Pharmacology of human trace amine-associated receptors: Therapeutic opportunities and challenges

Ligands of the trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs): A new class of anxiolytics

Most cases of anxiety are currently treated with either benzodiazepines or serotonin reuptake inhibitors. These drugs carry with them risks for a multitude of side effects, and patient compliance suffers for this reason. There is thus a need for novel anxiolytics, and among the most compelling prospects in this vein is the study of the TAARs. The anxiolytic potential of ulotaront, a full agonist at the human TAAR1, is currently being investigated in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Irrespective of whether this compound succeeds in clinical trials, a growing body of preclinical literature underscores the relevance of modulating the TAARs in anxiety. Multiple behavioral paradigms show anxiolytic-like effects in rodents, possibly due to increased neurogenesis and plasticity, in addition to a panoply of interactions between the TAARs and other systems. Crucially, multiple lines of evidence suggest that the TAARs, particularly TAAR1, TAAR2, and TAAR5, are expressed in the extended amygdala and hippocampus. These regions are central in the actuation of anxiety, and are particularly susceptible to neurogenic and neuroplastic effects which the TAARs are now known to regulate. The TAARs also regulate the dopamine and serotonin systems, both of which are implicated in anxiety. Ligands of the TAARs may thus constitute a new class of anxiolytics.

TAAR1 and 5-HT1B receptor agonists attenuate autism-like irritability and aggression in rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid

Despite the rising prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), there remains a significant unmet need for pharmacotherapies addressing its core and associative symptoms. While some atypical antipsychotics have been approved for managing associated irritability and aggression, their use is constrained by substantial side effects. This study aimed firstly to develop behavioral measures to explore frustration, irritability and aggression phenotypes in the rat prenatal valproic acid (VPA) model of ASD. Additionally, we investigated the potential of two novel mechanisms, 5-HT1B and TAAR1 agonism, to alleviate these behaviors. Male offspring exposed to prenatal VPA were trained to achieve stable performance on a cued operant task, followed by pharmacological assessment in an operant frustration test, bottle brush test and resident intruder test. VPA exposed rats demonstrated behaviors indicative of frustration and irritability, as well as increased aggression compared to controls. The irritability-like behavior and aggression were further exacerbated in animals previously experiencing a frustrative event during the operant test. Single administration of the 5-HT1B agonist CP-94253 or TAAR1 agonist RO5263397 attenuated the frustration-like behavior compared to vehicle. Additionally, both agonists reduced irritability-like behavior under both normal and frustrative conditions. While CP-94253 reduced aggression in the resident intruder test under both conditions, RO5263397 only produced effects in rats that previously experienced a frustrative event. Our study describes previously uncharacterized phenotypes of frustration, irritability, and aggression in the rat prenatal VPA model of ASD. Administration of selective TAAR1 or 5-HT1B receptor agonists alleviated these deficits, warranting further exploration of both targets in ASD treatment.

AlphaFold accelerated discovery of psychotropic agonists targeting the trace amine-associated receptor 1

Artificial intelligence is revolutionizing protein structure prediction, providing unprecedented opportunities for drug design. To assess the potential impact on ligand discovery, we compared virtual screens using protein structures generated by the AlphaFold machine learning method and traditional homology modeling. More than 16 million compounds were docked to models of the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a G protein-coupled receptor of unknown structure and target for treating neuropsychiatric disorders. Sets of 30 and 32 highly ranked compounds from the AlphaFold and homology model screens, respectively, were experimentally evaluated. Of these, 25 were TAAR1 agonists with potencies ranging from 12 to 0.03 μM. The AlphaFold screen yielded a more than twofold higher hit rate (60%) than the homology model and discovered the most potent agonists. A TAAR1 agonist with a promising selectivity profile and drug-like properties showed physiological and antipsychotic-like effects in wild-type but not in TAAR1 knockout mice. These results demonstrate that AlphaFold structures can accelerate drug discovery.

Dopamine D1 receptor in medial prefrontal cortex mediates the effects of TAAR1 activation on chronic stress-induced cognitive and social deficits

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) is an intracellular expressed G-protein-coupled receptor that is widely expressed in major dopaminergic areas and plays a crucial role in modulation of central dopaminergic neurotransmission and function. Pharmacological studies have clarified the roles of dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in cognitive function and social behaviors, and chronic stress can inhibit D1R expression due to its susceptibility. Recently, we identified TAAR1 in the mPFC as a potential target for treating chronic stress-induced cognitive and social dysfunction, but whether D1R is involved in mediating the effects of TAAR1 agonist remains unclear. Combined genomics and transcriptomic studies revealed downregulation of D1R in the mPFC of TAAR1-/- mice. Molecular dynamics simulation showed that hydrogen bond, salt bridge, and Pi-Pi stacking interactions were formed between TAAR1 and D1R indicating a stable TAAR1-D1R complex structure. Using pharmacological interventions, we found that D1R antagonist disrupted therapeutic effect of TAAR1 partial agonist RO5263397 on stress-related cognitive and social dysfunction. Knockout TAAR1 in D1-type dopamine receptor-expressing neurons reproduced adverse effects of chronic stress, and TAAR1 conditional knockout in the mPFC led to similar deficits, along with downregulation of D1R expression, all of these effects were ameliorated by viral overexpression of D1R in the mPFC, suggesting the functional interaction between TAAR1 and D1R. Collectively, our data elucidate the possible molecular mechanism that D1R in the mPFC mediates the effects of TAAR1 activation on chronic stress-induced cognitive and social deficits.

A trace amine associated receptor mediates antimicrobial immune response in the oyster Crassostrea gigas

Trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors, playing an immunomodulatory function in the neuroinflammatory responses. In the present study, a TAAR homologue with a 7tm_classA_rhodopsin-like domain (designated as CgTAAR1L) was identified in oyster Crassostrea gigas. The abundant CgTAAR1L transcripts were detected in visceral ganglia and haemocytes compared to other tissues, which were 55.35-fold and 32.95-fold (p < 0.01) of those in adductor muscle, respectively. The mRNA expression level of CgTAAR1L in haemocytes significantly increased and reached the peak level at 3 h after LPS or Poly (I:C) stimulation, which was 4.55-fold and 12.35-fold of that in control group, respectively (p < 0.01). After the expression of CgTAAR1L was inhibited by the injection of its targeted siRNA, the mRNA expression levels of interleukin17s (CgIL17-1, CgIL17-5 and CgIL17-6), and defensin (Cgdefh1) significantly decreased at 3 h after LPS stimulation, which was 0.51-fold (p < 0.001), 0.39-fold (p < 0.01), 0.48-fold (p < 0.05) and 0.41-fold (p < 0.05) of that in the control group, respectively. The nuclear translocation of Cgp65 protein was suppressed in the CgTAAR1L-RNAi oysters. Furthermore, the number of Vibrio splendidus in the haemolymph of CgTAAR1L-RNAi oysters significantly increased (4.11-fold, p < 0.001) compared with that in the control group. In contrast, there was no significant difference in phagocytic rate of haemocytes to V. splendidus in the CgTAAR1L-RNAi oysters. These results indicated that CgTAAR1L played an important role in the immune defense against bacterial infection by inducing the expressions of interleukin and defensin.

