Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose and goal pursuit as a self-sustaining system: Evidence of daily within-person reciprocity among adolescents in self-driven learning

OBJECTIVE

Despite long-standing assumptions that a sense of purpose in life and goal pursuit are mutually supportive, empirical evidence of their reciprocity remains deficient. In the context of a unique out-of-school time program that empowers youth to pursue passions through self-driven learning, we examined whether purpose and one aspect of goal pursuit-perceptions of goal progress-work together to sustain themselves and each other over time.

METHOD

Adolescents (N = 321) completed daily surveys throughout program enrollment (Menrollment = 69.09 days). Through dynamic structural equation modeling, we derived within-person patterns of day-to-day prediction as well as individual differences in these patterns.

RESULTS

We found purpose and perceived goal progress exhibited significant daily inertia (i.e., autoregressive prediction) and reciprocity (i.e., cross-lagged prediction) at the within-person level. We also found initial evidence suggesting (a) tighter reciprocity was related to greater perceived goal progress overall and (b) people with greater purpose inertia may rely less on making goal progress to sustain momentum.

CONCLUSIONS

With evidence of daily purpose-progress reciprocity, the field can look forward to replicating this work in other contexts, diving deeper into interesting patterns of within-person dynamics, and developing interventions to support youth striving.

Sarcopenia screening based on the assessment of gait with inertial measurement units: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Gait variables assessed by inertial measurement units (IMUs) show promise as screening tools for aging-related diseases like sarcopenia. The main aims of this systematic review were to analyze and synthesize the scientific evidence for screening sarcopenia based on gait variables assessed by IMUs, and also to review articles that investigated which gait variables assessed by IMUs were related to sarcopenia.

METHODS

Six electronic databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Scopus and IEEE Xplore) were searched for journal articles related to gait, IMUs and sarcopenia. The search was conducted until December 5, 2023. Titles, abstracts and full-length texts for studies were screened to be included.

RESULTS

A total of seven articles were finally included in this review. Despite some methodological variability among the included studies, IMUs demonstrated potential as effective tools for detecting sarcopenia when coupled with artificial intelligence (AI) models, which outperformed traditional statistical methods in classification accuracy. The findings suggest that gait variables related to the stance phase such as stance duration, double support time, and variations between feet, are key indicators of sarcopenia.

CONCLUSIONS

IMUs could be useful tools for sarcopenia screening based on gait analysis, specifically when artificial intelligence is used to process the recorded data. However, more development and research in this field is needed to provide an effective screening tool for doctors and health systems.

A single session of coordinative motor training does not improve spatial ability performances in healthy children

Background

In recent years, studies have found small-to-medium positive effects of physical activity on academic achievement. Already acute bouts of exercise appear to improve certain cognitive functions. Spatial abilities are one aspect of cognition that is encountered frequently in daily life and that is closely related to success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-subjects. However, little is known about the effects of an acute exercise session on spatial abilities. The aim of this study was therefore to evaluate the effect of a single session of coordinative motor training (CMT) on spatial ability performances in healthy children.

Methods

Forty-nine children were assigned to either a single session of CMT (i.e., obstacle course with motor coordinative and spatial elements) (n = 25, 12 females, mean age: 10.7 ± 0.6 years) or a resting control group (n = 24, 12 females, mean age ± SD: 11.4 ± 0.5 years). Spatial abilities were evaluated in both groups using the Paper Folding Test (PFT), Mental Rotation Test (MRT), Water Level Task (WLT), Corsi Block Test (CBT), and Numbered Cones Run (NCR).

Results

A statistical main effect for Test was observed for the majority of outcomes (i.e., all but the MRT). Test × Group interactions did not reach the level of significance.

Conclusion

The results indicate that a single session of CMT does not improve spatial ability performances of healthy children. Future research should evaluate whether repeated longer-term interventions might be more suitable to generate significant improvements in spatial abilities.

24-Hour Movement Behaviors of LGBTQA+ Young People: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The movement behaviors of LGBTQA+ young people, who encounter specific health, and other, challenges are not well understood. This systematic review examines the 24-hour movement behaviors of LGBTQA+ young people compared with population estimates of meeting the 24-hour movement guidelines.

METHODS

Seven electronic databases were searched from inception to January 2024. Observational studies published in English and reporting quantitative data for physical activity, sedentary behavior, or sleep duration for LGBTQA+ individuals <24 years old were included. Data were narratively synthesized for children/adolescents (<18 years) and young adults (18-24 years), guided by the Cochrane Synthesis Without Meta-analysis guidelines.

RESULTS

Fifty-six studies were included; 46 were of "fair" quality and 37 were conducted in the United States. Physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep outcomes were reported in 46, 11, and 14 studies, respectively. Ninety unique LGBTQA+ terms were identified. Based on outcomes reported in ≥1 study, and compared to population estimates, LGBTQA+ young people were less likely to meet aerobic physical activity and strength/resistance training guidelines. LGBTQA+ children/adolescents were less likely to meet the sleep guidelines. Young adults demonstrated similar adherence to sleep guidelines as population estimates.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results suggest that LGBTQA+ young people have suboptimal 24-hour movement behaviors; in some cases, worse than population estimates. Utilization of more robust measures of exposure and outcome variables is recommended, with a focus on sleep and sedentary behavior.

The role of physical activity in the physiological activation of the scholastic pre-requirements

Physical activity during the developmental age is an indispensable tool for the physical and mental growth of children. Thanks to physical activity, individuals have the opportunity to improve their physical efficiency and promote better health, establish relationships with the environment and with others, and develop cognitive processes. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between physical activity and the development of scholastic prerequisites among kindergarten children. 52 children (aged 4-5) participated in either a classroom-based physical activity program (60'/3 days per week) or regular lessons. At the beginning and end of the intervention programs, a set of standardized motor evaluation tests and the Observational Questionnaire for the Early Identification of Learning Disabilities (IPDA) were administered. As a result, a meaningful Time x Group interaction for the IPDA Variable was observed. The aforementioned development denotes a noteworthy advancement within the treatment group (p < 0.001). Conversely, no substantial modification was noted in the control group. The findings derived from this study provide a foundational support to the concept that physical activity integrated into classroom settings is an effective strategy to improve both scholastic prerequisites and academic performance.

The bidirectional longitudinal association between academic performance and cardiovascular disease risk factors in adolescents

INTRODUCTION

The limited prior research examining the association between academic performance and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in youth did not explore the reciprocal association between these constructs, and analyzed CVD risk factors individually. Thus, the aim of the present study was to explore the bidirectional longitudinal association between clustered CVD risk score and academic performance in adolescents over a 24-month interval.

METHODS

A total of 237 adolescents (45.6% girls), aged 13.9 ± 0.3 years old at baseline, from DADOS (Deporte, ADOlescencia y Salud) study were included in this study. A clustered CVD risk score was created by calculating the mean age- and gender-standardized z-scores of waist circumference, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio, triglycerides, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, and cardiorespiratory fitness (inversed). Academic performance was assessed through the final academic grades and the test of educational abilities.

RESULTS

Our results showed that the clustered CVD risk score at baseline was not associated with academic performance 24 months later (all p > .05). Nevertheless, except for physical education, academic grades at baseline were inversely associated with clustered CVD risk score at follow-up in adolescents (β ranged from -0.140 to -0.102; all p < .05). No associations were found between academic abilities at baseline and clustered CVD risk score at follow-up (all p > .05).

CONCLUSION

Academic grades could help predict CVD risk 24 months later during adolescence. Education professionals should foster adolescents' academic performance not only to improve academic results but also to maximize future cardiovascular health benefits.

Sex-specific associations of muscular fitness with overall academic performance and specific school subjects in adolescents: the EHDLA study

Introduction

Overalll, muscular fitness and academic performance are two variables widely studied in the literature. However, evidence on the relationship between muscular fitness and specific school subjects (e.g., physical education), as well as their differences by sex, is scarce.

Objective

The aim of this study was to examine the associations between muscular fitness and overall academic performance and between muscular fitness and specific subjects (i.e., language, math, foreign language, and physical education) in a sample of secondary Spanish school students.

Methods

For the present study, a sample of 766 students (45% boys, aged 12-17 years). From the Eating Healthy and Daily Life Activities (EHDLA) study was used. The Assessing the Levels of Physical Activity and Fitness (ALPHA-FIT) battery was used to determine handgrip strength and lower body muscular strength. The performance of the different school subjects was provided by the school centers.

Results

Overall, for both boys and girls, higher muscular fitness was associated with greater academic results, with the greatest differences in physical education. However, only significant differences were identified for girls.

