 2009). Based on human risk assessment conducted herein and the potential risk of GLY to local soil communities, this study offers a baseline for future studies on potential adverse effects on soil biota, and mechanistic studies.

Organochlorine pesticide residues in Uganda's honey as a bioindicator of environmental contamination and reproductive health implications to consumers

Honey has multifaceted nutritional and medicinal values; however, its quality is hinged on the floral origin of the nectar. Taking advantage of the large areas that they cover; honeybees are often used as bioindicators of environmental contamination. The focus of the present paper was to examine the quality of honey from within the vicinity of an abandoned pesticide store in Masindi District in western Uganda. Surficial soils (<20 cm depths) and honey samples were collected from within the vicinity of the abandoned pesticide store and analysed for organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues using gas chromatograph coupled to an electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The mean level of ∑DDTs in all the soil samples was 503.6 µg/kg dry weight (d.w). ∑DDTs contributed 92.2% to the ∑OCPs contamination loads in the soil samples, and others (lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, and endosulfans) contributed only 7.8%. Ratio (p, p'-DDE+p, p'-DDD)/p, p'-DDT of 1.54 suggested historical DDT input in the area. In all the honey samples, the mean level of ∑DDTs was 20.9 µg/kg. ∑DDTs contributed 43.3% to ∑OCPs contamination loads in the honey samples, followed by lindane (29.8%), endosulfans (23.6%) and dieldrin (3.2%), with corresponding mean levels of 14.4, 11.4 and 1.55 µg/kg, respectively. Reproductive risk assessment was done based on the hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) procedure. In our study, the calculated HIs for adults (102.38), and children (90.33) suggested high potential health risks to the honey consumers. Lindane, endosulfan and p, p'-DDD detected in the honey samples at levels exceeding the acute reference dose (ARfD) are known risk factors for spontaneous abortion, reduced implantation, menstrual cycle shortening, impaired semen quality, and prostate cancer in exposed individuals and experimental animal models.

Hexachlorocyclohexane toxicity in water bodies of Pakistan: challenges and possible reclamation technologies

Pakistan is an agro-economy country where hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) pesticides are being used to improve crop productivity, as a result the risk of contamination of soil and sediment has been increased. HCH exhibits all the characteristics of persistent organic pollutants (POP), and was therefore added to the list of 'new POPs' in 2009. This review report revealed that the major rivers of Pakistan such as the Indus Basin, River Ravi, River Chenab and their tributaries all are contaminated with HCH and the highest residual concentration (4,090 ng/g) was detected in a pesticide burial ground in Hyderabad city. Major sources of HCH contamination were identified as agricultural runoff, discharge of untreated industrial effluents and surface runoff. In order to manage HCH pollution, various ex-situ and in-situ remediation techniques along with their merits and demerits are thoroughly reviewed. Among these, microbial bioremediation is a low cost, environment friendly, effective in-situ remediation technique for remediation of HCH. Overall, the information provided in this manuscript will provide a future reference to the scientific community and bridge the knowledge gap between HCH release in the environment and their mitigation through proper treatment methods.

Pesticide Exposure of Residents Living Close to Agricultural Fields in the Netherlands: Protocol for an Observational Study

Background

Application of pesticides in the vicinity of homes has caused concern regarding possible health effects in residents living nearby. However, the high spatiotemporal variation of pesticide levels and lack of knowledge regarding the contribution of exposure routes greatly complicates exposure assessment approaches.

Objective

The objective of this paper was to describe the study protocol of a large exposure survey in the Netherlands assessing pesticide exposure of residents living close (<250 m) to agricultural fields; to better understand possible routes of exposure; to develop an integrative exposure model for residential exposure; and to describe lessons learned.