Trace amine associated receptor 1: predicted effects of single nucleotide variants on structure-function in geographically diverse populations

Trace Amine Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) is a novel pharmaceutical target under investigation for the treatment of several neuropsychiatric conditions. TAAR1 single nucleotide variants (SNV) have been found in patients with schizophrenia and metabolic disorders. However, the frequency of variants in geographically diverse populations and the functional effects of such variants are unknown. In this study, we aimed to characterise the distribution of TAAR1 SNVs in five different WHO regions using the Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes (dbGaP) and conducted a critical computational analysis using available TAAR1 structural data to identify SNVs affecting ligand binding and/or functional regions. Our analysis shows 19 orthosteric, 9 signalling and 16 micro-switch SNVs hypothesised to critically influence the agonist induced TAAR1 activation. These SNVs may non-proportionally influence populations from discrete regions and differentially influence the activity of TAAR1-targeting therapeutics in genetically and geographically diverse populations. Notably, our dataset presented with orthosteric SNVs D1033.32N (found only in the South-East Asian Region and Western Pacific Region) and T1945.42A (found only in South-East Asian Region), and 2 signalling SNVs (V1253.54A/T2526.36A, found in African Region and commonly, respectively), all of which have previously demonstrated to influence ligand induced functions of TAAR1. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis using SIFT4G, MutationTaster 2, PROVEAN and MutationAssessor predicted all 16 micro-switch SNVs are damaging and may further influence the agonist activation of TAAR1, thereby possibly impacting upon clinical outcomes. Understanding the genetic basis of TAAR1 function and the impact of common mutations within clinical populations is important for the safe and effective utilisation of novel and existing pharmacotherapies.

TAARs as Novel Therapeutic Targets for the Treatment of Depression: A Narrative Review of the Interconnection with Monoamines and Adult Neurogenesis

Depression is a common mental illness of great concern. Current therapy for depression is only suitable for 80% of patients and is often associated with unwanted side effects. In this regard, the search for and development of new antidepressant agents remains an urgent task. In this review, we discuss the current available evidence indicating that G protein-coupled trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) might represent new targets for depression treatment. The most frequently studied receptor TAAR1 has already been investigated in the treatment of schizophrenia, demonstrating antidepressant and anxiolytic properties. In fact, the TAAR1 agonist Ulotaront is currently undergoing phase 2/3 clinical trials testing its safety and efficacy in the treatment of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Other members of the TAAR family (TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9) are not only involved in the innate olfaction of volatile amines, but are also expressed in the limbic brain areas. Furthermore, animal studies have shown that TAAR2 and TAAR5 regulate emotional behaviors and thus may hold promise as potential antidepressant targets. Of particular interest is their connection with the dopamine and serotonin systems of the brain and their involvement in the regulation of adult neurogenesis, known to be affected by the antidepressant drugs currently in use. Further non-clinical and clinical studies are necessary to validate TAAR1 (and potentially other TAARs) as novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of depression.

Trace Amine-Associated Receptors' Role in Immune System Functions

Trace amines are a separate, independent group of biogenic amines, close in structure to classical monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that include many products of the endogenous or bacteria-mediated decarboxylation of amino acids. A family of G protein-coupled trace amine-associated receptors (in humans, TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9) that senses trace amines was discovered relatively recently. They are mostly investigated for their involvement in the olfaction of volatile amines encoding innate behaviors and their potential contribution to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders, but the expression of the TAAR family of receptors is also observed in various populations of cells in the immune system. This review is focused on the basic information of the interaction of trace amines and their receptors with cells of the general immune systems of humans and other mammals. We also overview the available data on TAARs' role in the function of individual populations of myeloid and lymphoid cells. With further research on the regulatory role of the trace amine system in immune functions and on uncovering the contribution of these processes to the pathogenesis of the immune response, a significant advance in the field could be expected. Furthermore, the determination of the molecular mechanisms of TAARs' involvement in immune system regulation and the further investigation of their potential chemotactic role could bring about the development of new approaches for the treatment of disorders related to immune system dysfunctions.

Discovery of a Novel Chemo-Type for TAAR1 Agonism via Molecular Modeling

The search for novel effective TAAR1 ligands continues to draw great attention due to the wide range of pharmacological applications related to TAAR1 targeting. Herein, molecular docking studies of known TAAR1 ligands, characterized by an oxazoline core, have been performed in order to identify novel promising chemo-types for the discovery of more active TAAR1 agonists. In particular, the oxazoline-based compound S18616 has been taken as a reference compound for the computational study, leading to the development of quite flat and conformationally locked ligands. The choice of a "Y-shape" conformation was suggested for the design of TAAR1 ligands, interacting with the protein cavity delimited by ASP103 and aromatic residues such as PHE186, PHE195, PHE268, and PHE267. The obtained results allowed us to preliminary in silico screen an in-house series of pyrimidinone-benzimidazoles (1a-10a) as a novel scaffold to target TAAR1. Combined ligand-based (LBCM) and structure based (SBCM) computational methods suggested the biological evaluation of compounds 1a-10a, leading to the identification of derivatives 1a-3a (hTAAR1 EC50 = 526.3-657.4 nM) as promising novel TAAR1 agonists.

A Pilot Study on a Possible Mechanism behind Olfactory Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease: The Association of TAAR1 Downregulation with Neuronal Loss and Inflammation along Olfactory Pathway

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized not only by motor symptoms but also by non-motor dysfunctions, such as olfactory impairment; the cause is not fully understood. Our study suggests that neuronal loss and inflammation in brain regions along the olfactory pathway, such as the olfactory bulb (OB) and the piriform cortex (PC), may contribute to olfactory dysfunction in PD mice, which might be related to the downregulation of the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) in these areas. In the striatum, although only a decrease in mRNA level, but not in protein level, of TAAR1 was detected, bioinformatic analyses substantiated its correlation with PD. Moreover, we discovered that neuronal death and inflammation in the OB and the PC in PD mice might be regulated by TAAR through the Bcl-2/caspase3 pathway. This manifested as a decrease of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and an increase of the pro-apoptotic protein cleaved caspase3, or through regulating astrocytes activity, manifested as the increase of TAAR1 in astrocytes, which might lead to the decreased clearance of glutamate and consequent neurotoxicity. In summary, we have identified a possible mechanism to elucidate the olfactory dysfunction in PD, positing neuronal damage and inflammation due to apoptosis and astrocyte activity along the olfactory pathway in conjunction with the downregulation of TAAR1.

TAAR1 agonists improve glycemic control, reduce body weight and modulate neurocircuits governing energy balance and feeding

OBJECTIVE

Metabolic Syndrome, which can be induced or exacerbated by current antipsychotic drugs (APDs), is highly prevalent in schizophrenia patients. Recent preclinical and clinical evidence suggest that agonists at trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) have potential as a new treatment option for schizophrenia. Intriguingly, preclinical tudies have also identified TAAR1 as a novel regulator of metabolic control. Here we evaluated the effects of three TAAR1 agonists, including the clinical development candidate ulotaront, on body weight, metabolic parameters and modulation of neurocircuits implicated in homeostatic and hedonic feeding.

METHODS

Effects of TAAR1 agonists (ulotaront, RO5166017 and/or RO5263397) on body weight, food intake and/or metabolic parameters were investigated in rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD) and in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity (DIO). Body weight effects were also determined in a rat and mouse model of olanzapine-, and corticosterone-induced body weight gain, respectively. Glucose tolerance was assessed in lean and diabetic db/db mice and fasting plasma glucose and insulin examined in DIO mice. Effects on gastric emptying were evaluated in lean mice and rats. Drug-induced neurocircuit modulation was evaluated in mice using whole-brain imaging of c-fos protein expression.

RESULTS

TAAR1 agonists improved oral glucose tolerance by inhibiting gastric emptying. Sub-chronic administration of ulotaront in rats fed a HFD produced a dose-dependent reduction in body weight, food intake and liver triglycerides compared to vehicle controls. In addition, a more rapid reversal of olanzapine-induced weight gain and food intake was observed in HFD rats switched to ulotaront or RO5263397 treatment compared to those switched to vehicle. Chronic ulotaront administration also reduced body weight and improved glycemic control in DIO mice, and normalized corticosterone-induced body weight gain in mice. TAAR1 activation increased neuronal activity in discrete homeostatic and hedonic feeding centers located in the dorsal vagal complex and hypothalamus with concurrent activation of several limbic structures.