Discussion and conclusion

Global muscular fitness is important for contributing to cognitive development, both in physical education and in the rest of the subjects of the educational curriculum for adolescents. At the same time, although the association appears to follow the same trend for both sexes, the results seem more evident for girls.

Substantial parallel mediation contribution by cognitive domains in the relationship between adolescents' physical fitness and academic achievements: the Cogni-Action Project

Objective

To determine how cognitive domains mediate the link between fitness components, their global score (GFS), and adolescents' academic achievement (ACA) across various school subjects.

Methods

In this study, 1,296 adolescents aged 10-14 participated. GFS was computed by three fitness components (strength, muscular, and cardiorespiratory fitness) through the ALPHA-fitness test battery. ACA was determined by five school subjects (Language, English, Mathematics, Science, and History) and two academic scores (a) "Academic Average" (five subjects) and (b) "Academic-PISA" (Language, Mathematics, and Science). A principal component analysis was performed to establish four factors (working memory [WM], cognitive flexibility [CF], inhibitory control [IC], and fluid reasoning [FR]). A parallel mediation approach was implemented with 5,000 bootstrapped samples controlled for sex, maturity, central obesity, having breakfast before cognitive tasks, schools, and school vulnerability. Total, direct, indirect effects, and mediation percentages were estimated.

Results

Overall, the finding showed a full parallel mediation effect for Language (92.5%) and English (53.9%), while a partial mediation for Mathematics (43.0%), Science (43.8%), History (45.9%), "Academic Average" (50.6%), and "Academic-PISA" (51.5%). In particular, WM, IC, and FR mediated all school subjects except mathematics, where IC was not significant. CF has not mediated any relationship between GF and academic performance.

Conclusion

This study underscores the pivotal role of cognitive domains, specifically WM, IC, and FR, in mediating the link between physical fitness and academic performance in adolescents. These insights have relevant implications for educational and public health policies.

Physical Fitness Surveillance and Monitoring Systems Inventory for Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review with a Global Perspective

Surveillance of health-related physical fitness can improve decision-making and intervention strategies promoting health for children and adolescents. However, no study has comprehensively analyzed surveillance/monitoring systems for physical fitness globally. This review sought to address this gap by identifying: (1) national-level surveillance/monitoring systems for physical fitness among children and adolescents globally, (2) the main barriers and challenges to implementing surveillance/monitoring systems, and (3) governmental actions related to existing surveillance/monitoring systems. We used a scoping review to search, obtain, group, summarize, and analyze available evidence. Our review involved three stages: (1) identification of surveillance systems through a systematic literature review, with complementary search of the grey literature (e.g., reference lists, Google Scholar, webpages, recommendations), (2) systematic consultation with relevant experts using a Delphi method to confirm/add systems and to gather and analyze information on the barriers and challenges to implementing systems, and (3) Web searches for public documents on government sites and surveillance/monitoring system pages, and direct internet searches to identify relevant governmental actions related to surveillance systems. A total of 15 fitness surveillance/monitoring systems met our inclusion criteria. Experts identified a lack of government support and funding, and the low priority of fitness on the public health agenda as the main barriers/challenges to implementation. Several governmental actions related to surveillance systems were identified, including policies, strategies, programs, and guidelines. We propose a Global Observatory of Physical Fitness to help address these issues.

Direct and indirect effects of physiological, psychological and cognitive variables on academic achievement in children

BACKGROUND

Associations between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), screen time, psychological well-being, executive functions, and academic achievement have been reported, however, few studies have analysed models considering the effect of all these variables on academic achievement. This study aims to analyse the direct and indirect associations of mothers' education level, CRF, screen time, psychological well-being, executive functions, with academic achievement in schoolchildren, by sex.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analysis of MOVI-daFit! study including 519 schoolchildren (49.52% girls) aged 9-11 years old. Executive functions were assessed with the NIH Toolbox, CRF with the 20-m shuttle run test, academic achievement through the final academic grades in language and mathematics and mother's education level, screen time and well-being by questionnaires.

RESULTS

Structural equation modelling revealed that in boys cognitive flexibility had a significant direct effect on academic achievement and screen time a total significant effect on academic achievement. In girls, CRF was associated with inhibition and psychological well-being, and this was associated with academic achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

Physiological, psychological, and behavioural variables act together to impact academic achievement, and that differences by sex might exist. Thus, strategies to enhance academic achievement in schoolchildren should consider psychological well-being, CRF, screen time, and sex differences.

IMPACT

Physiological, psychological, and behavioural variables, such as cardiorespiratory fitness, screen time, psychological well-being, and cognition all together have an impact on academic achievement, with differences by sex. Previous studies have demonstrated the separate effect of these variables, however, to date, this is the first study that analyses all together in the same model their impact on academic achievement, by sex. This study shows that in boys cognitive flexibility and screen time impact academic achievement. In girls, cardiorespiratory fitness is highly associated with psychological well-being, and this, in turn, was associated with academic achievement.

A comprehensive study of the academic benefits and practical recommendations to include resistance training programs in institutional education

The connection between physical activity and cognitive function has become a focus of attention in educational research in recent years. Regular exercise has been shown to have significant positive effects on physical health, but it also appears to have a significant impact on cognitive function and academic performance. Of all the exercise modalities, resistance training has drawn interest for its ability to improve cerebral abilities in addition to physical well-being. However, there is limited available knowledge exploring the relationship between resistance training regimens and academic performance. This narrative review aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms linking resistance training to academic performance. Firstly, we will examine the biological mechanisms and psychosocial links that potentially connect resistance training to academic performance to find and describe the different mechanisms by which resistance training improves academic performance. In the next part of the work, we delve into the existing observational and intervention studies that have explored the relationship between resistance training and academic performance. Lastly, we provide practical recommendations for including resistance training in institutional education settings, emphasizing the need of dispelling myths and addressing barriers to increase participation as well as the relevance of considering key training variables and adaptation of protocols to developmental stages, always guided by a properly trained professional. Overall, the available evidence supports that resistance training provides potential benefits to the academic performance of youth students with many biological and psychosocial factors that explain this relationship. However, most of the studies are observational, and broader interventional studies are needed to understand and maximize the benefits of this type of physical exercise.

Physical fitness decline and career paths: a longitudinal study of medical undergraduates

INTRODUCTION

Exercise enhances one's health and competitiveness. A strong physical fitness status can pave the way for a promising future. This study presents the time-based trends in physical fitness indicators-including height, weight, BMI, lung capacity, dash, long-distance running, and standing long jump-among medical undergraduates during their university years. Additionally, we analyzed the impact of students' physical fitness on their career paths.

METHOD

We conducted a retrospective database study by collecting physical fitness test data and career paths information for 634 medical students from a university in southwestern China. These students graduated in 2022. The career paths included pursuits in further studies, employment, and unemployment. To detect differences in these aspects, we used the t-test and Chi-square test.

RESULTS

Our study indicates a significant declining trend in the physical fitness of medical students during their university years. The changes observed between the first and fourth tests are as follows: Weight (kg): 58.52 ± 10.48 to 60.73 ± 12.07, P < 0.00 BMI (kg/m^2): 20.79 ± 2.74 to 21.24 ± 3.06, P < 0.00 50-m dash (s): 8.91 ± 0.99 to 9.25 ± 1.11, P < 0.00 Standing long jump (cm): 187.74 ± 30.98 to 182.59 ± 32.25, P < 0.00 800-m run for females (min): 3.84 ± 0.47 to 4.48 ± 0.85, P < 0.00 1000-m run for males (min): 3.98 ± 0.63 to 4.62 ± 0.87, P < 0.00 Sit-ups for females (count): 30.39 ± 7.5 to 29.03 ± 8.82, P < 0.00 Upon analyzing the correlation between changes in physical fitness and career paths, students with stable or decreased BMI had better post-graduation outcomes compared to students with increased BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Medical students show a declining trend in physical fitness during their undergraduate years. A good physical health status is beneficial for achieving better career paths. Medical students should place greater emphasis on physical exercise during their time in school.

Association of Physiological Performance, Physical Fitness, and Academic Achievement in Secondary School Students

This study aimed to compare the physiological performance and physical fitness based on the academic achievement levels of secondary school students and to explore the effect of gender on the relationship between physiological performance, physical fitness, and academic achievement. In this cross-sectional study, 304 children aged 13-14 years were recruited. To assess physical fitness, students performed a 20 m sprint test, a pro-agility test, a one-mile endurance run/walk test, and a countermovement jump test. At the end of the one-mile endurance run/walk test, the estimated VO2peak value of the participants was calculated. The physiological performance of the students was determined by measuring their resting heart rate and blood pressure. Students were grouped into three categories based on their academic achievement levels. The assessment of academic achievement considered their scores from the previous academic year. The scores were divided into three levels: poor (average score of 69 points or less), average (scores ranging from 70 to 84 points), and good (scores of 85 points or higher). The study revealed a notable disparity among students' VO2Max measurements based on their academic achievement (F = 8.938, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.056). However, we observed that the group with poor academic achievement displayed lower diastolic blood pressure values than the groups with average and good performances. Finally, no significant gender differences were evident in the relationship between academic achievement and any of the physical and physiological parameters.

