Does adolescent risk taking imply weak executive function? A prospective study of relations between working memory performance, impulsivity, and risk taking in early adolescence

Associations between middle childhood executive control aspects and adolescent substance use and externalizing and internalizing problems

This study examines the degree to which two middle childhood executive control aspects, working memory and combined inhibitory control/flexible shifting, predict adolescent substance use and externalizing and internalizing problems. Participants were 301 children (ages 3-6 years; 48.2% male) recruited from a Midwestern city in the United States and followed into adolescence (ages 14-18 years). Working memory had a statistically significant unadjusted association with externalizing problems (r = -.30, p = .003) in a confirmatory factor analysis. Neither factor significantly predicted any of the adolescent outcomes in a structural equation model that adjusted for each EC aspect, sociodemographic covariates, and middle childhood externalizing and internalizing problems. Stronger prediction of EC aspects might not emerge until they become more fully differentiated later in development.

The neural substrates of how model-based learning affects risk taking: Functional coupling between right cerebellum and left caudate

Higher executive control capacity allows people to appropriately evaluate risk and avoid both excessive risk aversion and excessive risk-taking. The neural mechanisms underlying this relationship between executive function and risk taking are still unknown. We used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis combined with resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) to evaluate how one component of executive function, model-based learning, relates to risk taking. We measured individuals' use of the model-based learning system with the two-step task, and risk taking with the Balloon Analogue Risk Task. Behavioral results indicated that risk taking was positively correlated with the model-based weighting parameter ω. The VBM results showed a positive association between model-based learning and gray matter volume in the right cerebellum (RCere) and left inferior parietal lobule (LIPL). Functional connectivity results suggested that the coupling between RCere and the left caudate (LCAU) was correlated with both model-based learning and risk taking. Mediation analysis indicated that RCere-LCAU functional connectivity completely mediated the effect of model-based learning on risk taking. These results indicate that learners who favor model-based strategies also engage in more appropriate risky behaviors through interactions between reward-based learning, error-based learning and executive control subserved by a caudate, cerebellar and parietal network.

Reappraising the role of dopamine in adolescent risk-taking behavior

Adolescence is characterized by increased risk-taking, which is often ascribed to developmental changes in dopaminergic signaling. Popular models propose that these behaviors are caused by dopamine-induced hypersensitivity to rewards, which overrides adolescents' immature self-control mechanisms. However, these models are often based on oversimplified notions about the workings and functions of dopamine. Here we discuss the relationship between changes in the dopaminergic system and adolescent behavior in light of current theories/models about the functions of dopamine. We show that dopamine is linked to learning, adaptive decision-making under uncertainty, and increased motivation to work for rewards. Thus, changes in the dopaminergic system contribute to the maturation of cognitive control through various mechanisms, contrary to the false dichotomy between reward processing and self-control. Finally, we note that dopamine interacts with a number of other neuromodulator systems, which also change during adolescence, but that have been largely ignored in the field of adolescent development. A full understanding of adolescent behavior will require these neurochemicals and their interactions with dopamine to be taken into account.

Ambivalence in Adolescents’ Alcohol Expectancies: A Longitudinal Mixed Methods Study Among 12-to-18-Year-Olds

Drawing on the framework of alcohol expectancies and their importance for drinking behaviors, this longitudinal mixed-methods study examined changes and continuities in development of alcohol expectancies during adolescence. Quantitative and qualitative data were prospectively collected at four time points between 2015 and 2020 from nationwide, socio-economic, and gender-balanced samples of Norwegian adolescents aged 12–18. Quantitative data ( n = 3425) were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models, and qualitative data ( nT1 = 118) using thematic analysis. Quantitative and qualitative results were juxtaposed in the discussion. Quantitative results indicated an increase in social facilitation and tension reduction expectancies from age 13 to 18, and a simultaneous decrease in negative emotional expectancies. This development could partly be explained by experience with alcohol use in adolescence. Similarly, qualitative findings showed adolescents’ expectancies of alcohol evolving with age; from one-sided negative expectancies of aggression and harm to increased positive expectancies of fun, sociability, and relaxation. Both analyses showed that negative expectances remained high throughout the study period, but by late adolescence, many participants held positive and negative expectations simultaneously. The qualitative data illustrated how adolescents’ alcohol expectancies became increasingly ambivalent and complex with age, as alcohol use became more common. Prevention strategies aiming to reduce underage alcohol use should acknowledge this complexity.