CONCLUSION

The current data demonstrate that TAAR1 agonists, as a class, not only lack APD-induced metabolic liabilities but can reduce body weight and improve glycemic control in rodent models. The underlying mechanisms likely include TAAR1-mediated peripheral effects on glucose homeostasis and gastric emptying as well as central regulation of energy balance and food intake.

Molecular basis of human trace amine-associated receptor 1 activation

The human trace amine-associated receptor 1 (hTAAR1, hTA1) is a key regulator of monoaminergic neurotransmission and the actions of psychostimulants. Despite preclinical research demonstrating its tractability as a drug target, its molecular mechanisms of activation remain unclear. Moreover, poorly understood pharmacological differences between rodent and human TA1 complicate the translation of findings from preclinical disease models into novel pharmacotherapies. To elucidate hTA1's mechanisms on the molecular scale and investigate the underpinnings of its divergent pharmacology from rodent orthologs, we herein report the structure of the human TA1 receptor in complex with a Gαs heterotrimer. Our structure reveals shared structural elements with other TAARs, as well as with its closest monoaminergic orthologue, the serotonin receptor 5-HT4R. We further find that a single mutation dramatically shifts the selectivity of hTA1 towards that of its rodent orthologues, and report on the effects of substituting residues to those found in serotonin and dopamine receptors. Strikingly, we also discover that the atypical antipsychotic medication and pan-monoaminergic antagonist asenapine potently and efficaciously activates hTA1. Together our studies provide detailed insight into hTA1 structure and function, contrast its molecular pharmacology with that of related receptors, and uncover off-target activities of monoaminergic drugs at hTA1.

From odor to oncology: non-canonical odorant receptors in cancer

Odorant receptors, traditionally associated with olfaction as chemoreceptors, have been increasingly recognized for their presence and diverse functions in various non-nasal tissues throughout the body. Beyond their roles in sensory perception, emerging evidence suggests a compelling interplay between odorant receptors and cancer progression as well. Alongside the canonical GPCR odorant receptors, dysregulation of non-canonical odorant receptors such as trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), formyl peptide receptors (FPRs), and membrane-spanning 4A family (MS4As) has been observed in various cancer types, suggesting their contributions to cancer progression. The roles of these non-canonical chemoreceptors in cancer are complex, with some receptors promoting tumorigenesis and others acting as tumor-suppressing factors upon activation, depending on the cancer type. These findings shed light on the potential of non-canonical odorant receptors as therapeutic targets and prognostic markers in cancer, inviting further exploration to unravel their precise mechanisms of action and implications in cancer biology. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the intricate relationships between these chemoreceptors and various types of cancer, potentially paving the way for innovative odor-based therapeutics. Ultimately, this review discusses the potential development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting these non-canonical chemoreceptors.

Ligand recognition and G-protein coupling of trace amine receptor TAAR1

Trace-amine-associated receptors (TAARs), a group of biogenic amine receptors, have essential roles in neurological and metabolic homeostasis1. They recognize diverse endogenous trace amines and subsequently activate a range of G-protein-subtype signalling pathways2,3. Notably, TAAR1 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for treating psychiatric disorders4,5. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying its ability to recognize different ligands remain largely unclear. Here we present nine cryo-electron microscopy structures, with eight showing human and mouse TAAR1 in a complex with an array of ligands, including the endogenous 3-iodothyronamine, two antipsychotic agents, the psychoactive drug amphetamine and two identified catecholamine agonists, and one showing 5-HT1AR in a complex with an antipsychotic agent. These structures reveal a rigid consensus binding motif in TAAR1 that binds to endogenous trace amine stimuli and two extended binding pockets that accommodate diverse chemotypes. Combined with mutational analysis, functional assays and molecular dynamic simulations, we elucidate the structural basis of drug polypharmacology and identify the species-specific differences between human and mouse TAAR1. Our study provides insights into the mechanism of ligand recognition and G-protein selectivity by TAAR1, which may help in the discovery of ligands or therapeutic strategies for neurological and metabolic disorders.

Recognition of methamphetamine and other amines by trace amine receptor TAAR1

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), the founding member of a nine-member family of trace amine receptors, is responsible for recognizing a range of biogenic amines in the brain, including the endogenous β-phenylethylamine (β-PEA)1 as well as methamphetamine2, an abused substance that has posed a severe threat to human health and society3. Given its unique physiological role in the brain, TAAR1 is also an emerging target for a range of neurological disorders including schizophrenia, depression and drug addiction2,4,5. Here we report structures of human TAAR1-G-protein complexes bound to methamphetamine and β-PEA as well as complexes bound to RO5256390, a TAAR1-selective agonist, and SEP-363856, a clinical-stage dual agonist for TAAR1 and serotonin receptor 5-HT1AR (refs. 6,7). Together with systematic mutagenesis and functional studies, the structures reveal the molecular basis of methamphetamine recognition and underlying mechanisms of ligand selectivity and polypharmacology between TAAR1 and other monoamine receptors. We identify a lid-like extracellular loop 2 helix/loop structure and a hydrogen-bonding network in the ligand-binding pockets, which may contribute to the ligand recognition in TAAR1. These findings shed light on the ligand recognition mode and activation mechanism for TAAR1 and should guide the development of next-generation therapeutics for drug addiction and various neurological disorders.

Structural and signaling mechanisms of TAAR1 enabled preferential agonist design

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) senses a spectrum of endogenous amine-containing metabolites (EAMs) to mediate diverse psychological functions and is useful for schizophrenia treatment without the side effects of catalepsy. Here, we systematically profiled the signaling properties of TAAR1 activation and present nine structures of TAAR1-Gs/Gq in complex with EAMs, clinical drugs, and synthetic compounds. These structures not only revealed the primary amine recognition pocket (PARP) harboring the conserved acidic D3.32 for conserved amine recognition and "twin" toggle switch for receptor activation but also elucidated that targeting specific residues in the second binding pocket (SBP) allowed modulation of signaling preference. In addition to traditional drug-induced Gs signaling, Gq activation by EAM or synthetic compounds is beneficial to schizophrenia treatment. Our results provided a structural and signaling framework for molecular recognition by TAAR1, which afforded structural templates and signal clues for TAAR1-targeted candidate compounds design.

Trace Amine-Associated Receptors and Monoamine-Mediated Regulation of Insulin Secretion in Pancreatic Islets

Currently, metabolic syndrome treatment includes predominantly pharmacological symptom relief and complex lifestyle changes. Trace amines and their receptor systems modulate signaling pathways of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which are involved in the pathogenesis of this disorder. Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) is expressed in endocrine organs, and it was revealed that TAAR1 may regulate insulin secretion in pancreatic islet β-cells. For instance, accumulating data demonstrate the positive effect of TAAR1 agonists on the dynamics of metabolic syndrome progression and MetS-associated disease development. The role of other TAARs (TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9) in the islet's function is much less studied. In this review, we summarize the evidence of TAARs' contribution to the metabolic syndrome pathogenesis and regulation of insulin secretion in pancreatic islets. Additionally, by the analysis of public transcriptomic data, we demonstrate that TAAR1 and other TAAR receptors are expressed in the pancreatic islets. We also explore associations between the expression of TAARs mRNA and other genes in studied samples and demonstrate the deregulation of TAARs' functional associations in patients with metabolic diseases compared to healthy donors.