Mediating role of inhibitory control in relationships between cardiovascular fitness and academic achievement in preadolescents

Cardiovascular fitness (CRF) has been consistently linked to cognitive performance and academic achievement, and inhibitory control has been recognized as a key predictor of academic success. However, few studies have explored whether inhibitory control mediates the relationship between CRF and academic performance in children, and the existing findings are inconclusive because of certain limitations. This study investigated the mediating role of inhibitory control in the association between CRF and academic achievement among preadolescents while also addressing the related limitations. This study enrolled a total of 175 elementary school students (70 girls, mean age=11.17years, standard deviation=0.7), who participated in a half-mile test for assessing their CRF level. Additionally, inhibitory control was measured using the Stroop Color and Word Test (Stroop test), and language and mathematics tests were administered to measure their academic performance. The results revealed that the participants with higher CRF levels achieved superior performance in tasks requiring a high level of inhibitory control (r=0.291, P<0.001) and in Chinese language (r=-0.415, P<0.001) and mathematics (r=-0.366, P<0.001) tests even when gender, age, and body fat were considered. Furthermore, a mediation analysis revealed that inhibitory control, as measured through the incongruent trials of the Stroop test, partially mediated the relationship between CRF and academic performance (language: indirect effect=-0.013, 95% CI [-0.019, -0.008]; math: indirect effect=-0.013, 95% CI [-0.021, -0.009]). These findings have major implications for child development, emphasizing the key role of inhibitory control in the beneficial effects of CRF on academic achievement.

Aerobic fitness and academic achievement: Disentangling the indirect role of executive functions and intelligence

Research in children points to aerobic fitness as a source of individual differences in academic achievement. By examining the indirect effects of executive functions (EF) and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, the present study provides novel insight about the cognitive mechanisms underlying this relationship. 218 children (8-10 years) completed the following assessments: (i) a VO2max test to assess aerobic fitness; (ii) four tasks tapping components of EF (i.e., inhibition and cognitive flexibility); (iii) sub-tests of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test to assess fluid and crystallized intelligence; and (iv) sub-tests of arithmetic, spelling, and reading achievement (WRAT 3rd edition). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to examine the indirect role of EF and intelligence on the relationship between aerobic fitness and sub-domains of academic achievement. Covariate analyses included age, pubertal timing, and socio-economic status. Preliminary analysis via linear regression showed a direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement, whereas no effect was observed on spelling and reading achievement. Importantly, multiple mediation SEM revealed the direct effect of aerobic fitness on arithmetic achievement disappeared after accounting for the indirect effects of EF, whereas intelligence did not contribute significantly on this complex mediation process. Moreover, among EF components, cognitive flexibility, was the main driver of the relationship between aerobic fitness and arithmetic achievement. Unpacking which components of EF and intelligence affect the link between aerobic fitness and academic achievement, holds the promise of better understanding the heterogeneity still present in the literature.

Associations of physical activity dose and movement quality with executive functions in socioeconomically disadvantaged children aged 5-6 years

BACKGROUND

Growing up in areas of high deprivation can negatively impact children's movement behaviours and cognitive development. Enhancing the quantity and quality of children's movement experiences is believed to enhance cognitive development. This study investigated the association of three different modes of movement assessment, movement proficiency and divergent movement ability (collectively understood as motor competence) and PA dose with executive function in a low socio-economic demographic. Demographics, motor competence, and a combination of motor competence and physical activity were hypothesized to be significantly predictor of executive functions.

METHOD

In this cross-sectional study, 360 children aged 5-6 years from deprived areas were assessed using three movement assessments: wrist-worn accelerometery for physical activity dose, Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for movement proficiency, and divergent movement assessment. Executive function, including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, was measured using the NIH Toolbox on an iPad. Multiple linear regression models were designed to evaluate the independent and combined association of demographics, movement competence and physical activity variables with executive function.

RESULTS

The regression analysis, with demographic factors only, explained 12% of EF variance (r2 = 0.12 95%CI 0.06-0.18). In addition to this demographics the model with divergent movement explained 19% of EF variance (r2 = 0.19 95% CI = 0.12-0.28), the model with movement proficiency explained 16% of EF variance (r2 = 0.16 95% CI = 0.08-0.26) and the model with PA dose explained 13% of EF variance (r2 = 0.13 95% CI = 0.07-0.20). In these models both divergent movement and proficiency were significant predictors, whilst physical activity variables were not. The final models, combining motor competence and physical activity variables, explained 24% and 23% of EF variance (r2 = 0.24 CI = 0.14-0.33 and r2 = 0.23 CI = 0.14-0.32). In these models, motor competence variables were significant predictors, and only vigorous physical activity and Euclidean Norm Minus One emerged as significant PA dose predictors.

DISCUSSION

These findings emphasise that motor competence and physical activity variables better predict executive functions when they are combined. When considered individually both motor competence variables were significant predictors of executive function whilst physical activity variables were not. Importantly, among the two movement competence facets, divergent movement assessment exhibited the strongest association with executive function. Future interventions should consider how to facilitate both movement and cognitive development in children. Future interventions should consider both the interplay of movement quality and quantity and the importance of environments that invite children's exploratory movement behavior.

The complex associations between adiposity, fitness, mental wellbeing and neurocognitive function after exercise: A randomized crossover trial in preadolescent children

The aim of the present study was to examine the associations of adiposity and fitness on the preadolescent brain's response to acute exercise. In a sample of 58 children (ages 8-10; 19 females), demographic measures of age, sex, IQ, puberty, and socioeconomic status were considered. Children participated in a randomized crossover study, whereby they completed two different interventions; seated rest or treadmill walking, counterbalanced across participants. Associations between adiposity measures (standardized body mass index [BMI-Z], whole body percent fat [%Fat], visceral adipose tissue [VAT]), cardiorespiratory fitness measures (VO2max and Fat-Free VO2) were assessed on self-reported measures of mental wellbeing, and cognitive performance (response accuracy, reaction time) and neuroelectric (P3 amplitude and latency) indices of a Go/NoGo task following both exercise and rest interventions. Higher adiposity (whole-body percent fat, BMI-Z) was associated with higher trait anxiety (P's≤0.05) and disordered eating (P's≤0.05) scores. Higher fitness (VO2max) was associated with lower childhood depression scores (P=0.02). Regression analyses yielded specific post-exercise neurocognitive associations with adiposity-related (VAT, BMI-Z), and fitness-related (FF-VO2) outcomes, after controlling for post-rest neurocognitive outcomes. VAT was positively associated with post-exercise P3 ERP Latency for the Go task (P≤0.001); BMI-Z was negatively associated with P3 ERP amplitudes for the Go task (P's≤0.005); FF-VO2 was negatively associated with P3 ERP latency for the Go/NoGo task (P's≤0.05), and positively associated with NoGo task accuracy (P≤0.001). Overall, adiposity and fat-free fitness measures yield sensitive and differential associations with neurocognitive performance after exercise and after rest interventions.

Does Physical Fitness Relate to Academic Achievement in High School Students?

BACKGROUND

Academic achievement (AA) is an important issue not only during the school period since it is a strong predictor of long-term professional and social success. Physical fitness (PF) components are associated with AA, and previous studies were conducted with relatively small samples, lack of statistical power, and the conclusions are based on simple correlational analyses. The objective of this study was to analyze the association between PF (single and clustered) with AA in a large and representative sample of high school students.

METHODS

Cross-sectional design study conducted with 911 students, aged 13-15 years (38.52% boys) enrolled in the first year of high school. Cardiorespiratory fitness (20-m shuttle run test), muscular strength (dynamometer), and body composition (skinfolds) were measured. PF components were clustered (Z-cardiorespiratory fitness + Z-muscular strength - Z-body fatness). AA was analyzed through standard math tests. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was applied to verify the independent contribution of each single component and PF's cluster on AA. Age, screen time, maternal education, race, and type of residence were used as covariates.

RESULTS

Among boys, cardiorespiratory fitness was negatively associated with AA (β = -0.137; P = .041), while strength was positively associated with AA (β = 0.188; P = .004). There was no association between clustered PF indicators and AA (β = 0.064; P = .297). There was a negative association between age and AA in girls (β = -0.151; P = .003) and in boys (β = -0.128; P = .045).

