Case study: inorganic pollutants associated with particulate matter from an area near a petrochemical plant

CNS-Related Effects Caused by Vanadium at Realistic Exposure Levels in Humans: A Comprehensive Overview Supplemented with Selected Animal Studies

Neurodegenerative disorders, which are currently incurable diseases of the nervous system, are a constantly growing social concern. They are progressive and lead to gradual degeneration and/or death of nerve cells, resulting in cognitive deterioration or impaired motor functions. New therapies that would ensure better treatment results and contribute to a significant slowdown in the progression of neurodegenerative syndromes are constantly being sought. Vanadium (V), which is an element with a wide range of impacts on the mammalian organism, is at the forefront among the different metals studied for their potential therapeutic use. On the other hand, it is a well-known environmental and occupational pollutant and can exert adverse effects on human health. As a strong pro-oxidant, it can generate oxidative stress involved in neurodegeneration. Although the detrimental effects of vanadium on the CNS are relatively well recognized, the role of this metal in the pathophysiology of various neurological disorders, at realistic exposure levels in humans, is not yet well characterized. Hence, the main goal of this review is to summarize data on the neurological side effects/neurobehavioral alterations in humans, in relation to vanadium exposure, with the focus on the levels of this metal in biological fluids/brain tissues of subjects with some neurodegenerative syndromes. Data collected in the present review indicate that vanadium cannot be excluded as a factor playing a pivotal role in the etiopathogenesis of neurodegenerative illnesses, and point to the need for additional extensive epidemiological studies that will provide more evidence supporting the relationship between vanadium exposure and neurodegeneration in humans. Simultaneously, the reviewed data, clearly showing the environmental impact of vanadium on health, suggest that more attention should be paid to chronic diseases related to vanadium and to the assessment of the dose-response relationship.

Applications of agricultural residue biochars to removal of toxic gases emitted from chemical plants: A review

Crop residues are representative agricultural waste materials, massively generated in the world. However, a large fraction of them is currently being wasted, though they have a high potential to be used as a value-added carbon-rich material. Also, the applications of carbon-rich materials from agricultural waste to industries can have economic benefit because waste-derived carbon materials are considered inexpensive waste materials. In this review, valorization methods for crop residues as carbon-rich materials (i.e., biochars) and their applications to industrial toxic gas removals are discussed. Applications of crop residue biochars to toxic gas removal can have significant environmental benefits and economic feasibility. As such, this review discussed the technical advantages of the use of crop residue biochars as adsorbents for hazardous gaseous pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) stemmed from combustion of fossil fuels and the different refinery processes. Also, the practical benefits from the activation methods in line with the biochar properties were comprehensively discussed. The relationships between the physico-chemical properties of biochars and the removal mechanisms of gaseous pollutants (H₂S, SO₂, Hg⁰, and CO₂) on biochars were also highlighted in this review study. Porosity controls using physical and chemical activations along with the addition of specific functional groups and metals on biochars have significantly contributed to the enhancement of flue gas adsorption. The adsorption capacity of biochar for each toxic chemical was in the range of 46-76 mg g^-1 for H₂S, 40-182 mg g^-1 for SO₂, 80-952 μg g^-1 for Hg⁰, and 82-308 mg g^-1 CO₂, respectively. This helps to find suitable activation methods for adsorption of the target pollutants. In the last part, the benefits from the use of biochars and the research directions were prospectively provided to make crop residue biochars more practical materials in adsorption of pollutant gases.

Integrated Sustainable Management of Petrochemical Industrial Air Pollution

The emission inventory, emission factor, and spatial concentration distribution of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from a petrochemical industry (aromatics plant) were intensively evaluated in this study to elucidate the potential sources of BTX emission and their contribution to ambient concentrations. Five emission groups were quantified through direct measurement and emission models. These data were then used as input for the AERMOD dispersion model for the source apportionment analysis. The source to ambient contribution analysis revealed that a wastewater treatment facility and organic liquid storage tank were major contributors accounting for about 20.6-88.4% and 10.3-75.4% to BTX environmental concentrations, respectively. The highest annual ambient concentrations of benzene (B), toluene (T), and xylenes (X) were predicted as 9.0, 2.8, and 57.9 µg/m³ at the fence line of the plant boundary, respectively. These findings assist policymakers in prioritizing the appropriate control measures to the right source by considering not just the amount released but also their contribution to ambient concentrations. This study suggested that the wastewater treatment unit should be changed to the closed system which will benefit reduction in its emission (45.05%) as well as effectively minimizing ambient VOC concentration by 49.96% compared to its normal operation.

Imaging particulate matter exposed pine trees by vehicle exhaust experiment and hyperspectral analysis

This study analyzed spectral variations of the particulate matter (PM hereafter)-exposed pine trees using a spectrometer and a hyperspectral imager to derive the most effective spectral indices to detect the pine needle exposure to PM emission. We found that the spectral variation in the near-infrared (NIR hereafter) bands systemically coincided with the variations in PM concentration, showing larger variations for the diesel group whereas larger dust particles showed spectral variations in both visible and NIR bands. It is because the PM adsorption on needles is the main source of NIR band variation, and the combination of visible and NIR spectra can detect PM absorption. Fourteen bands were selected to classify PM-exposed pine trees with an accuracy of 82% and a kappa coefficient of 0.61. Given that this index employed both visible and NIR bands, it would be able to detect PM adsorption. The findings can be transferred to real-world applications for monitoring air pollution in an urban area.

Spatial Distribution Profiles and Human-Health Risks of Heavy Metals in Surrounding Area Surface Soils of a Petrochemical Complex

Despite the growing concern raised by organic pollutants from the petrochemical industry to the surrounding soils, the heavy metal (HM) pollution in these soils remains understudied. This study investigated the levels, potential sources, and human-health risks of 12 HMs in soils inside and in surrounding areas of a petrochemical complex. Generally, the levels of 12 HMs in all soil samples were lower than the national standard of China, except for the Cd in one surrounding soil sample. Approximately 40.9% and 98.1% of soils around and inside the petrochemical complex, respectively, were at slightly contaminated levels. The HM pollution in 94.4% of soils inside and 32% of soils in surrounding areas were mainly affected by petrochemical production. Human-health risk showed that although As posed an acceptable cancer risk for adults both in and around the complex, high cancer risk for surrounding children from As was observed. Moreover, around the complex, Cr, Cd, and Pb posed acceptable cancer risks for children, while Cd posed an acceptable cancer risk for adults. The spatial distribution of the health risks decreased with increasing distance from the complex. Overall, our results demonstrate that it is essential to minimize human exposure to HMs originating from the petrochemical industry, especially As, Cr, Cd, and Pb.

Levels of trace elements in human hair samples of adolescents living near petrochemical plants

The aim of the study is a comparative analysis to investigate human hair metal profiles of adolescents residing near petrochemical plants (Sicily, Italy). We selected the small town of Augusta, Gela, and Pace del Mela, and a control area made up of the towns characterized by low anthropogenic activity. Twenty trace elements were measured in samples of scalp hair from adolescents (11-14 years old) of both genders. Hair samples were cleaned using a rigorous cleaning method, mineralized, and processed for analyses by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In industrial sites, zinc was always the most abundant element, ranging from186 to 217 μg g^-1. Following zinc, the elements Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, and Sr were in the range 1-20 μg g^-1. The remaining elements had concentrations < 1 μg g^-1. The comparison with adolescents living in suburban area highlighted that As, Ba, Mn, Sr, U, and V have the highest median concentrations in an industrial location. An industrial factor (As, Mn, Sr, U, and V) and an urban factor (Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, and Sb) were distinguished by the multivariate statistical analysis between a cohort residing in urban and industrial areas. Statistically significant differences (Kruskal-Wallis test, p < 0.05) between the genders were found for Ba, Mn, Ni, Sr, and V in all industrial sites with median concentrations higher in females' hair than males'. The data confirm that the study areas are heavily affected by industrial and urban emissions of metals and metalloids, representing a potential hazard to the local population.