Does Context and Adversity Shape Sexual Behavior in Youth? Findings from Two Representative Samples of Puerto Rican Youth

Sexual risk behaviors often co-occur. Understanding the heterogeneity in patterns of sexual behavior among youth and how context of majority and minoritized status may be related to these behaviors can inform targeted STIs/HIV interventions. Data are from the Boricua Youth Study, a longitudinal study of two probability samples of Puerto Rican youth recruited in the South Bronx (SBx) and the metropolitan area in Puerto Rico (PR). We identified patterns of sexual behaviors among young adults (ages 15-24) with sexual experience (N = 1,203) using latent class analysis. Analyses examined context differences and the prospective relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) (childhood maltreatment/violence, family/parental dysfunction) and patterns of sexual behaviors (age at first sex, number of sex partners, sex with a high-risk partner, condom use, sex while intoxicated, oral sex, anal sex). We identified five classes of sexual behaviors: (1) currently inactive (16.51%); (2) single partner, low activity (13.49%); (3) single partner, inconsistent condom use (32.19%); (4) single partner, sex without a condom (27.65%); and (5) multirisk (10.16%). Young adults from the SBx (minoritized context), those who identified as male, and those with higher child maltreatment/violence ACEs were more likely to be in the multi-risk class relative to the single partner, inconsistent condom use class. Those from the SBx were also more likely to be in the single partner, sex without condom class, relative to the single partner, inconsistent condom use class. Differences in young adults' patterns of sexual behaviors between the two contexts, one representing the minoritized context (SBx) contrasted to the majority context (PR), were not explained by ACEs. Findings highlight the heterogeneity in the patterns of sexual behaviors among Puerto Rican young adults as well as how such patterns vary based on sociocultural contexts. Exposure to child maltreatment/violence ACEs was related to the riskier patterns; however, they did not explain why riskier patterns of sexual behaviors were found in the SBx compared to PR. Results underscore the need for tailored interventions and more in-depth examination of differences across contexts.

Working Memory for Emotions in Adolescents and Young Adults with Traumatic Brain Injury

This preliminary study investigated the interaction between working memory and social cognition in adolescents and young adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI). It was hypothesized that participants with or without TBI would better recognize social information when working memory or social cognitive load was low, and that adolescents and young adults with TBI would be more affected by increased cognitive demand than their uninjured peers. Eight adolescents and young adults with complicated mild-severe TBI (aged 14-22 years) and eight age- and sex-matched typically developing (TD) adolescents completed computer-based n-back tasks requiring recognition of either face identity or facial affect, with 0-back, 1-, and 2-back conditions. The TBI group had lower scores overall than the TD group, and scores for both groups were lower for affect recognition than identity recognition. Scores for both groups were lower in conditions with a higher working memory load. There was a significant group-by-working memory interaction, with larger group differences in high-working memory conditions. Study results and their potential implications for social outcomes are discussed.

Contextual Factors Affecting Risky Decision Making: The Influence of Music on Task Performance and Perceived Distraction

Previous research has investigated factors that contribute to the development of different risk-taking behaviors, such as can occur on lab-based behavioral risky decision making tasks. On several of the most common tasks, participants must develop an adequate understanding of the relative risks and benefits associated with each decision in order to learn to decide advantageously. However, contextual factors can affect the decision making process and one's ability to weigh the risks and benefits of a decision. The present study investigates the extent to which music may be an additional contextual factor that can disrupt decision making and other executive functions. Across four studies we examine whether having music playing passively in the background or having participants actively listen to music affects performance on measures of risky decision making, working memory, processing speed, and problem solving. Participants reported greater distraction for rock music than classical music in the passive listening studies but did not report any differences in distraction across conditions in the active listening studies. Despite this self-reported increased level of distraction, few significant differences were found in task performance across groups and across studies. The Angling Risk Task (ART) was sensitive to differences in risk by condition, with music leading to greater risk-taking in a passive listening study, but less risk-taking in an active listening study, compared to no music. The extent to which music serves as a contextual factor disrupting performance on measures of risky decision making and other executive functions may depend in part on whether individuals are actively versus passively listening to the music.