Methods

We performed an observational study involving residents living in the vicinity of agricultural fields and residents living more than 500 m away from any agricultural fields (control subjects). Residential exposures were measured both during a pesticide use period after a specific application and during the nonuse period for 7 and 2 days, respectively. We collected environmental samples (outdoor and indoor air, dust, and garden and field soils) and personal samples (urine and hand wipes). We also collected data on spraying applications as well as on home characteristics, participants' demographics, and food habits via questionnaires and diaries. Environmental samples were analyzed for 46 prioritized pesticides. Urine samples were analyzed for biomarkers of a subset of 5 pesticides. Alongside the field study, and by taking spray events and environmental data into account, we developed a modeling framework to estimate environmental exposure of residents to pesticides.

Results

Our study was conducted between 2016 and 2019. We assessed 96 homes and 192 participants, including 7 growers and 28 control subjects. We followed 14 pesticide applications, applying 20 active ingredients. We collected 4416 samples: 1018 air, 445 dust (224 vacuumed floor, 221 doormat), 265 soil (238 garden, 27 fields), 2485 urine, 112 hand wipes, and 91 tank mixtures.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first study on residents’ exposure to pesticides addressing all major nondietary exposure sources and routes (air, soil, dust). Our protocol provides insights on used sampling techniques, the wealth of data collected, developed methods, modeling framework, and lessons learned. Resources and data are open for future collaborations on this important topic.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

RR1-10.2196/27883

Long-term toxicity of lindane through oxidative stress and cell apoptosis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Lindane persists in the environment and bioaccumulates as an organochlorine pesticide and can pose risks to ecological environments and human health. To explore the long-term toxicity and underlying mechanisms of lindane, Caenorhabditis elegans was chosen as an animal model for toxicological study. The indicators of physiological, oxidative stress and cell apoptosis were examined in nematodes chronically exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of lindane (0.01-100 ng/L). The data suggested that exposure to lindane at doses above 0.01 ng/L induced adverse physiological effects in C. elegans. Significant increases of ROS production and lipofuscin accumulation were observed in 100 ng/L of lindane-exposed nematodes, suggesting that lindane exposure induced oxidative stress in nematodes. Exposure to 10-100 ng/L of lindane also significantly increased the average number of germ cell corpses, which indicated cell apoptosis induced by lindane in C. elegans. Moreover, chronic exposure to 100 ng/L lindane significantly influenced the expression of genes related to oxidative stress and cell apoptosis (e.g., isp-1, sod-3, ced-3, and cep-1 genes). These results indicated that oxidative stress and cell apoptosis could play an important role in toxicity induced by lindane in nematodes.

Atmospheric Occurrence of Organochlorine Pesticides and Inhalation Cancer Risk in Urban Areas at Southeast Brazil

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been produced for almost a century and some of them are still used, even after they have been proved to be toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and prone to long-range transport. Brazil has used and produced pesticides in industrial scales for both agricultural and public health purposes. Urban and industrial regions are of special concern due to their high population density and their increased exposure to chemical pollution, many times enhanced by chemical production, application or irregular dumping. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the occurrence of OCPs in outdoor air of urban sites from two major regions of southeast Brazil. Some of these sites have been affected by OCP production and their irregular dumping. Deterministic and probabilistic inhalation cancer risk (CR) assessments were conducted for the human populations exposed to OCPs in ambient air. Ambient air was mainly affected by Ʃ-HCH (median = 340 pg m^-3) and Ʃ-DDT (median = 233 pg m^-3), the only two OCPs registered for domissanitary purposes in Brazil. OCP concentrations tended to be higher in summer than in winter. Dumping sites resulted in the highest OCP atmospheric concentrations and, thus, in the highest CR estimations. Despite of all limitations, probabilistic simulations suggested that people living in the studied regions are exposed to an increased risk of hepatic cancer. Infants and toddlers (0 < 2 y) were exposed to the highest inhalation CRs compared to other age groups. Other exposure pathways (such as ingestion and dermic uptake) are needed for a more comprehensive risk assessment. Moreover, this study also highlights the need to review the human exposure to OCPs through inhalation and their respective CR in other impacted areas worldwide, especially where high levels of OCPs are still being measured.

Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the Environment

Pesticides are indispensable in agricultural production. They have been used by farmers to control weeds and insects, and their remarkable increases in agricultural products have been reported. The increase in the world's population in the 20th century could not have been possible without a parallel increase in food production. About one-third of agricultural products are produced depending on the application of pesticides. Without the use of pesticides, there would be a 78% loss of fruit production, a 54% loss of vegetable production, and a 32% loss of cereal production. Therefore, pesticides play a critical role in reducing diseases and increasing crop yields worldwide. Thus, it is essential to discuss the agricultural development process; the historical perspective, types and specific uses of pesticides; and pesticide behavior, its contamination, and adverse effects on the natural environment. The review study indicates that agricultural development has a long history in many places around the world. The history of pesticide use can be divided into three periods of time. Pesticides are classified by different classification terms such as chemical classes, functional groups, modes of action, and toxicity. Pesticides are used to kill pests and control weeds using chemical ingredients; hence, they can also be toxic to other organisms, including birds, fish, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, as well as air, water, soil, and crops. Moreover, pesticide contamination moves away from the target plants, resulting in environmental pollution. Such chemical residues impact human health through environmental and food contamination. In addition, climate change-related factors also impact on pesticide application and result in increased pesticide usage and pesticide pollution. Therefore, this review will provide the scientific information necessary for pesticide application and management in the future.

Effectiveness of predicting spatial contaminant distributions at industrial sites using partitioned interpolation method

Soil pollution at industrial sites is an important issue in China and in most other regions of the world. The accurate prediction of the spatial distribution of pollutants at contaminated industrial sites is a requirement for the development of most soil remediation strategies, and is commonly performed using spatial interpolation methods. However, significant and abrupt variations in the spatial distribution of pollutants decrease prediction accuracy. During this study, the use of partition interpolation methods was applied to benzo fluoranthene in four soil layers at a contaminated site to determine their ability to improve prediction accuracy in comparison to unpartitioned methods. The examined methods for partitioned interpolation included inverse distance weighting (IDW), radial basis function (RBF), and ordinary kriging (OK). The prediction results of the three methods for partitioned interpolation were compared, and the applicability of partition interpolation was determined. The prediction error associated with the partitioned interpolation methods decreased by 70% compared to unpartitioned interpolation. The prediction accuracy of IDW-based partition interpolation was higher than that of RBF- and OK-based partition interpolation techniques, and it was suitable for identification of highly polluted areas. Partition interpolation is also applicable to 12 other PAHs controlled by USEPA that can be detected, and the prediction effects could also verify this interpolation choice. In addition, the results also demonstrated that the more the maximum concentration deviated from the "norm", the greater the prediction error was caused by the smoothing effects of the interpolation models. These results suggest that the partition interpolation with IDW method can be effectively used to obtain relatively accurate spatial contaminant distribution information, and to identify highly polluted areas.

[Research progress on analytical methods for the determination of hexachlorobutadiene]

Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) is one of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) listed in Annex A and Annex C of the Stockholm Convention in 2015 and 2017, respectively. Research on the sources, environmental occurrences, and biological effects of HCBD has a great significance in controlling this newly added POPs. Sensitive and credible methods for the determination of HCBD are preconditions and form the basis for related research work. In recent years, many researchers have included HCBD as one of the analytes in monitoring or methodological studies. Based on the results of these studies, this paper reviews the research progress on analytical methods for the determination of HCBD and focuses on sample pretreatment methods for the analysis of HCBD in various matrices such as air, water, soil, sewage sludge, and biological tissues. The advantages and disadvantages of the methods are also compared to provide reference for further research in this field.For air samples, HCBD was usually collected by passing air through sorbent cartridges. Materials such as Tenax-TA, Carbosieve, Carbopack, Carboxen 1000, or their mixtures were used as the sorbent. HCBD was thermally desorbed and re-concentrated in a trap and finally transferred for instrumental analysis. Limits of detection (LODs) for HCBD in these methods were at the ng/m3 scale. Compared to sampling using pumps, passive air samplers (PAS) such as polyurethane foam PAS (PUF-PAS) do not require external power supply and are more convenient for sampling POPs in air at a large scale. The LOD of the sorbent-impregnated PUF PAS (SIP-PAS) method was much lower (0.03 pg/m3) than that of the PUF-PAS method (20 pg/m3). However, the sampling volumes in the SIP-PAS and PUF-PAS methods (-6 m3) calculated from the log KOA value of HCBD have significant uncertainty, and this must be confirmed in the future.For water samples, HCl or copper sulfate was added to the sample immediately after sampling to prevent any biological activities. HCBD can be extracted from water using methods such as the purge and trap method, liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) method, and solid phase extraction (SPE) method. Among these methods, SPE enabled the simultaneous extraction, purification, and concentration of trace HCBD in a single step. Recoveries of HCBD on Strata-X and Envi-Carb SPE cartridges (63%-64%) were higher than those on Envi-disk, Oasis HLB, and Strata-C18 cartridges (31%-46%). Drying is another key step for obtaining high recoveries of HCBD. Disk SPE involving the combination of a high-vacuum pump and a low-humidity atmosphere is an effective way to eliminate the residual water. In addition, a micro SPE method using functionalized polysulfone membranes as sorbents and employing ultrasonic desorption was developed for extracting HCBD from drinking water. The recovery of HCBD reached 102%, with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 3.5%.For solid samples such as dust, soil, sediment, sewage sludge, fly ash, and biota tissue, multiple pretreatment methods were used in combination, owing to the more complex matrix. Freeze or air drying, grinding, and sieving of samples were commonly carried out before the extraction. Soxhlet extraction is a typical extraction method for HCBD; however, it requires many organic reagents and is time consuming. The accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) method requires a small amount of organic reagent, and the extraction can be performed rapidly. It was recently applied for the extraction of HCBD from solid samples under 10.34 MPa and at 100 ℃. Purification could be achieved simultaneously by mixing florisil materials with samples in the ASE pool. Nevertheless, employing the ASE methods widely is difficult because of their high costs. Ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) has the same extraction efficiency for HCBD, with much lower costs compared to ASE, and is therefore adopted by most researchers. The type of extraction solvent, solid-to-liquid ratio, ultrasonic temperature, and power affect the extraction efficiency. Ultrasonic extraction at 30 ℃ and 200 W using 30 mL dichloromethane as the extraction solvent resulted in acceptable recoveries (64.0%-69.4%) of HCBD in 2 g fly ash. After extraction, a clean-up step is necessary for the extracts of solid samples. Column chromatography is frequently used for purification. The combined use of several columns or a multilayer column filled with florisil, silica gel, acid silica gel, or alumina can improve the elimination efficiency of interfering substances.Instrumental analysis for HCBD is mainly performed with a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometer operating in selected ion monitoring mode. DB-5MS, HP-5MS, HP-1, ZB-5MS, and BP-5 can be used as the chromatographic columns. Qualification ions and quantification ions include m/z 225, 223, 260, 227, 190, and 188. GC-MS using an electron ionization (EI) source was more sensitive to HCBD than GC-MS using a positive chemical ionization source (PCI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source (APCI). Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS), gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS), and high-resolution gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC-HRMS) have recently been used for the separation and determination of HCBD and various other organic pollutants. Instrumental detection limits for HCBD in GC-MS/MS, GC-HRMS, and HRGC-HRMS were more than ten times lower than that in GC-MS, indicating the remarkable application potential of these high-performance instruments in HCBD analysis.

Review of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) contamination in Chinese soils

Despite a ban on the production and use of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) after 1983, serious OCP pollution still exists in the soil in certain areas of China because OCPs degrade very slowly. Based on a systematic review, we identified 136 relevant papers focusing on soil contamination from hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in China (published from 2001 to 2019). We compiled scientific data, extracted and analyzed relevant information, and summarized the pollution characteristics of HCH and DDT in Chinese soils found in two land use types: agricultural land and land for construction. Related studies on HCH and DDT in Chinese soils focus on the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region and the Yangtze and Pearl River Deltas, where agricultural soils are predominant. The average concentrations of both HCH and DDT in agricultural soils were generally lower than the risk screening value (100 μg/kg) in most provinces in China, except for DDT concentrations in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region. However, in certain central and eastern regions, mean or maximum recorded DDT concentrations approaching or exceeding 100 μg/kg were recorded. Regarding land for construction, soils with excessive concentrations of HCH and DDT were primarily observed at sites of operational or defunct pesticide factories. According to isomer and metabolite compositions, HCH and DDT at most sites originated from historical residues, but others may have been new inputs after 1983. Since 2015, the concentrations of HCH and DDT in agricultural soils in China have been decreasing, and those in the soils of land for construction (except for sites of operational or defunct pesticide factories) have not exceeded the standard after 2005. This indicates that the measures to prohibit the production and use of OCPs in China have been effective. However, the management of operational or defunct pesticide factories polluted by OCPs requires further improvement.