Air Quality Assessment by the Determination of Trace Elements in Lichens (Xanthoria calcicola) in an Industrial Area (Sicily, Italy)

This study provides data on variation in the content of metals and metalloids measured in the lichens (Xanthoria calcicola Oxner) collected in the Syracusan petrochemical complex (Sicily, Italy) which is considered one of the largest in Europe. Concentrations of eighteen trace elements measured in the lichens that were collected from 49 different points were analyzed using an inductively coupled plasma (ICP-MS) device. The concentrations of the typical elements of industrial emissions (As, Cr, Ni, and V) highlight the environmental criticality that exists in the study area. The interpretation of the data in terms of multi-element statistical analysis (FA) and enrichment factor (EFs) proved to be particularly useful in identifying several sources that contribute to the presence of trace elements in the atmospheric particulate between anthropogenic emissions and geogenic emissions. The results of this study reveal the versatility of the lichen species Xanthoria calcicola Oxner in the search for trace elements in highly anthropized environments, so the approach followed in this study can also be applied to other industrial contexts.

Study of impacts of brickkiln emanations on soil quality of agriculture lands in selected areas of District Bhimber, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

The pollution is hot issue of current era in world and the current study was carried to explore impacts of brickkilns' emanations on physiochemical properties of agricultural lands from District Bhimber of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) Pakistan. In this research, various edaphic characteristics: pH, soil organic matter, organic carbon, water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity and heavy metal contamination in soils nearby of brickkilns were determined. The pH of soil ranged from 5.55 to 7.50, soil organic matter was 0.35-0.90% and organic carbon content was 0.65-1.40%. The water holding capacity ranged from 2.10 to 3.20 mgL-1 and carbon exchange capacity was 1250 to 4202 meq/100g. The contamination profile of heavy metal depicted that Pb showed highest conc. 0.065 mg/g followed by Co (0.053 mg/g) and Ni with 0.52 mg/g in the soil. Pb and Cr had high conc. in soil samples around brickkilns due to burning of coal and rubber tyres as fuel. The conc. of sulphate and nitrate ranged from 0.90±0.50 mol L-1 to 4.25±0.65 mol L-1 and 2.30±0.50 mol L-1 to 6.55±0.25 mol L-1, respectively. The fertility of agriculture lands was depicted that edaphic properties were directly related while nutritive features were inversely commensurate to distance from brickkilns. The research proved that emanations of brickkilns causes severe impact on quality of agriculture land, plant growth and its yield. Hence, reclamation measures should be taken to mitigate and/or eradicate nuisance of brickkilns emanations by using environmental friendly strategies.

Screening of Particulate Matter Reduction Ability of 21 Indigenous Korean Evergreen Species for Indoor Use

The formation and pollution of particulate matter (PM), a side effect of rapid industrialization and urbanization, is considered a global issue. However, various plant species are able to effectively capture and reduce atmospheric PM concentrations. We investigated the indoor growth and morphology of 21 indigenous Korean evergreen species at low light intensities to ascertain their ability to reduce PM of aerosol particles in a closed acrylic chamber. The decrease in PM mass concentration differed significantly across species, with a significant correlation (8 h; p < 0.001). The reduction in the mass concentration of PM differed with particle size and across species. The highest reduction of PM_2.5 occurred after 8 h with Dryopteris lacera (86.8%), Ilex × wandoensis (84.9%), Machilus thunbergii (84.3%), and Rhododendron brachycarpum (84.0%). Reduction of PM₁₀ after 8 h was highest with Cephalotaxus harringtonii (98.3%), I. × wandoensis (98.5%), M. thunbergii (98.5%), and R. brachycarpum (98.3%). Plant morphological characteristics (category, plant height, leaf shape, leaf area) and relative humidity were closely related to the decrease in PM mass concentration. In conclusion, our findings can be used to identify Korean plant species that can reduce PM concentration and are suitable for indoor use.

Concentrations of arsenic and vanadium in environmental and biological samples collected in the neighborhood of petrochemical industries: A review of the scientific literature

Petrochemical facilities, including oil refineries, are emission sources of a wide range of environmental pollutants such as trace elements, volatile organic compounds, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, among others. Populations living near this kind of facilities may be potentially exposed to contaminants, which are, in turn, associated with a wide range of adverse effects. In our laboratory, we have shown that the environmental concentrations of trace elements near the petrochemical complex of Tarragona County (Spain), which is among the largest complexes in the European Union, should not be a relevant pollution source for these elements, with the exception of arsenic (As) and vanadium (V). Moreover, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified As and V as Group 1 and Group 2B, respectively. Based on it, the present paper was aimed at reviewing the available scientific information on the occurrence of As and V in the vicinity of petrochemical complexes worldwide, considering environmental matrices (air, dust, sediments, soil, and water), as well as biological samples (blood, hair, and urine). In general, levels of As and V in environmental matrices showed higher fluctuation throughout the world and was highly dependent on the samples zone while levels of both elements in urinary samples from subjects living near a petrochemical area were higher than those of population living further.

Phytotoxicity and phytogenotoxicity of soil and air in the vicinity of a petrochemical plant in Płock (Poland)

Petrochemical industries have been widely recognised as important emission sources of airborne contaminants including heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs, which affect the quality of air, soil and vegetation. In this study, our aim was to examine the phytotoxicity and phytogenotoxicity of soils and air in the vicinity of a petrochemical plant, in order to assess the potential threat of such industrial objects for crops and natural vegetation, in the cases when the allowable concentrations of contaminants are not exceeded and the plants in the vicinity visually do not seem to be affected. For phytotoxicity and phytogenotoxicity assessment, the Phytotoxkit and respectively Vicia RTA and TRAD MCN bioassays were used. According to our results, in spite of relatively low content of heavy metals and PAHs (hardly any exceedance of standards), the phytotoxicity and especially phytogenotoxicity of soil samples collected up to 18 km from the refinery were detected by the bioindicators. The phytogenotoxicity of air was also indicated within the distance of up to 12 km. We concluded that to obtain the complete view of the environmental risks in a surveyed area, a combination of chemical analysis of environmental samples with the bioindication methods should be implemented. In addition, setting the acceptable levels of contaminants should involve a more extensive use of bioindication methods (especially genotoxicity assessment).

Emission-related Heavy Metal Associated with Oxidative Stress in Children: Effect of Antioxidant Intake

Heavy metals, the common pollutants emitted from industrial activities, are believed to cause harmful effects, partially through the mechanism of elevated oxidative stress, and antioxidant intake has been hypothesized to provide a potential protective effect against oxidative stress. This study aims to investigate the heavy metal exposure and the associated oxidative damage of young children living near a petrochemical complex and to assess the protective effect of antioxidant intake. There were 168 children recruited from the kindergartens near a huge petrochemical complex, with 87 as the high exposure group and 81 as the low exposure group. Urinary concentrations of eleven metals were detected by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and four biomarkers of oxidative stress were measured in urine by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The food frequency questionnaire was collected to assess participants’ intake of antioxidants. Multiple linear regression was performed to determine the predictors of metals for oxidative stress and to measure the beneficial effect of antioxidants. Weighted quantile sum regression was performed to determine the contributors among metals to the oxidative stress. Results showed that high exposure group had significantly higher concentrations of chromium, manganese, nickel, arsenic, strontium, cadmium, and lead when compared to those in low exposure group. There was no obviously difference on the total antioxidant intake and dietary profile between two groups. The elevated levels of two oxidative stress markers were significantly associated with most of the urinary metal concentrations in all study subjects after adjusting confounders, while no significant association was found between oxidative stress and antioxidant intake. Among the metals, mercury and strontium showed the dominated contributions for elevated levels of oxidative stress. It concluded that higher metal exposure was associated with elevated oxidative stress but with no protective effect by antioxidant intake among the young children residents near a petrochemical industry.