The externalizing and internalizing pathways to marijuana use initiation: Examining the synergistic effects of impulsiveness and sensation seeking

Adolescent marijuana use has become increasingly more problematic compared with the past; thus, understanding developmental processes that increase the liability of marijuana use is essential. Two developmental pathways to adolescent substance use have been proposed: an externalizing pathway that emphasizes the expression of aggressive and delinquent behavior, and an internalizing pathway that emphasizes the role of depressive symptoms and negative affect. In this study, we aimed to examine the synergistic role of impulsiveness and sensation seeking in the two risk pathways to determine whether both high and low levels of the traits are risk factors for marijuana use. Our study included 343 adolescents (52% were girls, 78% identified as Hispanic) that oversampled high-risk youth (78% had a family history of substance use disorder), assessed biannually between the ages of 13-16 years old. Moderated mediation analyses revealed that high levels of sensation seeking indirectly predicted marijuana use through higher mean levels of externalizing behavior. The positive relationship between sensation seeking and externalizing behavior was only significant at high levels of impulsiveness. Conversely, low levels of sensation seeking indirectly predicted marijuana use through higher mean levels of internalizing behavior. The negative relationship between sensation seeking and internalizing behavior was only significant at low levels of impulsiveness. Collectively, these results demonstrate that high and low levels of both impulsiveness and sensation seeking confer increased risk of marijuana use, albeit through different mechanisms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of methylphenidate on executive functioning in children and adolescents with ADHD after long-term use: a randomized, placebo-controlled discontinuation study

BACKGROUND

Methylphenidate may improve executive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, it is unclear if there are still acute effects of methylphenidate on executive functioning after long-term use.

METHODS

In a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled discontinuation study, 94 children and adolescents (ages 8-18 years) who used methylphenidate beyond two years were either assigned to seven weeks of continued treatment with 36 or 54 mg of extended-release methylphenidate or to gradual withdrawal over three weeks to placebo for four weeks. Performance on neuropsychological tasks, measuring working memory, response inhibition, attentional flexibility and psychomotor speed was compared between both groups using mixed models for repeated measures. Additionally, we investigated within the discontinuation group if a deterioration on the investigator-rated Clinical Global Impressions Improvement scale after withdrawing to placebo was related to a worse performance on the neuropsychological tasks. This study was registered in the Netherlands Trial Register (www. Trialregister.nl) with identifier 5252.

RESULTS

After withdrawal of methylphenidate, the discontinuation group made more errors on working memory (β = -1.62, SD = 0.56, t = -2.88, p = .01, Cohen's f2 = .14), independent from reaction time compared to baseline, in contrast to the continuation group. We did not find differences in changes in response inhibition, attentional flexibility and psychomotor speed between the two groups. Also, there were no significant differences in task measures between the participants who deteriorated clinically and those who did not.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that methylphenidate has a beneficial effect on working memory after two years of use. Future studies should explore whether cognitive outcomes may aid clinical decision-making on the continued use of methylphenidate, given dissociation between cognitive and behavioural effects of stimulant medication.

Mind training, stress and behaviour-A randomised experiment

In this paper, we evaluate the effects of a psychological training, called Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) on stress and risk and time preferences. MBSR is a well-known psychological technique, which is believed to improve self-control and reduce stress. We conduct the experiment with 139 participants, half of whom receive the MBSR training, while the other half are asked to watch a documentary series, both over 4 consecutive weeks. Using a range of self-reported and physiological measures (such as cortisol measures), we find evidence that mindfulness training reduces perceived stress, but we only find weak evidence of effects on risk and inter-temporal attitudes.