Toxicity of lindane induced by oxidative stress and intestinal damage in Caenorhabditis elegans

Lindane, a lipophilic pollutant, may be toxic to organisms. To explore the toxic effects of lindane and the underlying mechanisms of this toxicity, the animal model Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was exposed to lindane for 3 d at environmentally relevant concentrations (0.01-100 ng/L) and the physiological, biochemical, and molecular indices were evaluated. Subacute exposure to 10-100 ng/L of lindane caused adverse physiological effects on the development, reproduction, and locomotion behaviors in C. elegans. Exposure to 1-100 ng/L of lindane increased the accumulation of Nile red and blue food dye, which suggested high permeability of the intestine in nematodes. Lindane exposure also significantly influenced the expression of genes related to intestinal development (e.g., mtm-6 and opt-2). Moreover, reactive oxygen species production, lipofuscin accumulation, and expression of oxidation resistance genes (e.g., sod-5 and isp-1) were significantly increased in C. elegans exposed to 10-100 ng/L of lindane, which indicated that lindane exposure induced oxidative stress. According to Pearson correlation analyses, oxidative stress and intestinal damage were significantly correlated with the adverse physiological effects of lindane. Therefore, the adverse effects of lindane may have been induced by intestinal damage and oxidative stress, and mtm-6, opt-2, sod-5, isp-1, and mev-1 might play important roles in the toxicity of lindane.

Comparison of common spatial interpolation methods for analyzing pollutant spatial distributions at contaminated sites

Accurate prediction of the spatial distribution of pollutants in soils based on applicable interpolation methods is often the basis for soil remediation in contaminated sites. However, the applicable interpolation method has not been determined for contaminated sites due to the complex spatial distribution characteristics and stronger local spatial variability of pollutants. In this research, the prediction accuracies of three interpolation methods (including the different values of their parameters) for the spatial distribution of benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF) in four soil layers were compared. These included inverse distance weighting (IDW), radial basis function (RBF), ordinary kriging (OK). The results indicated: (1) IDW1 is applicable for the first layer, RBF-IMQ is applicable to the second, third, and fourth layers. (2) For IDW, the prediction error is bigger with high weight where high values and low values intersect, while the prediction error is smaller where high (or low) values aggregated distribution. (3) For RBF, if the pollutant concentration trend at the predicted location is consistent with the known points in its neighborhood, the prediction accuracy is higher. (4) IDW is suitable for fitting more drastic curved surfaces, while RBF is more effective for relatively gentle curved surfaces and OK is reasonable for curved surfaces without local outliers. (5) The interpolation uncertainty is positively associated with the contaminant concentration and local spatial variability. Therefore, we suggest the selection of the applicable interpolation model must be based on the principle of the model and the spatial distribution characteristics of the pollutants.