CONCLUSIONS

These results support current literature, indicating an association between PF's component, namely muscular strength and AA (mathematics) in adolescents, even when controlled for several covariates.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Motor Coordination, and Academic Achievement in School Students (11-13 years)

Objective. This study aimed to investigate the association between motor coordination (MC), cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and academic achievement (AA) among school students aged 11 to 13 in the West Bank/Palestine. Methods. A total of 252 students were assessed through tests measuring gross and fine motor coordination (Flamingo balance, plate tapping, and other tests). The CRF was evaluated by the 3-minute step test, while AA was measured using grade point average (GPA) and subject-specific grades. Results. A significant correlation was recorded between MC, CRF, and AA (P = .00), rs range (0.436-0.718); Students who engaged in physical activity demonstrated better MC, CRF, and AA compared to their inactive counterparts (P = .00, Cohen's d ranged between 0.53 and 1.35). Conclusion. Enhanced MC and CRF significantly impacted AA, with effect sizes ranging from moderate to large. Promoting physical activity interventions is vital to improve MC and CRF which could positively improve academic achievement among school students.

Effects of out-of-school physical activity interventions based on self-determination theory in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the effects of out-of-school physical activity (PA) interventions, based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), on basic psychological needs (BPN), motivation toward PA, and PA levels in youths.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analyses.

METHOD

We searched for intervention studies examining the effects of PA interventions based on SDT implemented outside the school published in English and Spanish in six electronic databases up to January 2022.

RESULTS

Outcomes of interest were BPN, motivation, and PA levels. In total, nine studies were included in this review. Seven individual meta-analyses were conducted for each variable, revealing nonsignificant clustered effects for the outcomes autonomy satisfaction (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.31, 0.55]), competence satisfaction (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.28, 0.32]), relatedness satisfaction (g = 0.13, 95% CI [-0.43, 0.68]), autonomous motivation (g = 0.15, 95% CI [-0.38, 0.67]), controlled motivation (g = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.32, 0.55]), amotivation (g = -0.36, 95% CI [-0.88, 0.16]), and PA behavior (g = 0.02, 95% CI [-0.08, 0.12]).

CONCLUSION

Meta-analyses suggest that out-of-school PA interventions based on SDT are not effective in increasing levels of needs satisfaction, types of motivation, and PA levels.

Latent class analysis identifies a promising combination of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-Education interventions for improving student cardiorespiratory fitness

OBJECTIVE

To inform Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Education (SNAP-Ed) and other school-based interventions aiming to improve youth cardiorespiratory fitness, this study aimed to identify which SNAP-Ed school-based physical activity intervention combinations were associated with better student cardiorespiratory fitness.

METHODS

This study, utilizing cross-sectional secondary data, included 5th and 7th grade students who attended SNAP-Ed-eligible public schools in California (n = 442,743 students; 4271 schools) and had complete 2016-17 state-mandated fitness test results. Latent class analysis was used to identify underlying school-based intervention combinations. Propensity score methods were used to ensure comparability of intervention and comparison schools, by calculating inverse probability weights. Multilevel models, using those inverse probability weights, assessed the associations between the identified intervention combinations and student cardiorespiratory fitness, as measured by VO2max. The models were adjusted for school-level variables (urbanicity, percent of students eligible for free- or reduced-price meals, total enrollment, and school type), child-level variables (age, gender, and race/ethnicity), and for clustering of students within schools.

RESULTS

We found that students attending schools with interventions focusing on comprehensive policy changes along with improving opportunities for physical activity had, on average, 1.17 mL/kg/min (95% CI: 0.72, 1.62) greater VO2max than students attending schools without any intervention. They also had statistically significantly greater VO2max compared to students attending schools with any other type of intervention combination.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that comprehensive school-based physical activity interventions that include policy changes along with improving physical activity opportunities may be the most effective approach for improving fitness and may warrant prioritization in SNAP-Ed efforts.

Effect of physical activity interventions on children's academic performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The physical and psychological benefits of physical activity are well established. However, there is no consensus regarding the effects of physical activity on children's academic performance in general and in specific subjects. We conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis to identify forms of physical activity that are suitable for improving the physical activity levels and academic performance of children aged 12 years and under. The PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases were searched. Included studies had to meet the following criteria: randomized controlled trials examining the effect of physical activity interventions on children's academic performance. Stata 15.1 software was used to conduct the meta-analysis. A total of 16 studies were included, and the results showed that the "physical activity + academic curriculum" format had a positive effect on children's academic performance. Physical activity had a stronger effect on math performance than on reading and spelling performance (SMD = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.30,1.19, P < 0.001).   Conclusion: The impact of physical activity on children's academic performance varies based on the type of physical activity intervention, with "physical activity + academic curriculum" format having a better effect on academic performance. The effect of physical activity interventions on children's academic performance also varies by subject; the effect is strongest for math.    Trial registration: Registration and protocol CRD42022363255. What is Known: • The physical and psychological benefits of physical activity are well established. • Previous meta-analyses have failed to demonstrate the impact of physical activity on the general and subject-specific academic performance of children aged 12 and under. What is New: • The PAAL form of physical activity has a better effect on the academic performance of children aged 12 and under. • The benefit of physical activity also varies by subject, with the greatest effect being observed for math.

The mediating role of neurocognitive functions in the relation between physical competencies and academic achievement of primary school children

Previous studies into associations between physical, neurocognitive and academic skills have reported inconsistent results. This study aimed to get more insight into these relations by examining all three domains simultaneously, testing a complete mediational model including measures of physical competencies (cardiovascular fitness and motor skills), neurocognitive skills (attention, information processing, and core executive functions), and academic achievement (reading, mathematics, and spelling). Dutch primary school students (n = 891, 440 boys, mean age 9.17 years) were assessed on the Shuttle Run Test (cardiovascular fitness), items of the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test-II (fundamental motor skills), computerized neurocognitive tests, and standardized academic achievement tests. A multilevel structural equation model showed that physical competencies were only indirectly related to academic achievement, via specific neurocognitive functions depending on the academic domain involved. Results provide important implications, highlighting the importance of well-developed physical competencies in children.

Longitudinal weight status and academic achievement in elementary schoolchildren in the United States

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Childhood overweight and obesity have a well-established negative impact on children's health. Overweight and obesity might also negatively impact children's academic performance, but existing literature on this association is inconclusive. This study uses a longitudinal design in a large, diverse elementary school sample to rigorously test the association between longitudinal weight status and academic achievement. Analyses also investigate modification by sex, race/ethnicity, and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF).

SUBJECTS/METHODS

In a large suburban school district in the United States, 4936 Grade 4 students were recruited. Demographic, course grade, and standardized test data were collected from school records for Grades 3-5, and body mass index and CRF were assessed each year. Students wore accelerometers during the school day for up to 15 days across three semesters (Grade 4 Fall and Spring, Grade 5 Fall) to objectively measure physical activity. Multiple imputation addressed missing data and multilevel analyses controlled for student demographics and clustering within schools.

RESULTS

Unadjusted multilevel models found small negative associations between persistent obesity and course grades and standardized test scores, but these associations largely disappeared when controlling for demographic characteristics. Residual associations for math and writing course grades were attenuated when controlling for CRF, though some marginal negative associations for math and writing remained for students who developed obesity during follow-up. There was also evidence of marginal negative associations with course grades for students who developed overweight/obesity. There was no evidence of modification by sex or race/ethnicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest very small associations between weight status and academic achievement that were largely explained by sociodemographic factors and CRF. Evidence of an association between weight status and achievement was stronger among students who developed overweight/obesity. Interventions promoting healthy weight and high CRF remain critical for schools given the link between student health and achievement.

Genotype determining aerobic exercise capacity associates with behavioral plasticity in middle-aged rats

Good aerobic fitness associates positively with cognitive performance and brain health and conversely, low aerobic fitness predisposes to neurodegenerative diseases. To study how genotype together with exercise, started at older age, affects brain and behavior, we utilized rats that differ in inherited aerobic fitness. Rats bred for Low Capacity for Running (LCR) are shown to display less synaptic plasticity and more inflammation in the hippocampus and perform worse than rats bred for a High Capacity for Running (HCR) in tasks requiring flexible cognition. Here we used middle-aged (∼ 16 months) HCR and LCR rats to study how genotype and sex associate with anxiety and neural information filtering, termed sensory gating. Further, we assessed how inherited aerobic capacity associates with hippocampus-dependent learning, measured with contextual fear conditioning task. In females, we also investigated the effects of voluntary wheel running (5 weeks) on these characteristics. Our results indicate that independent of sex or voluntary running, HCR rats were more anxious in open-field tasks, exhibited lower sensory gating and learned more efficiently in contextual fear conditioning task than LCR rats. Voluntary running did not markedly affect innate behavior but slightly decreased the differences between female LCR and HCR rats in fear learning. In conclusion, inherited fitness seems to determine cognitive and behavioral traits independent of sex. Although the traits proved to be rather resistant to change at adult age, learning was slightly improved following exercise in LCR females, prone to obesity and poor fitness.