Assessment and Monitoring of Fish Quality from a Coastal Ecosystem under High Anthropic Pressure: A Case Study in Southern Italy

Fish is a nutrient-rich food but, at the same time, consumption of fish is a possible source of exposure to heavy metals. Since many coastal Mediterranean areas suffer from great anthropomorphic pressure, the aim of this study was to assess the level of potentially toxic inorganic elements in different fish samples from the coastal zone of Southern Italy (Gela) where there is a high mortality rate linked to cancer disease and congenital malformations. The presence of mercury, cadmium, lead, nickel, arsenic, vanadium, and chromium was measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The risk assessment was evaluated in terms of estimated daily intake by calculating the amount of potentially toxic elements that an average individual adult weighing 60 kg would ingest. Moreover the non-carcinogenic risk was estimated by target hazard quotient (THQ). The study evidenced significant contamination by inorganic elements, especially cadmium, which can be linked to industrial pollution. The THQ indexes, as indicators of human health, suggest that the consumption of fish from the study area is not free of risk.

Metallic elements in human hair from residents in smelting districts in northeast China: Environmental factors and differences in ingestion media

The health of residents in Huludao City is affected by the emissions of heavy metals from smelting, diet and atmospheric precipitation. This study investigated the concentrations of Hg, Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in scalp hair samples from 259 residents of different ages and genders from five districts in Huludao City and examined the main factors for heavy metal exposure. Cd and Pb concentrations in hair samples exceeded the normal concentration ranges for human hair (Cd < 0.3 mg/kg; Pb < 9.3 mg/kg), and the highest Pb concentrations were found in subjects in the age range 0-15 years. Samples from men were higher in Cd and Pb compared to those for women. Workers from the Huludao zinc plant (HZP) had higher concentrations of all metals in their hair relative to other occupations except for Cu. Geographically, the highest Cd and Pb concentrations in hair were found for residents living in Daochi district (DCD) and the Zn plant district (ZPD), respectively. In smelting regions, the effects of dust ingestion on heavy metal exposure were more important than in non-smelting regions.

Anthropogenic and meteorological influences on PM10 metal/semi-metal concentrations: Implications for human health

There is growing interest in investigating the human health risk associated with metals in airborne particulate matter. The objective of this paper is the health risk assessment of Al, Be, Sb, Sn, Ti and Tl in PM₁₀ under different advections of air masses. These metals/semi-metal were studied in samples collected in an area influenced by industrial activities in northern Spain with the aim of analysing the variations in PM₁₀ metal/semi-metal. Elemental concentrations were assessed over a period of one year in terms of air mass origin by means of back trajectories (HYSPLIT), the conditional probability function, polar plots, PM concentration roses, aerosol maps (NAAPs) and receptor modelling. The mean concentrations of Al, Be, Sb, Sn, Ti and Tl were 254, 0.02, 1.30, 1.15, 15.3 and 0.20  ng/m³, respectively, and were within the usual range for suburban stations in Europe. The highest levels were recorded during conditions of regional air mass origin, highlighting the importance of sources not far from the station. Under these circumstances, the renovation of air masses was not produced. The main sources of metals were anthropogenic, mostly related to the use of coal and coke production. In general, the cancer and non-cancer risk values obtained in this study fell within accepted precautionary criteria in all trajectory groups. However, in order to improve air quality and reduce risks to human health, the impact resulting from the joint inhalation of Al, Be, Sb, Sn, Ti and Tl should not be ignored when air masses are fundamentally of regional origin.

Hybrid multiple-site mass closure and source apportionment of PM2.5 and aerosol acidity at major cities in the Po Valley

This study investigates the major chemical components, particle-bound water content, acidity (pH), and major potential sources of PM_2.5 in major cities (Belluno, Conegliano, Vicenza, Mestre, Padua, and Rovigo) in the eastern end of the Po Valley. The measured PM_2.5 mass was reconstructed using a multiple-site hybrid chemical mass closure approach that also accounts for aerosol inorganic water content (AWC) estimated by the ISORROPIA-II model. Annually, organic matter accounted for 31-45% of the PM_2.5 at all sites, followed by nitrate (10-19%), crustal material (10-14%), sulfate (8-10%), ammonium (5-9%), elemental carbon (4-7%), other inorganic ions (3-4%), and trace elements (0.2-0.3%). Water represented 7-10% of measured PM_2.5. The ambient aerosol pH varied from 1.5 to 4.5 with lower values in summer (average in all sites 2.2 ± 0.3) and higher in winter (3.9 ± 0.3). Six major PM_2.5 sources were quantitatively identified with multiple-site positive matrix factorization: secondary sulfate (34% of PM_2.5), secondary nitrate (30%), biomass burning (17%), traffic (11%), re-suspended dust (5%), and fossil fuel combustion (3%). Biomass burning accounted for ~90% of total PAHs. Inorganic aerosol acidity was driven primarily by secondary sulfate, fossil fuel combustion (decreasing pH), secondary nitrate, and biomass burning (increasing pH). Secondary nitrate was the primary driver of the inorganic AWC variability. A concentration-weighted trajectory (multiple-site) analysis was used to identify potential source areas for the various factors and modeled aerosol acidity. Eastern and Central Europe were the main source areas of secondary species. Less acidic aerosol was associated with air masses originating from Northern Europe owing to the elevated presence of the nitrate factor. More acidic particles were observed for air masses traversing the Po Valley and the Mediterranean, possibly due to the higher contributions of fossil fuel combustion factor and the loss of nitric acid due to its interaction with coarse sea-salt particles.

Recognition of Trace Element Contamination Using Ficus macrophylla Leaves in Urban Environment

Urban areas are characterized by numerous pollutants emitted by anthropic sources both in the form of solid and gaseous particulates. Biomonitoring is an easy, economical, and accessible approach for the determination of atmospheric pollutants. In this study, we used the leaves of Ficus macrophylla Desf. ex Pers., collected in the city of Palermo (Italy), to determine major and trace elements. Geogenic elements exhibited the highest concentrations, making up 99% of the weight of the analyzed elements (Ca, K, Mg, P, S, Na, Fe, and Al); they range 21,400 (Ca) to 122 µg g⁻¹ (Al). The remaining elements showed median concentrations in the range 47.5–0.05 µg g⁻¹ in the following order of abundance: Sr > Cu > Mn > Zn > Br > Rb > Ba > Pb > Cr > Sb > As > Mo = Sc. Cluster analysis, with Spearman’s coefficient to measure sample similarity, identified five main groups, namely, three clusters related to the geogenic background and marine spray; one cluster linked to elements essential to plants, and a final group attributed to the influence of traffic emissions. Calculated enrichment factors (EF) showed that the enrichments found for P and K were linked to plant metabolism; Na and Mg confirmed the role of sea spray; Cu and Zn underlined the contribution linked to anthropic processes and the role of micronutrients in plants.. As, Cr, and Mo had EF values ranging from 10 and 20, and Sb had EF > 90. From geochemical distribution maps of As, Cr, Mo, and Sb it was observed that metal and metalloid concentrations were higher in urban areas and immediately decreased as one moved away from these areas. Local pollution sources play a great role in trace element concentrations in airborne particulate matter. The present study confirms that Ficus macrophylla leaves are suitable for screening an urban environment to identify concentrations of inorganic chemicals, since they have high tolerance to pollution.