Pesticides in the surface waters of the Camanducaia River watershed, Brazil

Camanducaia River is part of the Piracicaba watershed responsible for pumping water into the Cantareira System, which is one of the main water sources for the metropolis of São Paulo and Campinas, Brazil. Intensive use of pesticides and hilly topography represents a situation of high risk for river water contamination. Therefore, water samples from 12 locations were collected along the Camanducaia River and its tributaries, over a period of 4 mo during the rainy season, and analyzed by GC-MS/MS or UPLC- MS/MS for the presence of 46 pesticides. Seven pesticides (fipronil, methyl parathion, metolachlor, atrazine, carbofuran, diuron, and simazine) were positively detected. Only atrazine (the most frequently detected) and diuron were present at concentrations above the limit of quantification of the analytical method (0.32 and 0.57 μg L^-1 for atrazine and diuron, respectively). Pesticides detection frequency was higher than expected for a river system where only 11.8% of the land area is under agriculture. The vulnerability of the Camanducaia basin to pesticide contamination is attributed to the high annual precipitation (> 1.5 m y^-1 in the headwaters), associated with topographical features (steep terrain) and soil types that favor surface runoff, which has been exacerbated by poor soil management practices.

Risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides in drinking water source of the Yangtze River

Organochlorine pesticides have been banned for many years, but the residual trace amount of organochlorine in water may still pose ecotoxicological risk. Meanwhile, the potential risk of organochlorine pesticides released from sediments, especially into drinking water sources, is receiving increasing attention. The present study assessed the pollution and potential risk of drinking water sources along the midstream and downstream Yangtze River. Residues of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in water, suspended particle matter (SPM), and sediment were evaluated with isotope dilution HRGC/HRMS. The results indicated that OCPs in water, SPM, and sediment ranged in 0.52-92.97 ng/L, 0.10-4.10 ng/L, and 0.038-11.36 ng/g, respectively. The predominant OCPs in water, SPM, and sediment were β-HCH, p,p'-DDE and PeCB. At site Y1, 8, 13, 18, β-HCH has a higher proportion in sediment samples, while, α-HCH has a higher proportion in SPM samples. The industrial use of HCHs in the history was the main HCHs source for most water and sediment samples, which indicated an absence of fresh inputs of industrial HCHs. Meanwhile, the abundance of p,p'-DDE in water, sediment and SPM samples could be attributed to long-term aerobic degradation of DDTs. The values of ffsw of HCHs, DDTs and PeCB indicate the transfer from water to sediment. Risk assessment showed that HCHs and DDTs posed low ecotoxicological risk to the Yangtze River.

A review of sources, environmental occurrences and human exposure risks of hexachlorobutadiene and its association with some other chlorinated organics

Research on hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) has increased since its listing in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2011. However, thorough reports on recent data regarding this topic are lacking. Moreover, potential associations between HCBD and some chlorinated organics have usually been ignored in previous research. In this review, possible formation pathways and sources, current environmental occurrences and human exposure risks of HCBD are discussed, as well as the association with several organochlorine compounds. The results reveal that unintentional production and emission from industrial activities and waste treatments are the main sources of HCBD. Similar precursors are found for HCBD and chlorobenzenes, indicating the presence of common sources. Although recent data indicates that levels of HCBD in the environment are generally low, risks from human exposure to HCBD, together with other pollutants, may be high. More attention in the future needs to be paid to the mixed contamination of HCBD and other pollutants from common sources.

The use of fast molecular descriptors and artificial neural networks approach in organochlorine compounds electron ionization mass spectra classification

Developing of theoretical tools can be very helpful for supporting new pollutant detection. Nowadays, a combination of mass spectrometry and chromatographic techniques are the most basic environmental monitoring methods. In this paper, two organochlorine compound mass spectra classification systems were proposed. The classification models were developed within the framework of artificial neural networks (ANNs) and fast 1D and 2D molecular descriptor calculations. Based on the intensities of two characteristic MS peaks, namely, [M] and [M-35], two classification criterions were proposed. According to criterion I, class 1 comprises [M] signals with the intensity higher than 800 NIST units, while class 2 consists of signals with the intensity lower or equal than 800. According to criterion II, class 1 consists of [M-35] signals with the intensity higher than 100, while signals with the intensity lower or equal than 100 belong to class 2. As a result of ANNs learning stage, five models for both classification criterions were generated. The external model validation showed that all ANNs are characterized by high predicting power; however, criterion I-based ANNs are much more accurate and therefore are more suitable for analytical purposes. In order to obtain another confirmation, selected ANNs were tested against additional dataset comprising popular sunscreen agents disinfection by-products reported in previous works.