Exploring the Mediating Role of Executive Function in the Relationship between Aerobic Fitness and Academic Achievement in Adolescents

(1) Background: The performance of physical activity at a sufficient volume can result in improvements in fitness. Aerobic fitness is a particular aspect of fitness that has consistently been shown to be related to both cognitive performance and academic achievement. Cognitive performance, particularly executive function, is itself predictive of academic achievement. It has been hypothesized that the benefits of aerobic fitness for academic achievement are due to improvements in executive function. This study explores the mediating role of cognitive performance on the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in high-school-aged adolescents. (2) Methods: High school students (N = 283, 127 male, 156 females, mean age = 16.05 years, SD = 0.41) performed a shuttle run test to assess aerobic fitness and completed the Stroop Color, Stroop Word, and Stroop Color–Word tests to measure information processing and inhibition. They also completed the National Union Academic Achievement Assessment (NUAAA) as part of their high school requirements. (3) Results: Mediation analyses showed that inhibition (performance in the Stroop Color–Word test) fully mediated the relationship between aerobic fitness and both mathematics and Korean performance. (4) Conclusions: This cross-sectional investigation suggests an important mediating role of cognitive performance related to executive function in understanding the relationship between aerobic fitness and the academic achievement of high-school-aged adolescents. This suggests that enhancements in performance related to executive function, which are attributed to increases in aerobic fitness, could explain the observed benefits for academic attainment.

School-based physical activity interventions and language skills: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

School-based physical activity (PA) interventions have proven beneficial for improving cognitive performance and overall academic achievement, but their benefits on language skills remain unclear. We aimed to assess the effects of school-based PA interventions on language skills in children and adolescents.

DESIGN

Systematic review with meta-analysis.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed in PubMed, PsycINFO and Scopus until September 10th, 2022. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that performed a school-based PA intervention in children/adolescents and that assessed language-related outcomes (i.e., reading, spelling, vocabulary, verbal fluency, comprehension and grammar) or language school grades. Random effect meta-analyses were conducted to pool study results.

RESULTS

Thirty-one studies (18,651 participants) were finally included. Significant benefits were observed for reading (standardized mean difference [SMD]: 0.15; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.08, 0.22), vocabulary (SMD: 0.71; 95%CI: 0.44, 0.97), and comprehension (SMD: 0.24; 95%CI: 0.09, 0.40), with a non-significant trend (p = 0.083) also observed for language school grades (SMD: 0.40; 95%CI: -0.05, 0.86). No significant benefits were observed for spelling or verbal fluency (both p > 0.05), and no meta-analysis could be performed for grammar skills. No consistent differences were observed between integrated (i.e., performing PA along with the academic content) and non-integrated PA interventions (e.g., extra physical education lessons).

CONCLUSIONS

School-based PA interventions appear as an effective strategy for improving different language-related skills, although further research is needed to determine how interventions' and participants' characteristics moderate these effects.

Longitudinal Associations of Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Poverty With Academic Performance Among Youth

BACKGROUND

Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) plays a significant role in health and academic performance in youth. The purpose of this study was to examine the longitudinal relationship between CRF and academic performance from fifth to eighth grade among a large, diverse, and state-wide cohort of students, and to determine the extent to which the relationship between change in CRF and academic performance is moderated by poverty status.

METHODS

CRF and academic performance data were obtained for a retrospective state-wide cohort of 11,013 students with baseline (fifth grade, school year 2015-2016) and follow-up (eighth grade, school year 2018-2019) data. Analysis of covariance was used to examine the association between changes in CRF over a 3-year follow-up period and eighth grade academic performance.

RESULTS

After adjusting for covariates, change in CRF and poverty status were positively and significantly associated with eighth grade academic performance. Poverty status did not significantly moderate the association between changes in CRF and academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Schools should prioritize evidence-based policies and programs that optimize students' access to high quantity and quality physical activity throughout the school day. Such efforts can improve and maintain student CRF and thus academic performance outcomes.

Risk of depression mediates the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic performance in adolescent boys and girls: DADOS study

This study aims to analyze the mediating role of risk of depression in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic performance in a sample of adolescents and to test the moderation effect of sex. A total of 263 adolescents (125 girls, 13.9 ± 0.3 years) from the DADOS (Deporte, ADOlescencia y Salud) study were included in the analysis. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed by the 20-m shuttle run test. Academic performance was assessed through the final academic grades and the test of educational abilities. Risk of depression was evaluated through the Behavior Assessment System for Children and Adolescents. Mediation analyses were performed to determine the direct and indirect associations between cardiorespiratory fitness, risk of depression, and academic performance. Indirect effects with confidence intervals not including zero were interpreted as statistically significant, and percentages of mediation were calculated in order to know how much of the association was explained by the mediation. Our findings indicated a significant mediating effect of risk of depression in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness with final grades in math, language, and grade point average (percentages of mediation: 26%, 53%, and 29%, respectively). These analyses were not moderated by sex (all confidence intervals included 0).

CONCLUSION

Risk of depression acts as a possible underlying mechanism in the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic grades in adolescents. Educational and health institutions could benefit from our findings since the promotion of higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels might reduce the risk of depression with potential benefits on adolescents' academic performance.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Cardiorespiratory fitness is positively associated with academic performance in adolescents. Nevertheless, the psychological mechanisms underlying this association are poorly understood.

WHAT IS NEW

• Risk of depression mediates the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and academic performance in adolescents, independently of sex. • Our findings may improve the efficacy of mental health and educational programs by promoting the enhancement of cardiorespiratory fitness levels, which may reduce risk of depression with potential benefits on academic performance.

The longitudinal association between objectively-measured school-day physical activity and academic achievement in US elementary school students

Background

It is recommended that school-aged children accrue 30 minutes of daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in school. Current literature is inconclusive about the long-term associations between school-based physical activity and academic achievement. In this study, we use a large sample and longitudinal design to rigorously evaluate whether school-day MVPA is associated with academic achievement.

Methods

In a diverse suburban public school district, 4936 Grade 4 students were recruited in 40 elementary schools. Students wore accelerometers to measure school-day MVPA for 15 days across three semesters. Academic performance data was collected across Grade 3 fall to Grade 5 spring, including teacher-assigned grades and standardized test scores. Multilevel modeling was conducted controlling for student demographics and school characteristics.

Results

Cross-sectional analyses found small negative associations in Grade 4. Grade 4 full-year mean daily school-day MVPA had β = −-0.066, β = −-0.063, β = −-0.066, and β = −-0.058 associations (p <  0.001) with Grade 4 math, reading, spelling, and writing grades respectively, and Grade 4 full-year mean daily school-day MVPA had β = −-0.206 and β = −-0.283 (p <  0.001) associations with Grade 4 math and English Language Arts (ELA) standardized test scores respectively out of approximately 500 points. Longitudinal analyses found no significant associations between Grade 4 full-year mean daily school-day MVPA and Grade 5 Fall course grades. Results also indicated small negative associations for students attaining 30+ minutes of daily school-day MVPA compared to those attaining less than 15 minutes, but only in Grade 4 Fall cross-sectional analyses where teacher-assigned reading, spelling, and writing grades were − 1.666, − 1.638, and − 1.993 points lower respectively (p <  0.001).

Conclusion

The cross-sectional findings, while statistically significant in a negative direction, have a negligible association when translated practically. For example, even if students attained twice the recommended amount of school-day MVPA – which would constitute an approximately 300% increase from current levels – results suggest that grades would only decrease by 2 points on a 100-point scale. Furthermore, longitudinal analyses suggest school-day MVPA does not have a predictive association with course grades or standardized test scores. Findings suggest school-based MVPA implemented in accordance with recommendations does not meaningfully detract from academic progress.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03765047. Registered 05 December 2018 - Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03765047

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12966-022-01328-7.