Trace elements and human health risks assessment of finer aerosol atmospheric particles (PM1)

The present study investigated PM₁ (aerosol particles with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 1.0 μm) mass concentrations and sixteen (Al, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, S, Ti, and Zn) PM₁-related trace elements. PM₁ samples were collected in an anthropized area of international attention close to oil/gas pre-treatment plants in Agri Valley (Southern Italy). The PM₁ mass concentrations varied from 3 to 16 μg/m³. The decreasing pattern of the trace element concentrations was S > Ca > Na > K ≈ Mg ≈ Fe> Al > Li > Cr > Zn > Ti> Cu > Ni ≈ Mn > Pb ≈ Cd. Anthropogenic local emissions such as biomass burning, vehicular traffic, and industrial sources mainly related to oil/gas pre-treatment plants were identified by the principal component analysis. Further, air mass back-trajectory analyses suggest an important contribute to the long-range transport on PM₁ at Agri Valley. The carcinogenic (Cd, Cr(VI), Ni, and Pb) and non-carcinogenic (Cd, Cr(VI), Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) health risks both for children and for adults were assessed using the United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) methods considering inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact pathway. Chromium (VI) posed the highest carcinogenic risk for both children and adults. The integrated carcinogenic risks were respectively 3.45 × 10^-5 and 1.38 × 10^-4 for children and adults indicating that attention should be paid for carcinogenic health effects. Nickel posed the highest non-carcinogenic risk for children through inhalation pathway. The integrated non-carcinogenic risk showed a value higher than 1 highlighting that Cd, Cr(VI), Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn may cause cumulative non-carcinogenic health effect for children from inhalation exposure.

How Much Does Weather Matter? Effects of Rain and Wind on PM Accumulation by Four Species of Australian Native Trees

As interest in improving urban air quality grows, phytoremediation—amelioration through plants—is an increasingly popular method of targeting particulate matter (PM), one of the most harmful pollutants. Decades of research has proven that plants effectively capture PM from air; however, more information is needed on the dynamics of PM accumulation. Our study evaluated the effects of meteorological conditions on the dynamics of PM deposition, wash off and resuspension using four Australian tree species growing under natural conditions near a busy highway. Accumulation of PM on foliage was analyzed over the short term (daily changes) and over a longer time period (weekly changes). The results obtained were correlated with ambient concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10, rain intensity and wind strength. The highest accumulation of PM was recorded for Eucalyptus ovata (100.2 µg cm−2), which also had the thickest wax layer while the lowest was for Brachychiton acerifolius (77.9 µg cm−2). PM accumulation was highly changeable, with up to 35% different PM loads on the foliage from one day to the next. Importantly these dynamics are hidden in weekly measurements. Changes in PM deposition on the leaves was mostly affected by rain and to a lesser extent by wind, but the extent of the effect was species specific. The large PM fraction (10–100 µm) was the first to be removed from leaves, while the smallest PM fraction (0.2–2.5 µm) was retained for longer. Precipitation affects also PM retained in waxes, which until now were believed to be not affected by rain. This work demonstrates important interactions between PM load and weather, as well as adding to the small inventory of Australian native tree PM accumulation data.

Preparation and Characterization of Nanocrystalline TiO2 on Microsericite for High-Efficiency Photo-Energy Conversion of Methanol to Hydrogen

TiO2 and TiO2/sericite photocatalysts were successfully synthesized via the sol-gel method by adding a varying amount of acetic acid. The effect of acetic acid on TiO2 and TiO2/sericite photocatalysts was studied. The crystallite size, surface morphology, chemical composition, specific surface area, surficial functional groups, and light absorbance of the prepared photocatalysts were revealed by the analysis of X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms by using BET theory (Brunauer–Emmett–Teller), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and UV-Vis absorption spectrometry. Photo-energy conversion of methanol to hydrogen was also conducted over the prepared photocatalysts. The best hydrogen production was achieved by using the TiO2/sericite photocatalyst to give a hydrogen production rate of 1424 μmol/g·h in 6 h of UV-light irradiation.

Influences of dietary selenomethionine exposure on tissue accumulation, blood biochemical profiles, gene expression and intestinal microbiota of Carassius auratus

A 30-days feeding trail was conducted to determine the sensitivity of Carassius auratus to the toxicological effects of elevated dietary Selenomethionine (Se-Met). C. auratus averaging 23.56 ± 1.82 g were exposed to four Se-Met concentrations (mg Se/kg): 0 (Se-Met0), 5 (Se-Met5), 10 (Se-Met10) and 20 (Se-Met20) to estimate the effects on tissue selenium (Se) accumulation, blood biochemical profiles, transcript expression and intestinal microbiota. Se accumulated in the kidney, liver and muscle in a dose-dependent manner and followed this order: kidney > liver > muscle, the highest accumulation were obtained in kidney of Se-Met20 diet after 30 days of feeding. Serum contents of alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in fish exposed to Se-Met20 group was significantly highest among Se-Met exposure groups. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) concentrations in liver were affected by dietary Se-Met exposures. Liver contents of total antioxidant capacity (TAC), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in fish exposure to Se-Met5 group was significantly highest among Se-Met exposure groups. Growth hormone receptor (GHR), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and antioxidant enzyme related genes including glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) expression in liver were down-regulated with the concentration of Se-Met exposure groups. The results of high-throughput sequencing showed that gut microbial communities and hierarchy cluster heatmap analysis were significantly affected by Se-Met exposure. The abundances of Cetobacterium and Vibrio increased while fish exposed to Se-Met20 group. The abundance of Ralstonia increased when the Se-Met exposure dose reached 10 mg Se kg^-1. The results suggested that the exposure to elevated dietary Se-Met may result toxic effects in C. auratus.

Potential of Thirteen Urban Greening Plants to Capture Particulate Matter on Leaf Surfaces across Three Levels of Ambient Atmospheric Pollution

The potential of urban greening plants to capture particulate matter (PM) from the ambient atmosphere is contingent on interactions between the level of pollution and leaf surfaces. For this study, thirteen plant species were investigated to quantify their capacity of PM accumulation under three atmospheric environments, that is, industrial, traffic and university campus (control), in Kunming City (Southwest China). The sampled sites represented different pollution levels (that is, high pollution, slight pollution and clean air, respectively). The plant species differed in their accumulation of PM by six- to eight-fold across the three sites. Magnolia grandiflora was the most efficient evergreen tree species, whereas Platanus acerifolia had the highest capture of PM among deciduous trees. The accumulation capacity of the same species varied with the degree of pollution. For example, Osmanthus fragrans, Loropetalum chinense and Cinnamomum japonicum were highly efficient for the capture of PM in the traffic and university campus areas; however, they exhibited medium accumulation in the industrial area. Prunus majestica demonstrated an intermediate accumulation capacity in the industrial area, but was low in the traffic and university campus areas. The capturing capacity of the same genus was also different among the different levels of pollution. For example, C. japonicum had a 2.9⁻4.2-times higher PM accumulation than did C. camphora across the three sites. There were significant differences in leaf surface area, stomata density/length, guard cell area, and trichome density/length among these species. The species-specific efficacy of PM capture was primarily contributed to by leaf size and surface roughness, stomata density, and trichome length. In particular, hairy-leaf leaves with medium stomatal density exhibited higher PM capture. Therefore, leaf micromorphology, leaf size and longevity appeared to be significant predictive factors for the accumulation of PM, which may aid in the selection of greening plant species for the remediation of pollutants in urban areas.