Expression Pattern of Trace Amine-Associated Receptors during Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells to Dopaminergic Neurons

Trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), which were discovered only in 2001, are known to be involved in the regulation of a spectrum of neuronal processes and may play a role in the pathogenesis of a number of neuropsychiatric diseases, such as schizophrenia and others. We have previously shown that TAARs also have interconnections with the regulation of neurogenesis and, in particular, with the neurogenesis of dopamine neurons, but the exact mechanisms of this are still unknown. In our work we analyzed the expression of TAARs (TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8 and TAAR9) in cells from the human substantia nigra and ventral tegmental areas and in human pluripotent stem cells at consecutive stages of their differentiation to dopaminergic neurons, using RNA sequencing data from open databases, and TaqMan PCR data from the differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells in vitro. Detectable levels of TAARs expression were found in cells at the pluripotent stages, and the dynamic of their expression had a trend of increasing with the differentiation and maturation of dopamine neurons. The expression of several TAAR types (particularly TAAR5) was also found in human dopaminergic neuron-enriched zones in the midbrain. This is the first evidence of TAARs expression during neuronal differentiation, which can help to approach an understanding of the role of TAARs in neurogenesis.

In Vitro Comparison of Ulotaront (SEP-363856) and Ralmitaront (RO6889450): Two TAAR1 Agonist Candidate Antipsychotics

BACKGROUND

Trace amine-associated receptor-1 (TAAR1) agonists have been proposed as potential antipsychotics, with ulotaront and ralmitaront having reached clinical trials. While ulotaront demonstrated efficacy in a recent Phase II trial, a corresponding study studies of ralmitaront failed to show efficacy as a monotherapy or as an adjunct to atypical antipsychotics. In addition to TAAR1 agonism, ulotaront is a partial agonist at the serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT1AR). However, little is known about ralmitaront.

METHODS

We compared ulotaront and ralmitaront at TAAR1, 5-HT1AR, and dopamine D2 using luciferase complementation-based G protein recruitment, cAMP accumulation, and G protein-coupled inward rectifier potassium channel activation assays.

RESULTS

Ralmitaront showed lower efficacy at TAAR1 in G protein recruitment, cAMP accumulation, and GIRK activation assays. Moreover, ralmitaront lacked detectable activity at 5-HT1AR and dopamine D2.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with ulotaront, ralmitaront shows lower efficacy and slower kinetics at TAAR1 and lacks efficacy at 5-HT1AR. These data may be relevant to understanding differences in clinical profiles of these 2 compounds.

Molecular Basis of Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 Activation

The human trace amine-associated receptor 1 (hTAAR1, hTA1) is a key regulator of monoaminergic neurotransmission and the actions of psychostimulants. Despite preclinical research demonstrating its tractability as a drug target, its molecular mechanisms of activation remain unclear. Moreover, poorly understood pharmacological differences between rodent and human TA1 complicate the translation of findings from preclinical disease models into novel pharmacotherapies. To elucidate hTA1's mechanisms on the molecular scale and investigate the underpinnings of its divergent pharmacology from rodent orthologs, we herein report the structure of the human TA1 receptor in complex with a Gαs heterotrimer. Our structure reveals shared structural elements with other TAARs, as well as with its closest monoaminergic ortholog, the serotonin receptor 5-HT4R. We further find that a single mutation dramatically shifts the selectivity of hTA1 towards that of its rodent orthologs, and report on the effects of substituting residues to those found in serotonin and dopamine receptors. Strikingly, we also discover that the atypical antipsychotic medication and pan-monoaminergic antagonist asenapine potently and efficaciously activates hTA1. Together our studies provide detailed insight into hTA1 structure and function, contrast its molecular pharmacology with that of related receptors, and uncover off-target activities of monoaminergic drugs at hTA1.

The Expression of Trace Amine-Associated Receptors (TAARs) in Breast Cancer Is Coincident with the Expression of Neuroactive Ligand-Receptor Systems and Depends on Tumor Intrinsic Subtype

Currently, the contribution of trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) to breast cancer (BC) is recognized, but their associations with various pathological characteristics are not yet understood. There is accumulated transcriptomic data for BC tumors, which are represented in publicly accessible databases. We estimated TAARs' (including TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9) associations with BC stage, grade, and molecular subtypes in these data and identified that the expression of all TAARs was associated with more unfavorable cancer subtypes, including basal-like and HER2-positive tumors. Also, the significant upregulation of all TAARs was demonstrated in circulating tumor cells compared to the metastatic lesions. Considering that co-expressed genes are more likely to be involved in the same biologic processes, we analyzed genes that are co-expressed with TAARs in BC. These gene sets were enriched with the genes of the olfactory transduction pathway and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction participants. TAARs are co-expressed with G-protein-coupled receptors of monoamine neurotransmitters including dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin as well as with other neuroactive ligand-specific receptors. Since TAAR1 is able to modulate the activity of monoamine receptors that are involved in the regulation of BC growth, TAAR1 and potentially other TAARs may be regarded as prospective therapeutic targets for breast cancer.

Natural psychedelics in the treatment of depression; a review focusing on neurotransmitters

Natural psychedelic compounds are emerging as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. This review will discuss how natural psychedelics exert their neurobiological therapeutic effects, and how different neurotransmission systems mediate the effects of these compounds. Further, current therapeutic strategies for depression, and novel mechanism of action of natural psychedelics in the treatment of depression will be discussed. In this review, our focus will be on N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), reversible type A monoamine oxidase inhibitors, mescaline-containing cacti, psilocybin/psilocin-containing mushrooms, ibogaine, muscimol extracted from Amanita spp. mushrooms and ibotenic acid.

Robust aversive effects of trace amine-associated receptor 1 activation in mice

Drugs that stimulate the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) are under clinical investigation as treatments for several neuropsychiatric disorders. Previous studies in a genetic mouse model of voluntary methamphetamine intake identified TAAR1, expressed by the Taar1 gene, as a critical mediator of aversive methamphetamine effects. Methamphetamine is a TAAR1 agonist, but also has actions at monoamine transporters. Whether exclusive activation of TAAR1 has aversive effects was not known at the time we conducted our studies. Mice were tested for aversive effects of the selective TAAR1 agonist, RO5256390, using taste and place conditioning procedures. Hypothermic and locomotor effects were also examined, based on prior evidence of TAAR1 mediation. Male and female mice of several genetic models were used, including lines selectively bred for high and low methamphetamine drinking, a knock-in line in which a mutant form of Taar1 that codes for a non-functional TAAR1 was replaced by the reference Taar1 allele that codes for functional TAAR1, and their matched control line. RO5256390 had robust aversive, hypothermic and locomotor suppressing effects that were found only in mice with functional TAAR1. Knock-in of the reference Taar1 allele rescued these phenotypes in a genetic model that normally lacks TAAR1 function. Our study provides important data on TAAR1 function in aversive, locomotor, and thermoregulatory effects that are important to consider when developing TAAR1 agonists as therapeutic drugs. Because other drugs can have similar consequences, potential additive effects should be carefully considered as these treatment agents are being developed.

Novel Compounds in the Treatment of Schizophrenia-A Selective Review

Schizophrenia is a chronic neuropsychiatric syndrome that significantly impacts daily function and quality of life. All of the available guidelines suggest a combined treatment approach with pharmacologic agents and psychological interventions. However, one in three patients is a non-responder, the effect on negative and cognitive symptoms is limited, and many drug-related adverse effects complicate clinical management. As a result, discovering novel drugs for schizophrenia presents a significant challenge for psychopharmacology. This selective review of the literature aims to outline the current knowledge on the aetiopathogenesis of schizophrenia and to present the recently approved and newly discovered pharmacological substances in treating schizophrenia. We discuss ten novel drugs, three of which have been approved by the FDA (Olanzapine/Samidorphan, Lumateperone, and Pimavanserin). The rest are under clinical trial investigation (Brilaroxazine, Xanomeline/Trospium, Emraclidine, Ulotaront, Sodium Benzoate, Luvadaxistat, and Iclepertin). However, additional basic and clinical research is required not only to improve our understanding of the neurobiology and the potential novel targets in the treatment of schizophrenia, but also to establish more effective therapeutical interventions for the syndrome, including the attenuation of negative and cognitive symptoms and avoiding dopamine blockade-related adverse effects.