Sport Participation and Academic Performance in Young Elite Athletes

Strong evidence supports physical activity and fitness levels being positively associated with cognitive performance and overall academic performance in youth. This also applies to sports participation. However, whether participation in sports at the elite level is associated with greater academic performance remains unknown. Thus, the present study aimed to compare the academic performance of young elite athletes to that of control students, as well as to analyze whether the type of sport mediates these results. Between 2010 and 2019, all students from the last Baccalaureate course of the Spanish Elite Sport High School-which also includes non-elite athletes and recreational athlete students, who were categorized as controls-participated in this study. Academic performance was assessed through both the grade point average of the two last Baccalaureate courses and through the average grades from the University Entrance Examinations. Athletes were categorized attending to different sport classifications. A total of 1126 adolescents (570 girls, 18.2 ± 0.6 years) participated in the study, of which 483 and 643 were categorized as elite athletes and control students, respectively. Elite athletes attained a lower overall academic performance than controls (p < 0.001), which was confirmed for both sexes (p < 0.001). These differences were separately confirmed for most academic subjects (p < 0.05), as well as when attending to different sport classifications (all p > 0.05). Young elite athletes attained a lower academic performance than their non-elite peers, regardless of their type of sport. These findings highlight the importance of programs aimed at facilitating dual careers among young elite athletes.

Physical fitness mediates the inverse association between fatness indicators and academic achievement, despite the school vulnerability of adolescents—The Cogni-Action Project

Objective

This study aims to determine the mediating role of physical fitness in the relationship between fatness indicators and academic achievement, exploring the influence of school vulnerability.

Methods

A total of 1,296 Chilean adolescents (aged 10 to 14 years; 50% girls) participated in this study. The global fitness score (GFS) was obtained by adding the three main components of the ALPHA fitness test: cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), muscular fitness (MF), and speed/agility fitness (SAF). CRF was evaluated through the 20 m shuttle run test; MF by upper and lower limb strength tests; and SAF by the 4 × 10 shuttle run test. BMIz and WHtR were evaluated as general (unspecific) and central (specific) fatness indicators. Academic achievement was established through grades in math, language, and science and their average scores. Multiple mediation analyses were performed according to two models, adjusted for sex, maturity, and schools (model 1), and in model 2, the school vulnerability index (SVI) was added. The SVI is an important proxy of socioeconomic status at the school level, and it was categorized as high-, mid-, or low-SVI. Mediation percentages were calculated, and confidence intervals (bootstrapping) were used to establish significant findings.

Results

CRF, SAF, and GFS mediate the relationship between fatness indicators and academic achievement, both partially and totally (ranging from 12.7 to 59.2%). However, MF did not show any mediation effect. After controlling for SVI, CRF, and GFS, mediation changed from partial to total in the associations between math and science with WHtR. Although SAF contributed to GFS mediation, CRF seems to have the most significant mediation role for all academic achievements, regardless of SVI and the fat indicator studied.

Conclusion

A higher level of general physical fitness, especially CRF, significantly mediates the detrimental influence of fatness on the academic achievement of schoolchildren. This study suggests that physical fitness plays a relevant role in academic and public health, considering the high prevalence and detrimental influence of obesity and school vulnerability in children and adolescents.

Shedding Light on the Effects of Orienteering Exercise on Spatial Memory Performance in College Students of Different Genders: An fNIRS Study

Objective: To investigate the intervention effect of orienteering exercises on the spatial memory ability of college students of different genders and its underlying mechanism. Methods: Forty-eight college students were randomly screened into experimental and control groups, 12 each of male and female, by SBSOD scale. The effects of 12 weeks of orienteering exercises on the behavioral performance and brain activation patterns during the spatial memory tasks of college students of different genders were explored by behavioral tests and the fNIRS technique. Results: After the orienteering exercise intervention in the experimental group, the male students had significantly greater correct rates and significantly lower reaction times than the female students; left and right dorsolateral prefrontal activation was significantly reduced in the experimental group, and the male students had a significantly greater reduction in the left dorsolateral prefrontal than the female students. The degree of activation in the left and right dorsolateral prefrontals of the male students and the right dorsolateral prefrontals of the female students correlated significantly with behavioral performance, and the functional coupling between the brain regions showed an enhanced performance. Discussion: Orienteering exercises improve the spatial memory ability of college students, more significantly in male students. The degree of activation of different brain regions correlated with behavioral performance and showed some gender differences.

Do Physical Fitness and Executive Function Mediate the Relationship between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement? An Examination Using Structural Equation Modelling

Background: Physical activity health benefits are widely known. However, the association between physical activity, physical fitness, executive function, and academic performance need further investigation. Additionally, one of the literature gaps reveals scarce and mixed findings on what mediators of physical activity may affect academic achievement. Purpose: This investigation aims to provide knowledge about the mediation role of physical fitness and executive function in the association of physical activity with academic achievement in a cohort of Spanish schoolchildren using a structural equation modelling approach. Methods: The data for this cross-sectional study were collected from a convenience sample of children from Spain (Balearic Islands) aged between 9 and 13 years. Physical activity levels were self-reported with the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children; physical fitness was assessed using the International Fitness Scale; executive function was assessed with the Trail Making Test, and children’s achievements were collected from the school records. Structural equation modelling was used to explore the relationship between physical activity, physical fitness, executive function, and academic achievement. Findings: Statistically significant positive direct associations were observed between physical activity and physical fitness (β = 0.46, 95% CI [0.29, 0.64]), physical fitness and executive function (β = 0.28, 95% CI [0.04, 0.52]), and executive function and academic achievement (β = 0.46, 95% CI [0.28, 0.65]), while adjusting for the confounding effects of sex and body mass index. Furthermore, indirect associations were observed between physical activity and executive function mediated by physical fitness (β = 0.13, bias-corrected 95% CI [0.02, 0.31]) and between physical fitness and academic achievement through executive function (β = 0.13, bias-corrected 95% CI [0.03, 0.32]). Conclusions: This investigation adds to the literature with evidence supporting the idea that regular PA leads to improvements in physical fitness and may support cognitive skills and academic performance in children.

Neurotrophic Factors and Brain Health in Children with Overweight and Obesity: The Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness

ABSTRACTNeurotrophic factors and cardiorespiratory fitness are both considered important in developmental trajectories but their link to brain health remains poorly understood. The aims of the study were to examine whether levels of plasma-derived neurotrophic factors were associated with brain health indicators in children with overweight or obesity; and to test whether these associations were moderated by cardiorespiratory fitness. 100 children (41% girls) were included in this analysis. Plasma levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, insulin-like growth factor-1, vascular endothelial growth factor A, and epidermal growth factor were determined by XMap technology. Academic performance and executive function were assessed using validated neuropsychological tests. Hippocampal volume was measured using magnetic resonance imaging. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed using the 20-m Shuttle Run Test. Insulin-like growth factor-1 was positively associated with cognitive flexibility. Stratified analyses by fitness categories (i.e., unfit vs. fit) showed that brain-derived neurotrophic factor was positively associated with right posterior hippocampal volume in fit children, and epidermal growth factor was negatively associated with right hippocampal, and right anterior hippocampal volumes in their unfit peers, with a moderating role of cardiorespiratory fitness in these associations. However, all these significant associations disappeared after correction for multiple comparisons. The association between neurotrophic factors and brain health indicators in children with overweight/obesity was neither strong nor consistent. These results could help enhance our understanding of determinants of brain health in children with overweight/obesity.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02295072..

Academic performance and psychosocial functioning in European schoolchildren: The role of cardiorespiratory fitness and weight status

BACKGROUND

Whether a high cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) can attenuate the potential detrimental effect of childhood obesity on academic performance and particularly psychosocial functioning remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To analyse the academic performance/psychosocial functioning of schoolchildren attending to their CRF and weight status.

METHODS

470 schoolchildren (46% girls, 7 ± 0 years) from 20 schools in five European countries were categorized as (i) having overweight/obesity (n = 113) or normal weight (n = 357) attending to body mass index and (ii) 'fit' (n = 282) or 'unfit' (n = 188) based on 20-meter shuttle-run performance (CRF ≥ or <42 ml·kg^-1 ·min^-1 [boys] and 35 ml·kg^-1 ·min^-1 [girls], respectively). Academic performance and psychosocial functioning were assessed using the grades attained in school subjects and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for parents, respectively.

RESULTS

Independent of their weight status, fit children showed a greater academic performance and psychosocial functioning than their peers who were unfit and overweight/obese. In fit children, academic performance and psychosocial functioning did not differ between the two weight status categories (normal weight or overweight/obesity).

CONCLUSIONS

Children with a higher CRF show a greater performance achievement and psychosocial functioning regardless of their weight status, thereby supporting the 'fat but fit' paradox and reinforcing the importance of improving CRF in this population.