Statistical Tools for Air Pollution Assessment: Multivariate and Spatial Analysis Studies in the Madrid Region

The present work reports the distribution of pollutants in the Madrid city and province from 22 monitoring stations during 2010 to 2017. Statistical tools were used to interpret and model air pollution data. The data include the annual average concentrations of nitrogen oxides, ozone, and particulate matter (PM₁₀), collected in Madrid and its suburbs, which is one of the largest metropolitan places in Europe, and its air quality has not been studied sufficiently. A mapping of the distribution of these pollutants was done, in order to reveal the relationship between them and also with the demography of the region. The multivariate analysis employing correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and cluster analysis (CA) resulted in establishing a correlation between different pollutants. The results obtained allowed classification of different monitoring stations on the basis of each of the four pollutants, revealing information about their sources and mechanisms, visualizing their spatial distribution, and monitoring their levels according to the average annual limits established in the legislation. The elaboration of contour maps by the geostatistical method, ordinary kriging, also supported the interpretation derived from the multivariate analysis demonstrating the levels of NO₂ exceeding the annual limit in the centre, south, and east of the Madrid province.

Copper and zinc levels in soil, water, wheat, and hair of inhabitants of three areas of the Orenburg region, Russia

The objective of the present study was to assess the level of zinc and copper in soil, water, wheat and hair of inhabitants of the western, central, and eastern areas of the Orenburg region. A total of 525 water, soil, and wheat samples, as well as 420 hair samples were assessed using atomic absorption spectrometry (water, soil, wheat) and inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (hair). The highest levels of Zn and Cu in water (4.9(4.2-5.1) and 1.0(0.9-1.1) mg/l), soil (23.8(20.7-27.0) and 2.6(1.9-3.1) mg/kg), and wheat (24.7(20.5-31.0) and 4.8(4.2-5.5) mg/kg) were observed in the eastern area (p < 0.001). Hair zinc levels in inhabitants of the western (184(165-198) µg/g) and eastern (224(211-253) µg/g) areas of the region exceeded the respective values from the central area by 32% and 61% (p < 0.001). In turn, hair Cu levels in the central (16.4(14.3-17.8) µg/g) and eastern (17.9(16.4-19.0) µg/g) areas exceeded the values from the western area by 10% and 20%, respectively. Correlation analysis demonstrated that hair Zn levels were positively correlated with water and soil content, whereas wheat Zn levels were associated with soil and water content. For copper significant direct correlation was observed only between soil and water Cu content. In multiple regression models, only water zinc level was significantly associated with hair Zn content, although the general model accounted for 55% of variability of hair Zn content. Higher zinc and copper exposure in the eastern area is presumably associated with higher activity of metal-processing industry.

Main components of PM10 in an area influenced by a cement plant in Catalonia, Spain: Seasonal and daily variations

Particulate matter (PM) composition has a key role in a wide range of health outcomes, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and death, among others. Montcada i Reixac, a municipality located in the Barcelona metropolitan area (Catalonia, Spain), for its location and orography, is an interesting case- study to investigate air pollution. The area is also characterized by the presence of different industrial emission sources, including a cement factory and a large waste management plant, as well as an intense traffic. In this study, PM₁₀ levels, trace elements, ions, and carbonaceous particles were determined for a long time period (2013-2016) in this highly polluted area. PM₁₀ samples were collected during six consecutive days in two campaigns (cold and warm) per year. A number of elements (As, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, K, La, Li, Hg, Mg, Mn, Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Tb, Th, Ti, Tl, U, V, W, Y, Yb, and Zr), ions (Cl^-, SO₄^2-, NO₃^-, and NH₄⁺), and carbonaceous content (total carbon, organic plus elemental carbon, and CO₃^2-), were analysed. These data were used to identify the PM₁₀ main components: mineral matter, sea spray, secondary inorganic aerosols, organic matter plus elemental carbon, trace elements or indeterminate fraction. Although a clear seasonality (cold vs. warm periods) was found, there were no differences between working days and weekends. Obviously, the cement plant influences the surrounding environment. However, no differences in trace elements related with the cement plant activity (Al, Ca, Ni and V) between weekdays and weekends were noted. However, some traffic-related elements (i.e., Co, Cr, Mn, and Sb) showed significantly higher concentrations in weekdays.

Characterization of metals in PM1 and PM10 and health risk evaluation at an urban site in the western Mediterranean

PM₁ and PM₁₀ samples collected in the urban center of Elche during two years were analyzed by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence in order to determine the concentrations of the following metals: K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sr and Ba. The influence of traffic and Saharan dust intrusions on PM levels and metal content was studied in this work. The results indicate that the coarse fraction was affected more by variations in traffic intensity than the submicron fraction. The concentrations of Ca, commonly used as a tracer of road dust, showed the highest decreases during the weekends due to the reduction in traffic-induced resuspension. In contrast, Saharan events had a greater impact on the levels of other metals such as Ti and Fe, significantly affecting their seasonal variability. High concentrations of V and Ni compared with the values found at larger urban areas were observed. This could be attributed to a significant contribution from soils, Saharan dust and even ship emissions. Enrichment factors calculated using Ti as a reference element indicate that Zn and Cu are predominantly emitted by anthropogenic activities. In fact, Saharan dust intrusions had a minor influence on the average concentrations of these metals. Non-carcinogenic health hazards associated with exposure to airborne metals were lower than the safety threshold (hazard quotient < 1). Carcinogenic risks for Cr (VI) and Ni were between 10^-6 and 10^-4 and, therefore, within the range considered acceptable by the US EPA.

Quantifying particulate matter accumulated on leaves by 17 species of urban trees in Beijing, China

Airborne particulate matter (PM) has become a serious environmental problem and harms human health worldwide. Trees can effectively remove particles from the atmosphere and improve the air quality. In this study, a washing and weighing method was used to quantify accumulation of water-soluble ions and insoluble PM on the leaf surfaces and within the wax of the leaves for 17 urban plant species (including 4 shrubs and 13 trees). The deposited PM was determined in three size fractions: fine (0.2-2.5 μm), coarse (2.5-10 μm), and large (> 10 μm). Significant differences in the accumulation of PM were detected among various species. The leaves of Platycladus orientalis and Pinus armandi were the most effective in capturing PM. Across the species, 65 and 35% of PM, on average, deposited on the leaf surface and in the wax, respectively. The greatest PM accumulation by mass on leaves was in the largest PM size fraction, while the accumulation of coarse and fine particle size fractions was smaller. Water-soluble ions accumulated on the leaf surfaces contributed 28% to the total PM mass, on average. This study demonstrated that leaves of woody plants accumulate PM differently, and the most effective plant species should be selected in urban areas for attenuating ambient PM.

Toxic inorganic pollutants in foods from agricultural producing areas of Southern Italy: Level and risk assessment

This study focused on the inorganic environmental contaminants in specific food products which form part of the food chain of the population residing in the area of Southern Italy (Gela) where there is a high mortality rate linked to tumor diseases and congenital malformations. Determination of toxic metals was performed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The toxicological data for every toxic element has been applied to evaluate the risk for the consumer by calculating the amount of potentially toxic element that would ingest an average of 60kg weight individual adult. The analysis of the investigated samples shows a high level of metal contamination which can be linked both to the polluted water and air. The obtained results give us an idea about the agricultural products contamination and possible exposure of local people through the food chain.