Increased Metabolic Potential, Efficacy, and Safety of Emerging Treatments in Schizophrenia

Patients with schizophrenia experience a broad range of detrimental health outcomes resulting from illness severity, heterogeneity of disease, lifestyle behaviors, and adverse effects of antipsychotics. Because of these various factors, patients with schizophrenia have a much higher risk of cardiometabolic abnormalities than people without psychiatric illness. Although exposure to many antipsychotics increases cardiometabolic risk factors, mortality is higher in patients who are not treated versus those who are treated with antipsychotics. This indicates both direct and indirect benefits of adequately treated illness, as well as the need for beneficial medications that result in fewer cardiometabolic risk factors and comorbidities. The aim of the current narrative review was to outline the association between cardiometabolic dysfunction and schizophrenia, as well as discuss the confluence of factors that increase cardiometabolic risk in this patient population. An increased understanding of the pathophysiology of schizophrenia has guided discovery of novel treatments that do not directly target dopamine and that not only do not add, but may potentially minimize relevant cardiometabolic burden for these patients. Key discoveries that have advanced the understanding of the neural circuitry and pathophysiology of schizophrenia now provide possible pathways toward the development of new and effective treatments that may mitigate the risk of metabolic dysfunction in these patients. Novel targets and preclinical and clinical data on emerging treatments, such as glycine transport inhibitors, nicotinic and muscarinic receptor agonists, and trace amine-associated receptor-1 agonists, offer promise toward relevant therapeutic advancements. Numerous areas of investigation currently exist with the potential to considerably progress our knowledge and treatment of schizophrenia.

Ractopamine residues in meat might reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes

Background: The overall prevalence of diabetes in the world has risen substantially in the past several decades, so have complications and mortalities associated with it. Aim: Prevention strategies for diabetes thus become an urgent public health need for reducing the burden of diabetes. Methods: Ractopamine, a β1/2-adrenergic receptor agonist, has been approved for use in finishing swine, cattle, and turkey in countries where meat exporting brings tremendous economic benefits. This leanness enhancer is recently found to be a full agonist at trace amine-associated receptor 1 also. A thorough literature review was performed to assess possible effects of ractopamine on glucose metabolism. Results: Activating β-adrenoceptor could lead to glucose-lowering effects independent of insulin while activation on trace amine-associated receptor 1 induces an incretin-like signaling on insulin-secreting pancreatic β-cells. Conclusion: Accordingly, it is hypothesized that long-term consuming meat containing ractopamine might lower the risk of type 2 diabetes.

3-Iodothyronamine, a trace amine-associated receptor agonist, regulates intracellular Ca2+ increases via CaMK II through Epac2 in rat cerebral arterioles

Trace amines (TAs) in the nervous system bind to TA-associated receptors (TAARs) and are involved in the regulation of monoaminergic functions. Among TAAR subtypes, TAAR1 has been implicated in the development of neurological disorders, such as schizophrenia. The present study investigated the effects of the TAAR1 agonist, 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) on cerebral arterioles using fluctuations in the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) as an index of contractile responses. In cerebral arterioles, most of the TAAR agonists did not increase [Ca2+]i, while only T1AM elevated [Ca2+]i in vascular smooth muscle cells. This increase involved extracellular Ca2+ influx through T-type Ca2+ channels and inositol trisphosphate- and ryanodine-receptor-mediated Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. The inhibition of the cAMP sensor, exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac) 2, and calmodulin kinase (CaMK) II strongly inhibited Ca2+ elevations. The present study revealed that T1AM acted not only on the TAAR1 receptor as previously suggested, but also on other G-protein coupled receptors and/or signal transduction systems to increase intracellular Ca2+ in cerebral arteriole smooth muscle cells. These results suggest that when using T1AM in clinical practice, attention should be paid to the early rise in blood pressure.

Enhancing Fear Extinction: Pharmacological Approaches

Extinction is the process by which the memory of a learned conditioned association decreases over time and with introduction of new associations. It is a vital part of fear learning, and it is critical to recovery in multiple fear-related disorders, including Specific and Social Phobias, Panic Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The process of extinction is also the underlying mechanism for recovery in gold-standard therapies for PTSD, including prolonged exposure, cognitive processing therapy, eye movement desensitization and procession, as well as other empirically-based paradigms. Pharmacological modulators of extinction are thus promising targets for treatment of fear-related disorders. We focus here on emerging psychopharmacological treatments to facilitate extinction: D-cycloserine, scopolamine, losartan, ketamine, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. We also provide an overview of recent advances in molecular pathways that show promise as targets for extincion and inhibitory learning, including pathways related to cannabinoid, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal signaling, and promising work in neurosteroid compounds.

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) agonism as a new treatment strategy for schizophrenia and related disorders

Schizophrenia remains a major health burden, highlighting the need for new treatment approaches. We consider the potential for targeting the trace amine (TA) system. We first review genetic, preclinical, and clinical evidence for the role of TAs in the aetiopathology of schizophrenia. We then consider how the localisation and function of the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) position it to modulate key brain circuits for the disorder. Studies in rodents using Taar1 knockout (TAAR1-KO) and overexpression models show that TAAR1 agonism inhibits midbrain dopaminergic and serotonergic activity, and enhances prefrontal glutamatergic function. TAAR1 agonists also reduce hyperactivity, attenuate prepulse inhibition (PPI) deficits and social withdrawal, and improve cognitive measures in animal models. Finally, we consider findings from clinical trials of TAAR1 agonists and how this approach may address psychotic and negative symptoms, tolerability issues, and other unmet needs in the treatment of schizophrenia.

MUG: A mutation overview of GPCR subfamily A17 receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate several signaling pathways through a general mechanism that involves their activation, upholding a chain of events that lead to the release of molecules responsible for cytoplasmic action and further regulation. These physiological functions can be severely altered by mutations in GPCR genes. GPCRs subfamily A17 (dopamine, serotonin, adrenergic and trace amine receptors) are directly related with neurodegenerative diseases, and as such it is crucial to explore known mutations on these systems and their impact in structure and function. A comprehensive and detailed computational framework - MUG (Mutations Understanding GPCRs) - was constructed, illustrating key reported mutations and their effect on receptors of the subfamily A17 of GPCRs. We explored the type of mutations occurring overall and in the different families of subfamily A17, as well their localization within the receptor and potential effects on receptor functionality. The mutated residues were further analyzed considering their pathogenicity. The results reveal a high diversity of mutations in the GPCR subfamily A17 structures, drawing attention to the considerable number of mutations in conserved residues and domains. Mutated residues were typically hydrophobic residues enriched at the ligand binding pocket and known activating microdomains, which may lead to disruption of receptor function. MUG as an interactive web application is available for the management and visualization of this dataset. We expect that this interactive database helps the exploration of GPCR mutations, their influence, and their familywise and receptor-specific effects, constituting the first step in elucidating their structures and molecules at the atomic level.