The association between student body mass index and tests of flexibility assessed by the FITNESSGRAM®: New York City public school students, 2017-18

FITNESSGRAM® is the most widely used criterion-referenced tool to assess/report on student health-related fitness across the US. Potential weight-related biases with the two most common tests of musculoskeletal fitness–the trunk extension and Back-Saver Sit-and-Reach (sit-and-reach)—have been hypothesized, though have not been studied. To determine the association between musculoskeletal fitness test performance and weight status, we use data from 571,133 New York City public school 4^th-12^th grade students (85% non-White; 75% qualified for free or reduced-price meals) with valid/complete 2017–18 FITNESSGRAM® data. Adjusted logistic mixed effects models with a random effect for school examined the association between weight status and whether a student was in the Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ; met sex- and age-specific criterion-referenced standards) for the trunk extension and sit-and-reach. Compared to students with normal weight, the odds of being in the HFZ for trunk extension were lower for students with underweight (OR = 0.77; 95% CI: 0.741, 0.795) and higher for students with overweight (OR = 1.10; 95% CI: 1.081, 1.122) and obesity (OR = 1.11; 95% CI: 1.090, 1.13). The odds of being in the HFZ for sit-and-reach were lower for students with underweight OR = 0.85; 95% CI: 0.826, 0.878), overweight (OR = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.819, 0.844) and obesity (OR = 0.65; 95% CI: 0.641, 0.661). Students with overweight and obesity perform better on the trunk extension, yet worse on the sit-and-reach, compared to students with normal weight. Teachers, administrators, and researchers should be aware of the relationship of BMI with student performance in these assessments.

Mediators between physical activity and academic achievement: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Research has suggested the beneficial effects of physical activity (PA) on academic achievement (AA). However, the mechanisms underlying this influence remain unclear. Some proposed mechanisms include physiological, cognitive, psychological, and behavioral paths. This study aimed to analyze mediators between PA and AA in children and adolescents.

METHODS

Systematic search in Medline, SPORTDiscuss, PsycInfo, Scopus, and Web of Science for observational and experimental studies, published up to March 2021.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight studies (75237 participants, aged 4-16) were included. The designs of these studies were: 21 studies cross-sectional, 5 longitudinal, and 2 experimental. Eight out of nine studies analyzing fitness as a mediator reported positive results, and one reported null finding. Adiposity was a significant mediator in one study, in two only in girls, and two reported null results. Cognition as a mediator was supported by four studies, whereas two reported null results. Regarding mental well-being, 10 out of 14 studies reported positive effects, and one out of five behavioral studies found positive results. Although studies were too sparse to draw conclusions, overall, the results indicated that self-esteem, self-image, self-efficacy, stress, and health behaviors might be potential mediators in the relationship between PA and AA. All studies were rated as medium-high quality.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the available evidence seems to suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness, cognition, mental well-being, and exercise-related behaviors play some role as mediators of the relationship between PA and AA. However, the cross-sectional nature of most of the reviewed studies prevents us from making any statement in terms of causal paths. Thus, well-designed follow-up and randomized controlled studies aimed not only to tests the effect of PA in AA, but also to examine the influence of mediators are required.

School physical activity policies and associations with physical activity practices and behaviours: A systematic review of the literature

The development and implementation of school policies is considered a key strategy for the promotion of physical activity (PA) in children and adolescents. This study aimed to systematically review and synthesise existing literature focusing on the associations between formal written school-based PA policies and (a) school PA practices and (b) PA behaviours of school-aged children and adolescents. Fifty-one papers reporting on 52 studies met the eligibility criteria. All but two studies were from high income countries, most used cross-sectional designs and demonstrated fair methodological quality, and just over a third examined language aspects of policies. Findings predominantly indicated a lack of or inconclusive associations between the various characteristics examined and PA outcomes. Inconclusive associations were identified between both PA practice and behaviour outcomes and state level policies, policies focusing on PE and school-day PA, and in studies examining language aspects of policies. Inconclusive associations with both types of outcomes were more likely to be identified compared to a lack of associations in studies using self-report measures and in studies not providing information about the quality of exposure and outcome measures used. Overall, findings highlight the need for further research that acknowledges the complex relationship between school policies and PA outcomes and employs robust methodological approaches to enhance our understanding of this area.

The Indirect Role of Executive Functions on the Relationship between Cardiorespiratory Fitness and School Grades

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the indirect effects of cardiorespiratory fitness on scholastic performance through executive functions. More precisely, we examined the contribution of the different domains of executive functions, and whether this relationship was specific to certain school topics.

METHODS

Children 8-12 yr old completed nine cognitive tests and the multistage fitness test. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to analyze the role of different domains of executive functions (inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and a common factor to all tasks) in the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and school grades in three domains: (i) mathematics; (ii) grammar, spelling, and vocabulary; and (iii) text comprehension and expression. Covariate analyses included age and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

The results of this study showed that an indirect effect of the various domains of executive functions explained, in part, the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and (i) mathematics (β = 0.12, SE = 0.03, P < 0.001), and between cardiorespiratory fitness and (ii) grammar, spelling, and vocabulary (β = 0.12, SE = 0.03, P < 0.001). No relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and (iii) text comprehension and expression was observed. Although executive functions correlated with school grades, cognitive flexibility drove the indirect effect when all executive function domains were simultaneously taken into account.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show the role that executive functions play in understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and scholastic performance. Importantly, not all executive function domains contributed equally because cognitive flexibility played a leading role in this wide age range. Furthermore, the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and scholastic performance was strongest for mathematics and for low-level language topics but nonsignificant for higher-level language topics, providing a more modulated view of the effect of cardiorespiratory fitness on language.

Effect of a Scalable School-Based Intervention on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Children: A Cluster Randomized Clinical Trial

IMPORTANCE

Cardiorespiratory fitness is an important marker of childhood health and low fitness levels are a risk factor for disease later in life. Levels of children's fitness have declined in recent decades. Whether school-based physical activity interventions can increase fitness at the population level remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of an internet-based intervention on children's cardiorespiratory fitness across a large number of schools.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In this cluster randomized clinical trial, 22 government-funded elementary schools (from 137 providing consent) including 1188 students stratified from grades 3 and 4 in New South Wales, Australia, were randomized. The other schools received the intervention but were not included in the analysis. Eleven schools received the internet-based intervention and 11 received the control intervention. Recruitment and baseline testing began in 2016 and ended in 2017. Research assistants, blinded to treatment allocation, completed follow-up outcome assessments at 12 and 24 months. Data were analyzed from July to August 2020.

INTERVENTIONS

The internet-based intervention included standardized online learning for teachers and minimal in-person support from a project mentor (9-10 months).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Multistage 20-m shuttle run test for cardiorespiratory fitness.

RESULTS

Of 1219 participants (49% girls; mean [SD] age, 8.85 [0.71] years) from 22 schools, 1188 students provided baseline primary outcome data. At 12 months, the number of 20-m shuttle runs increased by 3.32 laps (95% CI, 2.44-4.20 laps) in the intervention schools and 2.11 laps (95% CI, 1.38-2.85 laps) in the control schools (adjusted difference = 1.20 laps; 95% CI, 0.17-2.24 laps). By 24 months, the adjusted difference was 2.22 laps (95% CI, 0.89-3.55 laps). The cost per student was AUD33 (USD26).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this study, a school-based intervention improved children's cardiorespiratory fitness when delivered in a large number of schools. The low cost and sustained effect over 24 months of the intervention suggests that it may have potential to be scaled at the population level.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

http://anzctr.org.au Identifier: ACTRN12616000731493.

Effects of Physical Exercise Interventions on Spatial Orientation in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Scoping Review

Background: Regular physical exercise plays an integral part in the psychomotor and psychosocial development of children and adolescents, with complex motor and cognitive processes closely linked. Spatial abilities, one aspect of cognitive functioning start to evolve from earliest childhood and reach adult-like levels by early adolescence. As they have been associated with good spatial orientation, wayfinding, map-reading skills, problem solving or analyzing spatial information, these skills facilitate independence and autonomy while growing up. Despite promising results, only few studies investigate this relation between physical exercise and spatial abilities. To use this benefit and develop purposive physical exercise interventions, it is essential to summarize the current evidence. Objectives: This literature review aims to systematically summarize findings regarding the impact of physical exercise interventions on spatial abilities in healthy children and adolescents and identify knowledge gaps. Methods: A systematic search of the literature according to the PRISMA guidelines was conducted on the databases Pubmed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, SportDiscus, and PsycInfo from their inception date till March 2021. Additionally, Google Scholar and refence lists of relevant publications were searched. A descriptive analysis of results was conducted. Results: The literature search identified a total of N = 1,215 records, 11 of which met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in this review. A total of 621 participants aged 4 to 15 years participated in the studies. Exercise interventions included sport-specific activities, motor-coordinative exercises, high-intensity functional training or spatial orientation/navigation training. Five studies evaluated training effects on mental rotation performance (i.e., Mental Rotation Test), four studies investigated visuo-spatial working memory function/spatial memory (i.e., Corsi Block Test, Virtual Reality Morris Water Maze) and two studies tested spatial orientation capacity (i.e., Orientation-Running Test). Overall, results show a potential for improvement of spatial abilities through physical exercise interventions. However, keeping the diversity of study designs, populations and outcomes in mind, findings need to be interpreted with care. Conclusions: Despite growing interest on the effects of physical exercise interventions on spatial abilities and promising findings of available studies, evidence to date remains limited. Future research is needed to establish how spatial ability development of healthy children and adolescents can be positively supported.