Spatio-temporal variations in PM leaf deposition: A meta-analysis

Particulate matter (PM) pollution in urban cities is of great concern for public health due to its global and adverse effect of human health while ecosystems function and vegetation control is an effective and eco-friendly way to alleviate PM pollution. We reviewed 150 studies conducted in 15 countries that were published between 1960 and 2016 and used a meta-analysis to examine the time trends and regional differences in leaf deposited PM of urban greening plants. The results suggested that the weekly PM leaf deposition varied markedly with both plant species and space-time and the average value was 1.71 ± 0.05 g m^-2·wk^-1, and the variations occurred because of vegetation factors, characteristics of the PM source and meteorological factors. Moreover, fine particulate matter accounts for the minimum proportion of the total PM mass but its number ratio is maximum, more than 90% of the total number of particles. This meta-analysis illustrated the spatio-temporal trends and variations in PM leaf deposition and the influencing factors, which provides a scientific basis for the mechanism of PM deposition on leaf surface as well as plant selection and configuration in urban greening.

Air Quality Impacts of Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Industries

Though refineries and petrochemical industries meet society’s energy demands and produce a range of useful chemicals, they can also affect air quality. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified polluted air as the single largest environmental risk, and hence it is necessary to strive for and maintain good air quality. To manage potential health impacts, it is important to implement proper air quality management by understanding the link between specific pollutant sources and resulting population exposures. These industries release pollutants such as Volatile Organic Compounds, greenhouse gases and particulate matter, from various parts of their operations. Air quality should be monitored and controlled more meticulously in developing nations where increased energy demands, industrialization and overpopulation has led to more emissions and lower air quality. This paper presents a review of findings and highlights from various studies on air quality impacts of petroleum refining and petrochemical plants in many regions in the world.

The level of toxic and essential trace elements in hair of petrochemical workers involved in different technological processes

The objective of the investigation is comparative analysis of hair trace element content in workers of different departments of petrochemical plant. A total of 75 men working in office (engineers), and departments 1 (D₁), 3 (D₃), and 4 (D₄) of the petrochemical plant, as well as occupationally non-exposed persons, were examined. Hair trace element levels were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The office workers were characterized by the highest hair As, Hg, Sn, I, and Si content as compared to the workers of other departments, whereas the level of those elements did not differ significantly from the control values. It is notable that hair Be levels in all employees of petrochemical plant were significantly lower, whereas Se content was significantly higher than that in unexposed controls. Hair toxic trace element content in workers directly involved in industrial processes did not differ significantly or was lower than that in the control group. At the same time, the highest levels of essential trace elements (Cr, Fe, and I) were observed in employees working in primary oil refining (D₁). Hair levels of Co, I, and Li were maximal in persons of sulfur and bitumen-producing division (D₄). The lowest levels of both essential and toxic trace elements in hair were detected in employees involved in production of liquefied gas, kerosene, and diesel fuel (D₃). The obtained data demonstrate that involvement in different technological processes in petrochemical complex differentially affect hair trace element content in workers.

Airborne Particulate Matter

Airborne particulate matter is considered to be most challenging environmental issues in the world today due to its impact on various atmospheric processes like regional and global climate change, ecosystem, agriculture and most importantly on human health in recent times. Analysis reveals that particulate matter contains various inorganic and organic compounds and biological entities and their secretions and toxic trace metals. The main regions affected are urban centers due to an increasing population, number of diverse industries, fossil fuel driven vehicles and various construction activities. The present chapter deals with the scenario of particulate matter, their sources of generation, size and their impact on human health and environment mainly in urban dwellings.

Environmental monitoring of the area surrounding oil wells in Val d'Agri (Italy): element accumulation in bovine and ovine organs

In this work, environmental heavy metal contamination in the Val d'Agri area of Southern Italy was monitored, measuring the accumulation of 18 heavy metals (U, Hg, Pb, Cd, As, Sr, Sn, V, Ni, Cr, Mo, Co, Cu, Zn, Ca, Mn, Fe, and Al) in the organs of animals raised in the surrounding area (kidney, lung, and liver of bovine and ovine species). Val d'Agri features various oil processing centers which are potentially a significant source of environmental pollution, making it essential to perform studies that will outline the state of the art on which any recovery plans and interventions may be developed. The analysis was carried out using official and accredited analytical methods based on inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and the measurements were statistically processed in order to give a contribution to risk assessment. Even though five samples showed Pb and Cd concentrations above the limits defined in the European Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, the mean concentrations of most elements suggest that contamination in this area is low. Consequently, these results also suggest that there is no particular risk for human exposure to toxic trace elements. Nevertheless, the findings of this work confirm that element accumulation in ovine species is correlated with geographical livestock area. Therefore, ovine-specific organs might be used as bioindicators for monitoring contamination by specific toxic elements in exposed areas.

The effect of anthropogenic activity on BTEX, NO2, SO2, and CO concentrations in urban air of the spa city of Sopot and medium-industrialized city of Tczew located in North Poland

The major goal of the present study is to compare the air quality of two urban locations situated in Northern Poland - the spa City of Sopot and the medium-industrialized city of Tczew using chemometric methods. As a criterion for the assessment of atmospheric air quality, measurements of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and total xylenes were used (collected from atmospheric air using diffusion-type passive samplers) as well as measurements of inorganic compounds - CO, NO2 and SO2, which were subject to routine control and determined by means of automatic analysers. Studies related to determination of defined chemical compounds in the urban air in the monitored area were performed from January 2013 to December 2014. By interpreting the results obtained and using basic multivariate statistical tools (cluster analysis and principal components analysis), major sources of emissions of determined pollutants in the air in urbanized areas were defined. The study also shows the potential influence of the sea breeze on concentrations of chemical compounds in the atmospheric air in the spa city of Sopot.

Chemical, molecular, and proteomic analyses of moss bag biomonitoring in a petrochemical area of Sardinia (Italy)

In this study, Hypnum cupressiforme moss bags were used to examine the atmospheric deposition of trace elements in the oil refinery region of Sardinia (Italy) compared with surrounding natural zones. The concentrations of 13 elements [arsenic (As), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), vanadium (V), and zinc (Zn)] were determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. A significant accumulation of pollutants was detected using active biomonitoring with moss bags compared with a control site. The most relevant contaminants for all of the tested sites were Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn. Moreover, the accumulation of Cr and Zn in the refinery industrial areas, IA1 and IA2, was more than five times greater than that detected at the control site. Levels of Cd, Mg, and Pb were also higher at all of the monitored sites compared with the control site. Both genomic and proteomic methods were used to study the response of H. cupressiforme to air pollution. No DNA damage or mutations were detected using the amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) method. At the protein level, 15 gel spots exhibited differential expression profiles between the moss samples collected at the IA1 site and the control site. Furthermore, among the 14 spots that showed a decrease in protein expression, nine were associated with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) and proteins of the light-harvesting complexes of photosystem (PS) II, three were associated with protein synthesis, and three were stress-related proteins. Thus, some of these proteins may represent good moss biosensors which could be used as pre-alert markers of environmental pollution.