Gut Microbiota Alterations in Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 9 (TAAR9) Knockout Rats

Trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR1-TAAR9) are a family of G-protein-coupled monoaminergic receptors which might have great pharmacological potential. It has now been well established that TAAR1 plays an important role in the central nervous system. Interestingly, deletion of TAAR9 in rats leads to alterations in the periphery. Previously, we found that knockout of TAAR9 in rats (TAAR9-KO rats) decreased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the blood. TAAR9 was also identified in intestinal tissues, and it is known that it responds to polyamines. To elucidate the role of TAAR9 in the intestinal epithelium, we analyzed TAAR9-co-expressed gene clusters in public data for cecum samples. As identified by gene ontology enrichment analysis, in the intestine, TAAR9 is co-expressed with genes involved in intestinal mucosa homeostasis and function, including cell organization, differentiation, and death. Additionally, TAAR9 was co-expressed with genes implicated in dopamine signaling, which may suggest a role for this receptor in the regulation of peripheral dopaminergic transmission. To further investigate how TAAR9 might be involved in colonic mucosal homeostasis, we analyzed the fecal microbiome composition in TAAR9-KO rats and their wild-type littermates. We identified a significant difference in the number of observed taxa between the microbiome of TAAR9-KO and wild-type rats. In TAAR9-KO rats, the gut microbial community became more variable compared with the wild-type rats. Furthermore, it was found that the family Saccharimonadaceae, which is one of the top 10 most abundant families in TAAR9-KO rat feces, is almost completely absent in wild-type animal fecal samples. Taken together, these data indicate a role of TAAR9 in intestinal function.

Effects of acute and chronic administration of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) ligands on in vivo excitability of central monoamine-secreting neurons in rats

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) has been recently identified as a target for the future antidepressant, antipsychotic, and anti-addiction drugs. Full (e.g. RO5256390) and partial (e.g. RO5263397) TAAR1 agonists showed antidepressant-, antipsychotic- and anti-addiction-like behavioral effects in rodents and primates. Acute RO5256390 suppressed, and RO5263397 stimulated serotonin (5-HT) neurons of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and dopamine neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in brain slices, suggesting that the behavioral effects of TAAR1 ligands involve 5-HT and dopamine. For more comprehensive testing of this hypothesis, we examined acute and chronic effects of RO5256390 and RO5263397 on monoamine neurons in in vivo conditions. Excitability of 5-HT neurons of the DRN, noradrenaline neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC), and dopamine neurons of the VTA was assessed using single-unit electrophysiology in anesthetized rats. For acute experiments, RO5256390 and RO5263397 were administered intravenously; neuronal excitability after RO5256390 and RO5263397 administration was compared to the basal activity of the same neuron. For chronic experiments, RO5256390 was administered orally for fourteen days prior to electrophysiological assessments. The neuronal excitability in RO5256390-treated rats was compared to vehicle-treated controls. We found that acute RO5256390 inhibited 5-HT and dopamine neurons. This effect of RO5256390 was reversed by the subsequent and prevented by the earlier administration of RO5263397. Acute RO5256390 and RO5263397 did not alter the excitability of LC noradrenaline neurons in a statistically significant way. Chronic RO5256390 increased excitability of 5-HT neurons of the DRN and dopamine neurons of the VTA. In conclusion, the putative antidepressant and antipsychotic effects of TAAR1 ligands might be mediated, at least in part, via the modulation of excitability of central 5-HT and dopamine neurons.

Ulotaront: a TAAR1/5-HT1A agonist in clinical development for the treatment of schizophrenia

INTRODUCTION

Current antipsychotics are postsynaptic dopamine-2(D₂) receptor blockers, which often, but not always, effectively improve acute psychotic symptoms and prevent relapse in schizophrenia and other severe mental disorders, but are associated with various side effects, including parkinsonism, akathisia, sedation/somnolence, and cardiometabolic alterations. Furthermore, the efficacy of current antipsychotics for negative and cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia is limited. Ulotaront is a novel trace-amine-associated receptor-1(TAAR1) agonist with serotonin-1A receptor agonist activity, and without postsynaptic D2-receptor antagonism. Phase 2 clinical data for ulotaront in patients with acutely exacerbated schizophrenia are promising regarding the potential improvement in positive, negative, and depressive symptoms.

AREAS COVERED

An overview of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of ulotaront is given. Summary of clinical efficacy and safety/tolerability from Phase 1/2-trials, and of ongoing Phase 3-trials, is also given.

EXPERT OPINION

Ulotaront is a promising agent for the treatment of schizophrenia with an apparent benign safety profile, which might provide a much-needed new and different treatment option for various domains of schizophrenia. Data from larger Phase 3-trials, including for relapse prevention, schizophrenia subdomains, and in adolescents, are awaited. If ongoing Phase 3-trials in adults are successful, further research on combination regimens with existing antipsychotics, and in treatment-resistant schizophrenia as well as in mood disorders would be desirable.

Enhanced Aggression, Reduced Self-Grooming Behavior and Altered 5-HT Regulation in the Frontal Cortex in Mice Lacking Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1)

The Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) is one of the six functional receptors belonging to the family of monoamine-related G protein-coupled receptors (TAAR1-TAAR9) found in humans. However, the exact biological mechanisms of TAAR1 central and peripheral action remain to be fully understood. TAAR1 is widely expressed in the prefrontal cortex and several limbic regions, interplaying with the dopamine system to modulate the reward circuitry. Recent clinical trials suggest the efficacy of TAAR1 agonists as potential novel antipsychotic agents. Here, we characterize behavioral and neurochemical phenotypes of TAAR1 knockout mice, focusing on aggression and self-grooming behavior that both strongly depend on the monoaminergic signaling and cortico-striatal and cortico-limbic circuits. Overall, we report increased aggression in these knockout mice in the resident-intruder test, accompanied by reduced self-grooming behavior in the novelty-induced grooming test, and by higher cortical serotonin (5-HT) tissue levels. Further studies are necessary to explore whether TAAR1-based therapies can become potential novel treatments for a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders associated with aggression.

Viral metagenomics combined with metabolomics reveals the role of gut viruses in mouse model of depression

Depression is a heterogeneous mental disorder that has been linked to disturbances in the gut microbiome. As an essential part of the gut microbiome, gut virome may play critical roles in disease progression and development. However, the relationship between the effect of gut virome on neurotransmitter metabolism and depression is unknown. We evaluated the alterations of gut virome and neurotransmitters in chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced mouse model of depression based on viral metagenomics and LC-MS/MS metabolomics analyses. The results reveal that the gut virome profile of CRS group differed significantly from CON group. Microviridae was the most abundant differential viral family in both groups, followed by Podoviridae, while Siphoviridae was only enriched in CRS group of the top 100 differential viruses. The differential viruses that predicted to Enterobacteriaceae phage, Gammaproteobacteria phage and Campylobacteraceae phage were enriched in CRS group. Furthermore, 12 differential neurotransmitters primarily involved in the tryptophan metabolism pathway were altered in depressive-like mice. Besides, tryptamine and 5-methoxytryptamine hydrochloride were strongly associated with differential viruses belonging to Podoviridae and Microviridae. Our findings provide new insight into understanding the potential role of the gut virome and metabolites in depression.