Maternal Education and Academic Achievement in Schoolchildren: The Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness

OBJECTIVES

To examine the relationship between maternal education, cardiorespiratory fitness, and academic achievement in schoolchildren, specifically whether the association between maternal education and academic achievement is mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study including 478 Spanish schoolchildren aged 8-11 years. ANOVA was used to test differences in cardiorespiratory fitness by maternal education level. ANCOVA was used to test the differences in academic achievement by the educational level of mothers and the cardiorespiratory fitness of children, controlling for each other. A mediation analysis was used to test if the relationship between maternal education and academic achievement was explained by cardiorespiratory fitness.

RESULTS

A higher level of maternal education was associated with a higher cardiorespiratory fitness level and academic achievement in children; moreover, the cardiorespiratory fitness level in children was associated with better academic achievement (P < .05). Finally, cardiorespiratory fitness acted as a partial mediator of the relationship between maternal education and academic achievement in boys (z = 1.81; P = .03) but not in girls (z = 0.86; P = .19), explaining 6.54% of this relationship for the total sample and 6.67% for boys.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the benefits of maternal education on academic achievement are partially explained by the mediating role of cardiorespiratory fitness.

A Cluster Mediation Analysis Confirms the Validity of the "Fat but Fit" Paradigm in Children's Cognitive Function and Academic Achievement

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the fat but fit conceptual model, testing whether this paradigm for body mass index (BMI) and maximum rate of oxygen consumption (VO_2max) exists in schoolchildren and whether executive functions mediate the relationship between fat but fit categories and academic achievement.

STUDY DESIGN

Cluster cross-sectional analyses of data from 554 children aged 9-11 from Cuenca, Spain. BMI, VO_2max, core executive functions (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) and academic achievement (language and mathematics).

RESULTS

Cluster analysis of BMI and VO_2max z-scores resulted in a 4-cluster solution that could be interpreted according to fat unfit, unfat unfit, fat fit, and unfat fit categories. ANCOVA models confirmed an increasing trend by cluster category in terms of VO_2max levels and, conversely, a decreasing trend in terms of adiposity variables. These models also confirmed that children in the fat fit and unfat fit categories scored higher than their peers in the fat unfit and unfat unfit categories. Mediation analyses using fat but fit clusters as multicategory independent variable, executive functions as mediators, and academic achievement as outcome variable showed that the positive association between the BMI-VO_2max clusters and academic achievement was mediated by inhibition levels in fat fit and unfat fit individuals, by working memory levels only in those classified as fat fit, and by cognitive flexibility only in unfat fit individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms the validity of the 4-cluster conceptual model regarding BMI and VO_2max and reinforces the predictive validity, proving that fitness levels are able to counteract the detrimental effect of obesity on academic achievement.

Physical Activity and Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet among Spanish Employees in a Health-Promotion Program before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Sanitas-Healthy Cities Challenge

Physical activity and a healthy diet are key factors for avoiding major noncommunicable diseases. The aim of the present study was to analyze how physical activity (PA) and adherence to the Mediterranean diet among employees participating in the Healthy Cities program have been affected during confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The sample was composed of 297 employees from 40 leading companies based in Spain, who participated in the 5th edition of the Sanitas “Healthy Cities” challenge. The participants (148 women and 149 men), aged between 24 and 63 years old (M = 42.76; SD = 7.79) completed the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and the PREDIMED (Prevención con Dieta Mediterránea) questionnaire to measure adherence to the Mediterranean diet before and during the pandemic. Pearson χ² tests revealed that workers were more likely to show sedentary behaviors during the pandemic than before (83.5% vs. 66.7%). Additionally, they were more likely to reach high levels of PA (51.2% vs. 64%), and Wilcoxon tests revealed that energy expenditure measured in Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) was higher during the pandemic (4199.03 METs) than before (3735.32 METs), due to an increase in moderate PA. Lastly, a higher adherence to a Mediterranean diet during the pandemic (76.4%) than before (54.5%) was reported. The findings of this investigation suggest a positive effect of working from home for employees involved in a health-promotion program, and highlight the relevance of this kind of action among this population.

Effects of a Comprehensive School Health Program on Elementary Student Academic Achievement

BACKGROUND

Improving the academic achievement of youth in the United States is an area of interest and a critical indicator of the future success of the youth. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a comprehensive school physical activity and healthy eating program on 5th-grade students' academic achievement, specifically reading and math.

METHODS

Overall, 628 (intervention: 377, 54% girls; comparison: 251, 49% girls) 5th-grade children participated across the 6 schools in a year-long comprehensive health intervention, completing curriculum-based academic achievement measures at 2 time-points.

RESULTS

Results showed that even after controlling for class clustering, age, sex, race, and T1 reading and math variables, students' T2 reading and math achievement were significantly higher in the intervention group than the comparison group.

CONCLUSIONS

Comprehensive health programming can enhance the health and academic achievement of youth.

Fitness and executive function as mediators between physical activity and academic achievement

Physical activity is related with academic achievement in children. This cross-sectional study aimed to assess whether cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and executive function act as mediators of the association between moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and academic achievement. This study included 186 schoolchildren (9-11 years) from Cuenca, Spain. Sociodemographic variables, anthropometric variables, academic achievement, executive function (inhibition, cognitive flexibility and working memory), CRF (20-m shuttle run) and physical activity (by accelerometry) were measured. Serial mediation models were estimated using the Hayes´ PROCESS macro. The significant paths in the model mediating this relationship between MVPA and academic achievement were as follows: MVPA → CRF → academic achievement (IE = 0.068, 95% CI: [0.018; 0.127]; IE = 0.079, 95% CI: [0.029; 0.144]; and IE = 0.090, 95% CI: [0.032; 0.165], controlling for inhibition, cognitive flexibility and working memory, respectively), MVPA → CRF → inhibition → academic achievement (0.018, 95% CI: [0.001; 0.047]) and MVPA → cognitive flexibility → academic achievement (0.087, 95% CI: [0.012; 0.169]). The relationship between MVPA and academic achievement may not be direct but mediated by CRF, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition via CRF. Physical activity interventions to improve AA should be focused on improvements in CRF and executive function.

Six-Minute Walking Test Performance Relates to Neurocognitive Abilities in Preschoolers

This study investigated the relationship between six-minute walking test (6MWT) distance walked and preschool-aged children’s academic abilities, and behavioral and event-related potentials (ERP) indices of cognitive control. There were 59 children (25 females; age: 5.0 ± 0.6 years) who completed a 6MWT (mean distance: 449.6 ± 82.0 m) to estimate cardiorespiratory fitness. The Woodcock Johnson Early Cognitive and Academic Development Test evaluated academic abilities. A modified Eriksen flanker, hearts and flowers task, and auditory oddball task eliciting ERPs (N2, P3) assessed cognitive control. After adjusting for adiposity, diet, and demographics, linear regressions resulted in positive relationships between 6MWT distance and General Intellectual Ability (β = 0.25, Adj R² = 0.04, p = 0.04) and Expressive Language (β = 0.30, Adj R² = 0.13, p = 0.02). 6MWT distance was positively correlated with congruent accuracy (β = 0.29, Adj R² = 0.18, p < 0.01) and negatively with incongruent reaction time (β = −0.26, Adj R² = 0.05, p = 0.04) during the flanker task, and positively with homogeneous (β = 0.23, Adj R² = 0.21, p = 0.04) and heterogeneous (β = 0.26, Adj R² = 0.40, p = 0.02) accuracy on the hearts and flowers task. Higher fit children showed faster N2 latencies and greater P3 amplitudes to target stimuli; however, these were at the trend level following the adjustment of covariates. These findings indicate that the positive influence of cardiorespiratory fitness on cognitive function is evident in 4–6-year-olds.