Platinum group element and cerium concentrations in roadside environments in Toronto, Canada

Platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) are accumulating globally in the environment, due to their use as catalysts to control automotive exhaust emissions. While environmental increases in platinum metal concentrations have been well documented for a number of countries, published data for Canada have been missing to date. The aim of this study is to examine the concentrations of Pt, Pd and Rh, as well as Ce, in soils and dust as a function of traffic volume in Toronto, Ontario. Soils and road and underpass dust were collected from two sites with medium and high volumes of traffic. Samples were acid digested and co-precipitated with Hg (for Pd) and Te (for Pt and Rh), prior to measurement using ICP-Q-MS. Palladium occurred at the highest levels in samples, followed by Pt and Rh. Median concentrations for all soil samples were 63 μg Pd/kg, 8.7 μg Pt/kg, 1.7 μg Rh/kg and 41 mg Ce/kg. The results support existing data regarding PGE accumulation trends in urban and roadside environments, due to their use as catalysts in automotive catalytic converters. This study also confirms a shift toward the heavier use of Pd as the catalyst of choice in recent years, as reflected in the higher concentrations measured for this metal relative to Pt and Rh. The results highlight a need to continue monitoring the accumulation of PGE, most notably Pd, in urban environments.

Assessing the Capacity of Plant Species to Accumulate Particulate Matter in Beijing, China

Air pollution causes serious problems in spring in northern China; therefore, studying the ability of different plants to accumulate particulate matter (PM) at the beginning of the growing season may benefit urban planners in their attempts to control air pollution. This study evaluated deposits of PM on the leaves and in the wax layer of 35 species (11 shrubs, 24 trees) in Beijing, China. Differences in the accumulation of PM were observed between species. Cephalotaxus sinensis, Euonymus japonicus, Broussonetia papyriferar, Koelreuteria paniculata and Quercus variabilis were all efficient in capturing small particles. The plants exhibiting high amounts of total PM accumulation (on leaf surfaces and/or in the wax layer), also showed comparatively high levels of PM accumulation across all particle sizes. A comparison of shrubs and trees did not reveal obvious differences in their ability to accumulate particles based on growth form; a combination of plantings with different growth forms can efficiently reduce airborne PM concentrations near the ground. To test the relationships between leaf traits and PM accumulation, leaf samples of selected species were observed using a scanning electron microscope. Growth forms with greater amounts of pubescence and increased roughness supported PM accumulation; the adaxial leaf surfaces collected more particles than the abaxial surfaces. The results of this study may inform the selection of species for urban green areas where the goal is to capture air pollutants and mitigate the adverse effects of air pollution on human health.

Grain-size distribution and heavy metal contamination of road dusts in urban parks and squares in Changchun, China

Due to rapid urbanization and the scarcity of land, most of the urban parks and squares in cities are built close to major roads or industrial areas, where they are subject to many potential pollution sources, including vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions. The aims of this study were to determine the concentrations of selected metals (Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, and Cd) in road dusts collected in urban parks and squares in Changchun, China, on June 1, 2013 (International Children's Day) and to estimate the pollution sources. The mean Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, and Cd contents (70.89, 60.30, 43.56, 23.16, 170.80, and 0.3111 mg kg(-1) dry weight, respectively) in urban dusts were higher than their corresponding natural background values, particularly Pb, Cu, Zn, and Cd, which had about 2.5, 1.4, 1.9, and 2.6-fold higher levels, respectively. The results of principal component analysis indicated that Cr and Ni concentrations were mainly of natural origin, while Pb, Cu and Zn were derived from anthropogenic activities, and Cd tended to be from both sources. The geoaccumulation index (I geo) of these metals in the urban dusts under study indicates that they are uncontaminated with Cr and Ni; uncontaminated to moderately contaminated with Cu and Zn; and moderately contaminated with Pb and Cd. In addition, five particle sizes were analyzed separately for heavy metal concentrations. In all studied areas, there are large differences in the metal-loading percentage of different particle-size fractions among the samples, and the particles in 250-2,000-μm fraction are dominant in the total metal loading.

Will technological modernization for power generation at an oil refinery diminish the risks from air pollution to the Atlantic Rainforest in Cubatão, SE Brazil?

We assessed the level of atmospheric contamination by S, N and metals before, during and after the installation of a new thermoelectric plant that provides power to an oil refinery in Cubatão, SE Brazil. We measured the foliar accumulation in Lolium multiflorum "Lema" with the aim of evaluating risks to the Atlantic Rainforest that grows in the region. Al, Co, Cr, Cu, K, N, Ni, S, V and Zn were appropriate markers of the new air contamination profile associated with the modern technology. With the exception of V, the leaf contents of these elements significantly increased between the pre-operation to post-operation phases (Al, Co, N, K, S), or only during the transition phase (Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni), and returned to the previous levels after the total shutdown of the old system. Therefore, the expected environmental gain was not achieved with the installation of the new technology.

The Level of Particulate Matter on Foliage Depends on the Distance from the Source of Emission

One of the most dangerous inhaled pollutants is particulate matter (PM). PM in inhaled air have a negative impact on human wellbeing and health, and may even cause deaths. Where pollutants have been emitted into the outdoor atmosphere, the only possible method for cleaning the air is through phytoremediation, a form of environmental biotechnology, where plants act as biological filters for pollutants. This study compared PM levels on the leaves of Tilia cordata Mill. trees growing in locations at increasing distances from the source of the PM emission. Significant differences between individual trees growing at a distance of between 3 m and 500 m from the road edge were found in: (i) the mass of PM that accumulated on leaves (total, surface, in-wax and the three determined size fractions) and (ii) the amount of waxes deposited on leaves.

The PM2.5 chemical composition in an industrial zone included in a large urban settlement: main sources and local background

Chemical analyses, receptor modeling and meteorological data were combined to determine the composition and sources of PM2.5 sampled daily in a large area in Italy characterized by a high number of heterogeneous industrial emissions and contiguous to a major urban center. The PM2.5 local background in the area, i.e. the common basic composition and concentrations of PM2.5, was determined. Factor analysis-multiple linear regression analysis (FA-MLRA) was used to identify and quantify the main PM sources. Groups of samples with similar source contributions were then sorted using cluster analysis. The potential source location and the influence of long range transport were investigated by using the conditional probability function (CPF) and the potential source contribution function (PSCF) respectively. On an annual basis, five sources of PM were found relevant. Industrial emissions accounted for 3% of PM mass, whereas the main contribution to PM was related to a combination of ammonium nitrate, combustion (54%) and road traffic (36%), mainly related to urban emissions. The PM2.5 background was estimated to account for 20 μg m(-3). It comprises contributions of 55% ammonium nitrate and combustion, 46% road traffic, 6% fossil fuel combustion and 3% industrial emissions. Source contributions are influenced by both local atmospheric circulation and regional transport.

Global mercury and selenium concentrations in skin from free-ranging sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus)

Pollution of the ocean by mercury (Hg) is a global concern. Hg persists, bioaccumulates and is toxic putting high trophic consumers at risk. The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), is a sentinel of ocean health due to its wide distribution, longevity and high trophic level. Our aim was to survey Hg concentrations worldwide in the skin of free-ranging sperm whales considering region, gender and age. Samples were collected from 343 whales in 17 regions during the voyage of the research vessel, Odyssey, between 1999 and 2005. Skin was analyzed for total Hg and detected in all but three samples with a global mean of 2.5±0.1 μg g(-1) ranging from 0.1 to 16.0 μg g(-1). The Mediterranean Sea had the highest regional mean with 6.1 μg g(-1) followed by Australia with 3.5 μg g(-1). Considering gender, females and males did not have significantly different global Hg concentrations. The variation among regions for females was significantly different with highest levels in the Mediterranean and lowest in Sri Lanka; however, males were not significantly different among regions. Considering age in males, adults and subadults did not have significantly different Hg concentrations, and were not significantly different among regions. The toxic effects of these Hg concentrations are uncertain. Selenium (Se), an essential element, antagonizes Hg at equimolar amounts. We measured total Se concentrations and found detectable levels in all samples with a global mean of 33.1±1.1 μg g(-1) ranging from 2.5 to 179 μg g(-1). Se concentrations were found to be several fold higher than Hg concentrations with the average Se:Hg molar ratio being 59:1 and no correlation between the two elements. It is possible Hg is being detoxified in the skin by another mechanism. These data provide the first global analysis of Hg and Se concentrations in a free-ranging cetacean.