Modelling of p-tyramine transport across human intestinal epithelial cells predicts the presence of additional transporters

p-Tyramine (TYR) is an endogenous trace amine, which can also be synthesized by intestinal microbiota, and is present in commonly consumed diets. TYR is an agonist for the intracellular trace amine-associated receptor 1, which has been implicated in psychiatric, metabolic, and immune-related disorders. We have previously demonstrated TYR readily diffuses across lipid bilayers, while transport across Caco-2 cell membranes involves Organic Cation Transporter 2 (OCT2) and a Na⁺-dependent active transporter. Here we developed mathematical models to determine whether known kinetics for these processes are sufficient to explain observed transcellular TYR passage. Ordinary differential equations were developed for known TYR transport processes to predict concentration-time relationships. Michaelis-Menten kinetics were assumed for all transporter-mediated processes and a one phase exponential function used for simple diffusion. Modelled concentration-time plots were compared to published experimental results. Additional transporter functions were sequentially added to models to improve consistency, and a least squares error minimization approach utilized to determine added transporter kinetics. Finally, possible TYR compartmentalization was also modelled. Following apical loading, transport across the apical, but not the basolateral, membrane was modelled without additional transporters, suggesting a basolateral transporter was missing. Consistent with this, models of basolateral compartment loading did not match experimental observations, indicating missing basolateral transporters were bidirectional. Addition of a transporter with the kinetic characteristics of OCT2 did not improve models. Varying the kinetic parameters of the added transporter improved models of basolateral, but worsened apical, loading models, suggesting the need for either a directional preference in transporters, or intracellular TYR compartmentalization. Experimental parameters were recapitulated by introducing asymmetry into the apical OCT2 (K_{t_OCT2_apicaltocell} = 110.4 nM, K_{t_OCT2_celltoapical} = 1,227.9 nM), and a symmetric basolateral facilitated diffusion transporter (V_max = 6.0 nM/s, K_t = 628.3 nM). The apparent directionality of OCT2 may reflect altered TYR ionization due to known pH differences between compartments. Models for asymmetry and compartmentalization were compared by root mean square deviation from experimental data, and it was found that TYR compartmentalization could only partially replace the need for asymmetry of OCT2. In conclusion, modelling indicates that known TYR transport processes are insufficient to explain experimental concentration-time profiles and that asymmetry of the apical membrane OCT2 combined with additional, low affinity, basolateral membrane facilitated diffusion transporters are required.

Discovery and In Vivo Efficacy of Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) Agonist 4-(2-Aminoethyl)-N-(3,5-dimethylphenyl)piperidine-1-carboxamide Hydrochloride (AP163) for the Treatment of Psychotic Disorders

Starting from a screening hit, a set of analogs was synthesized based on a 4-(2-aminoethyl)piperidine core not associated previously with trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) modulation in the literature. Several structure–activity relationship generalizations have been drawn from the observed data, some of which were corroborated by molecular modeling against the crystal structure of TAAR1. The four most active compounds (EC₅₀ for TAAR1 agonistic activity ranging from 0.033 to 0.112 μM) were nominated for evaluation in vivo. The dopamine transporter knockout (DAT-KO) rat model of dopamine-dependent hyperlocomotion was used to evaluate compounds’ efficacy in vivo. Out of four compounds, only one compound (AP163) displayed a statistically significant and dose-dependent reduction in hyperlocomotion in DAT-KO rats. As such, compound AP163 represents a viable lead for further preclinical characterization as a potential novel treatment option for disorders associated with increased dopaminergic function, such as schizophrenia.

Public Transcriptomic Data Meta-Analysis Demonstrates TAAR6 Expression in the Mental Disorder-Related Brain Areas in Human and Mouse Brain

G protein-coupled trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR) recognize different classes of amine compounds, including trace amines or other exogenous and endogenous molecules. Yet, most members of the TAAR family (TAAR2-TAAR9) are considered olfactory receptors involved in sensing innate odors. In this study, TAAR6 mRNA expression was evaluated in the brain transcriptomic datasets available in the GEO, Allen Brain Atlas, and GTEx databases. Transcriptomic data analysis demonstrated ubiquitous weak TAAR6 mRNA expression in the brain, especially in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. RNA sequencing of isolated cells from the nucleus accumbens showed that the expression of TAAR6 in some cell populations may be more pronounced than in whole-tissue samples. Curiously, in D1 and D2 medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens, TAAR6 expression was co-regulated with genes involved in G protein-coupled receptor signaling. However, in cholinergic interneurons of the nucleus accumbens, TAAR6 expression was not associated with the activation of any specific biological process. Finally, TAAR6 expression in the mouse prefrontal cortex was validated experimentally by RT-PCR analysis. These data demonstrated that TAAR6 is expressed at low levels in the human and mouse brain, particularly in limbic structures involved in the pathogenesis of mental disorders, and thus might represent a new pharmacotherapeutic target.

A New Treatment Paradigm: Targeting Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1) in Schizophrenia

This continuing education supplement is jointly provided by Medical Education Resources and CMEology. The supplement is supported by an independent educational grant from Sunovion Pharmaceuticals Inc. It was edited and peer reviewed by the Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology.After reviewing the learning objectives and reading the supplement, please complete the Activity Evaluation/Credit Request form online at https://www.cmesurvey.site/TAAR1.

ABSTRACT

All currently available antipsychotics work via essentially the same mechanism: by antagonizing the dopamine D2 receptor. However, schizophrenia is an extremely heterogeneous condition, and antipsychotics do not adequately control symptoms for all patients. Negative and cognitive symptoms are especially difficult to manage with existing medications. Therefore, antipsychotic agents with novel mechanisms of action are urgently needed. Recently, a phase 2 clinical trial and extension study demonstrated that, relative to placebo, the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) agonist ulotaront was effective at controlling the positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. In addition, ulotaront seems to lack the weight gain, metabolic issues, and extrapyramidal symptoms associated with traditional antipsychotics. This agent is currently undergoing multiple phase 3 trials for the treatment of schizophrenia. Another TAAR1 agonist, ralmitaront, is being investigated for the treatment of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorders. Two phase 2 clinical trials are underway, evaluating ralmitaront both as a monotherapy and an add-on therapy to traditional antipsychotics. In this supplement, we review the biologic, preclinical, and clinical data available for TAAR1 agonists, so that if and when they are approved for the treatment of schizophrenia, psychiatry specialists will be ready to use them to optimize patient outcomes. We also briefly review other emerging therapies in late-stage development for the treatment of schizophrenia.

Multiple Direct Effects of the Dietary Protoalkaloid N-Methyltyramine in Human Adipocytes

Dietary amines have been the subject of a novel interest in nutrition since the discovery of trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), especially TAAR-1, which recognizes tyramine, phenethylamine, tryptamine, octopamine, N-methyltyramine (NMT), synephrine, amphetamine and related derivatives. Alongside the psychostimulant properties of TAAR-1 ligands, it is their ephedrine-like action on weight loss that drives their current consumption via dietary supplements advertised for ‘fat-burning’ properties. Among these trace amines, tyramine has recently been described, at high doses, to exhibit an antilipolytic action and activation of glucose transport in human adipocytes, i.e., effects that are facilitating lipid storage rather than mobilization. Because of its close structural similarity to tyramine, NMT actions on human adipocytes therefore must to be reevaluated. To this aim, we studied the lipolytic and antilipolytic properties of NMT together with its interplay with insulin stimulation of glucose transport along with amine oxidase activities in adipose cells obtained from women undergoing abdominal surgery. NMT activated 2-deoxyglucose uptake when incubated with freshly isolated adipocytes at 0.01–1 mM, reaching one-third of the maximal stimulation by insulin. However, when combined with insulin, NMT limited by half the action of the lipogenic hormone on glucose transport. The NMT-induced stimulation of hexose uptake was sensitive to inhibitors of monoamine oxidases (MAO) and of semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO), as was the case for tyramine and benzylamine. All three amines inhibited isoprenaline-induced lipolysis to a greater extent than insulin, while they were poorly lipolytic on their own. All three amines—but not isoprenaline—interacted with MAO or SSAO. Due to these multiple effects on human adipocytes, NMT cannot be considered as a direct lipolytic agent, potentially able to improve lipid mobilization and fat oxidation in consumers of NMT-containing dietary supplements.

Trace Amine Associate Receptor 1 (TAAR1) as a New Target for the Treatment of Cognitive Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease

Worldwide, approximately 27 million people are affected by Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD pathophysiology is believed to be caused by the deposition of the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ). Aβ can reduce long-term potentiation (LTP), a form of synaptic plasticity that is closely associated with learning and memory and involves postsynaptic glutamate receptor phosphorylation and trafficking. Moreover, Aβ seems to be able to reduce glutamatergic transmission by increasing the endocytosis of NMDA receptors. Trace amines (TAs) are biogenic amines that are structurally similar to monoamine neurotransmitters. TAs bind to G protein-coupled receptors, called TAARs (trace amine-associated receptors); the best-studied member of this family, TAAR1, is distributed in the cortical and limbic structures of the CNS. It has been shown that the activation of TAAR1 can rescue glutamatergic hypofunction and that TAAR1 can modulate glutamate NMDA receptor-related functions in the frontal cortex. Several lines of evidence also suggest the pro-cognitive action of TAAR1 agonists in various behavioural experimental protocols. Thus, we studied, in vitro, the role of the TAAR1 agonist RO5256390 on basal cortical glutamatergic transmission and tested its effect on Aβ-induced dysfunction. Furthermore, we investigated, in vivo, the role of TAAR1 in cognitive dysfunction induced by Aβ infusion in Aβ-treated mice. In vitro data showed that Aβ 1–42 significantly decreased NMDA cell surface expression while the TAAR1 agonist RO5256390 promoted their membrane insertion in cortical cells. In vivo, RO5256390 showed a mild pro-cognitive effect, as demonstrated by the better performance in the Y maze test in mice treated with Aβ. Further studies are needed to better understand the interplay between TAAR1/Aβ and glutamatergic signalling, in order to evaluate the eventual beneficial effect in different experimental paradigms and animal models. Taken together, our data indicate that TAAR1 agonism may provide a novel therapeutic approach in the treatments of disorders involving Aβ-induced cognitive impairments, such as AD.

Sensory Gating in TAAR1 Knockout Mice

Abstract

Trace amines (TA) are a family of endogenous compounds structurally similar to classical biogenic amines that may be involved in the pathogenesis of a number of neuropsychiatric disorders. One of the most studied and perspective member of the TA associated receptors (TAARs) family is the TAAR1. The aim of the present study was to investigate the sensory gating (SG) in freely moving TAAR1 knockout mice in a chronic experiment. The study of SG was conducted in the paired-click paradigm. The SG indices were calculated as an absolute value by subtracting the second stimulus response amplitude from the first stimulus response amplitude (S1–S2) and as a relative value calculated by dividing the S2 amplitude by the response amplitude on S1 (S2/S1). As a result, a significant decrease in the amplitude of the N40 component was found in TAAR1 knockout mice compared to wild-type mice. In addition, the absolute value of sensory gating calculated by the S1–S2 method was also reduced, but the relative value of sensory gating denoted as S1/S2 ratio remained unchanged. Thus, the data obtained indicate the involvement of TAAR1 in the generation of auditory evoked potentials and the potential involvement of the trace amine system in the dosing and filtering of sensory information.

Evaluation of Approach to a Conspecific and Blood Biochemical Parameters in TAAR1 Knockout Mice

It is known that the trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) receptor is involved in limbic brain functions by regulating dopamine transmission and putative reward circuitry. Moreover, other TAARs are expressed in the olfactory system of all studied vertebrate species, sensing innate socially-relevant odors, including pheromones. Therefore, one can assume that TAARs may play a role in rodent social and sexual behavior. A comparative behavioral and biochemical analysis of TAAR1 knockout (TAAR1-KO) and wild-type mice is also important for the preliminary evaluation of the potential side effects of future TAAR1-based therapies. In our studies, we adapted a sexual incentive motivation test for mice to evaluate the sexual behavior of TAAR1-KO and wild-type mice. Previously, similar methods were primarily applied to rats. Furthermore, we measured testosterone and other biochemical parameters in the blood. As a result, we found only minimal alterations in all of the studied parameters. Thus, the lack of TAAR1 does not significantly affect sexual motivation and routine lipid and metabolic blood biochemical parameters, suggesting that future TAAR1-based therapies should have a favorable safety profile.

Applying a Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry to Explore Dopamine Dynamics in Animal Models of Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Progress in the development of technologies for the real-time monitoring of neurotransmitter dynamics has provided researchers with effective tools for the exploration of etiology and molecular mechanisms of neuropsychiatric disorders. One of these powerful tools is fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV), a technique which has progressively been used in animal models of diverse pathological conditions associated with alterations in dopamine transmission. Indeed, for several decades FSCV studies have provided substantial insights into our understanding of the role of abnormal dopaminergic transmission in pathogenetic mechanisms of drug and alcohol addiction, Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, etc. Here we review the applications of FSCV to research neuropsychiatric disorders with particular attention to recent technological advances.

In Vitro ADME and Preclinical Pharmacokinetics of Ulotaront, a TAAR1/5-HT1A Receptor Agonist for the Treatment of Schizophrenia

Purpose

Ulotaront (SEP-363856) is a TAAR1 agonist with 5-HT_1A agonist activity currently in clinical development for the treatment of schizophrenia. The objectives of the current study were to characterize the in vitro ADME properties, preclinical PK, and to evaluate the DDI potential of ulotaront and its major metabolite SEP-383103.

Methods

Solubility, permeability, plasma protein binding, CYP inhibition and induction, transporter inhibition and uptake studies were conducted in vitro. Phenotyping studies were conducted using recombinant human CYPs and FMOs, human liver microsomes and human liver homogenates. Preclinical plasma and brain pharmacokinetics were determined after a single intraperitoneal, intravenous, and oral administration of ulotaront.

Results

Ulotaront is a compound of high solubility, high permeability, and low binding to plasma proteins. Ulotaront metabolism is mediated via both NADPH-dependent and NADPH-independent pathways, with CYP2D6 as the major metabolizing enzyme. Ulotaront is an inducer of CYP2B6, and an inhibitor of CYP2D6, OCT1 and OCT2, while SEP-383103 is neither a CYP inducer nor a potent inhibitor of CYPs and human transporters. Ulotaront exhibits rapid absorption, greater than 70% bioavailability, approximately 3.5 L/kg volume of distribution, 1.5-4 h half-life, 12-43 ml/min/kg clearance, and good penetration across the blood–brain barrier in preclinical species.

Conclusions

Ulotaront has been designated as a BCS1 compound by US FDA. The ability of ulotaront to penetrate the blood–brain barrier for CNS targeting has been demonstrated in mice and rats. The potential for ulotaront and SEP-383103 to act as perpetrators of CYP and transporter-mediated DDIs is predicted to be remote.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11095-022-03267-1.

Interaction analyses of hTAAR1 and mTAAR1 with antagonist EPPTB

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) plays a critical role in regulating monoaminergic activity. EPPTB is the only known selective potent antagonist of the mouse (m) TAAR1 presently, while it was shown to be weak at antagonizing human (h) TAAR1. The lack of high-resolution structure of TAAR1 hinders the understanding of the differences in the interaction modes between EPPTB and m/hTARR1. The purpose of this study is to probe these interaction modes using homology modeling, molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and molecular mechanics-generalized Born surface area (MM-GBSA) binding energy calculations. Eight populated conformers of hTAAR1-EPPTB complex were observed during the MD simulations and could be used in structure-based virtual screening in future. The MM-GBSA binding energy of hTAAR1-EPPTB complex (-96.5 kcal/mol) is larger than that of mTAAR1-EPPTB complex (-106.7 kcal/mol), which is consistent with the experimental finding that EPPTB has weaker binding affinity to hTAAR1. The several residues in binding site of hTAAR1 (F154^4.56, T194^5.42 and I290^7.39) are different from these of mTAAR1 (Y153^4.56, A193^5.42 and Y287^7.39), which might contribute to the binding affinity difference. Our docking analysis on another hTAAR1 antagonist Compound 3 has found that 1). this compound binds in different pockets of our mTAAR1 and hTAAR1 homology models with a slightly stronger binding affinity to hTAAR1; 2). both antagonists bind to a very similar pocket of hTAAR1.