Reactions of airway epithelial cells to birch pollen grains previously exposed to in situ atmospheric Pb concentrations: a preliminary assay of allergenicity

A growing body of evidence suggests that interactions between pollen grains and environmental pollutants, especially air pollutants, could be of critical importance with regard to the increase in allergic responses observed in the past decades. Using birch pollen grains (BPG), a major allergy source in European countries, and lead (Pb), a highly toxic metal trace element (MTE) present in urban areas, the immune response of human epithelial cells exposed to BPG or to Pb-associated BPG was compared. The cellular response after exposure either to BPG, BPG exposed to 30 mg/L of Pb (BPG-30), or BPG exposed to 60 mg/L of Pb (BPG-60) was evaluated after two time lapses (2 and 6 h) by measuring mRNA levels of four mediators, including two inflammatory (interleukin-8 and interleukin-6) and two allergic (interleukin-5 [IL-5] and interleukin-13) cytokines. After 2 h of exposure, significant upregulation of the IL-5 gene was observed after exposure to BPG-60 in comparison with exposure to BPG and BPG-30 (N (IL-5) = 1.9, Mann-Whitney test, p = 0.003). After 6 h of exposure, significant upregulation of the IL-5 gene was observed after exposure to BPG-30 with N (IL-5) = 1.8 and to BPG-60 with N (IL-5) = 2.3 (Mann-Whitney test, p = 0.0029) in comparison with exposure to BPG. This first attempt to investigate the influence of pollution by MTE on pollen grain showed a dose-time-dependent increase in IL-5 gene expression after exposure to BPG combined to Pb.

Trace elements in scalp hair of children living in differing environmental contexts in Sicily (Italy)

We present here data about trace elements in human scalp hair samples to test whether they are valuable to reflect environmental exposure and contamination by trace elements. The study compares contents of trace elements in scalp hair from a total of 336 children, aged 11-13 years old, living in various geographical areas of Sicily (southern Italy) characterized by differing environmental conditions. Nineteen elements (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Se, Sr, U, V and Zn) were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Coverage intervals (CI) formulated by the elemental composition of hair samples from the Palermo subjects were compared with the median content of hair from children living in the other study areas. Statistical analysis showed that Al, Ba, Sr and Zn concentrations differed significantly between gender, higher concentrations being observed in girls' hair. Children living close to the volcanic area had higher concentrations of As, Cr, Mn, Ni, Rb, Sb, U, V and Zn. Those living in an area with several old quarries had higher levels of Al, As, Pb, Rb and U. The hair of children living near the Pace del Mela industrial area contained higher levels of As, Ba, Mn, Pb, Rb, Sr and U. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) between Palermo and the other sites allowed to better assess which variables contribute towards differentiating the groups. Our observations suggest that human hair can be used to monitor exposure to several metals, provided that sampling and analytical procedures, together with statistical treatment of data, are carried out according to standardized protocols.

Plant species differences in particulate matter accumulation on leaf surfaces

Particulate matter (PM) accumulation on leaves of 22 trees and 25 shrubs was examined in test fields in Norway and Poland. Leaf PM in different particle size fractions (PM(10), PM(2.5), PM(0.2)) differed among the species, by 10- to 15-folds at both test sites. Pinus mugo and Pinus sylvestris, Taxus media and Taxus baccata, Stephanandra incisa and Betula pendula were efficient species in capturing PM. Less efficient species were Acer platanoides, Prunus avium and Tilia cordata. Differences among species within the same genus were also observed. Important traits for PM accumulation were leaf properties such as hair and wax cover. The ranking presented in terms of capturing PM can be used to select species for air pollution removal in urban areas. Efficient plant species and planting designs that can shield vulnerable areas in urban settings from polluting traffic etc. can be used to decrease human exposure to anthropogenic pollutants.

Mortality and morbidity study of petrochemical employees in a polluted site

BACKGROUND

The area of Gela was included among the 57 Italian polluted sites of national interest for environmental remediation because of its widespread contamination from a petrochemical complex. The present study investigates mortality and morbidity of the cohort of Gela petrochemical workers with the aim of disentangling occupational from residential risk.

METHODS

Mortality was assessed for 5,627 men hired from 1960, year of the plant start-up, to 1993; it was followed up for vital status in the period 1960-2002. Morbidity was analysed for 5,431 workers neither dead nor lost to follow-up from 1960 to 2001 and was based on Hospital Discharge Records in the period 2001-2006. The work experience was classified in terms of job categories such as blue collars, white collars, and both--workers who shifted from blue to white collar (95%) or vice versa. An ad hoc mobility model was applied to define qualitative categories of residence in Gela, as residents and commuters. Standardized Mortality Ratios (SMRs) and Mortality Rate Ratios (MRRs) were computed, the latter by using a Poisson regression model. Morbidity was analyzed in terms of Hospital Discharge Odds Ratios (HDORs) through a logistic regression model. While performing the internal comparisons, white collars was the reference category for the job analysis, and commuters was the reference category for the residential analysis.

RESULTS

In the light of epidemiological evidence about health risk from petrochemical industries in both occupational and environmental settings, and/or on the basis of information about occupational and residential contamination and health risk in the area of Gela, noteworthy results are shown for lung cancer [MRR: 2.11 (CI 90%; 0.96-4.63) in blue collars; 1.71 (1.09-2.69) in residents], respiratory diseases [HDOR: 2.0 (1.0-3.0) in blue collars; 1.4 (0.96-2.06) in residents] and genitourinary diseases [HDOR: 1.34 (1.06-1.68) in blue collars; 1.23 (1.04-1.45) in residents].

CONCLUSIONS

The results support a role of the exposures in the occupational and residential settings, the latter due to the local ascertained contamination, in affecting the workers' health. These results underline the urgent need of water, soil, air and food-chain monitoring programs, to discover active sources of exposure and consequently define public health interventions.

Aqua regia extracted metals in sediments from the industrial area and surroundings of Pančevo, Serbia

Surface and buried sediments were analyzed for Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn and V, as well as for total carbon and hydrogen to assess the distribution of sediment pollution due to the vicinity of the petrochemical complex. The samples, collected from 20 locations within the petrochemical complex and from 16 locations outside the complex, were aqua regia extracted and analyzed by ICP/OES. Metals were determined with an acceptable accuracy for certified metals of 82-113%. The precision for the aqua regia extraction was satisfactory, less than 20%, except for Cd where it was 28%. Comparison of the data from the petrochemical with those from the non-petrochemical areas showed different distributions of the metals. Metals that exceeded the baseline range; Ba, Cd, Cu, Zn and Pb, were detected in higher concentrations in sediments that were under the influence of the chlor-alkali plant within the petrochemical complex. Comparison with data from the petrochemical complex and its surroundings and their distribution demonstrated that the metal compositions of the sediments were modified by anthropogenic activities.