Risk-Taking Propensity and Sensation Seeking in Survivors of Adverse Childhood Experiences

Risk-taking propensity and sensation seeking are developmentally meaningful traits for emerging adults, individuals ages 18 to 25 years. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) of childhood abuse and neglect, exposure to domestic violence, residing with a substance abusing or mentally ill caregiver, and growing up with an incarcerated family member negatively impact the well-being of emerging adults. However, the specific association between ACEs and risk-taking propensity and sensation seeking has not been previously examined in this age group. This study aims to determine whether ACEs are individually or cumulatively related to risk-taking propensity (assessed by the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking Scale) and sensation seeking (assessed by the Behavior Inhibition System/Behavior Approach System Scales) in a diverse sample of undergraduates, n = 436; M_age = 19.73 years (SD = 1.83 years); 67% female; 22% Hispanic. Multivariate ordinary least squares regressions were run to examine the association between ACEs and risk-taking propensity and sensation seeking. Individually, emotional abuse predicted greater inhibition (B = .28, p < .001), growing up with a mentally ill family member (B = -.12, p < .05) and emotional neglect (B = -.13, p < .05) predicted reduced motivation to pursue rewarding cues, and emotional neglect (B = -.12, p < .05) and witnessing domestic violence (B = -.10, p < .05) predicted less reward responsiveness. No cumulative effects were found. ACEs related to environmental instability may have a unique impact on sensation seeking domains in emerging adults. Clarifying the role of sensation seeking in emerging adults can contribute to better understanding of risk and resilience factors in this vulnerable population.

The Development of Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors Among Youth With or Without a Family History of Substance Use Disorder: The Indirect Effects of Early-Life Stress and Impulsivity

Youth with a family history of substance use disorder (FH+) are more prone to have externalizing and internalizing problems compared to youth without a family history of substance use disorder (FH-), increasing the likelihood of later maladjustment. However, mechanisms for this association remain understudied. In this longitudinal study, we examined if FH+ youth are more likely to experience early-life stressors (ELS), which in turn would increase impulsivity and the expression of externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Data were collected from youth and a parent (n = 386) during a baseline assessment (age 10-12 years) and every six months when the youth was 13-16 years old. In support of the primary hypothesis, FH+ youth reported higher levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors through ELS to impulsivity providing a developmental pathway through which FH+ youth are more prone to externalizing and internalizing problems.

Associations of childhood executive control with adolescent cigarette and E-cigarette use: Tests of moderation by poverty level

BACKGROUND

Adolescent cigarette smoking has continued to decline, whereas electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use has increased dramatically among youth. Nicotine use in any form, even at low levels, during adolescence can have adverse consequences, particularly for low-income individuals. To elucidate potential early intervention targets, this study examined childhood executive control (EC), a set of cognitive processes for directing attention and behavior, in relation to adolescent cigarette and e-cigarette onset, testing for differential prediction by poverty level.

METHOD

Participants were 313 children (51% female, 64% European American) recruited in a small city in the Midwestern United States beginning in 2006 and then followed into adolescence between ages 14 and 16 years. EC was measured in the laboratory with performance-based tasks when children were age 5 years, 3 months. Self-reports of cigarette onset and e-cigarette onset were obtained in adolescence (M^age = 15.65 years). Overall, 24% of the sample was at or below the poverty line.

RESULTS

Cigarette onset was higher in the poverty group (17%) than in the non-poverty (8%) group, but e-cigarette onset did not differ by poverty level (36% poverty versus 38% non-poverty). Multiple group structural equation modeling revealed a statistically significant group difference such that EC ability was a significant negative predictor of e-cigarette onset for poverty but not for non-poverty youth. A similar group difference was evident as a trend for cigarette onset.

CONCLUSIONS

Because EC has been shown to be modifiable, early interventions to improve EC for children living in poverty might help prevent adolescent e-cigarette onset.

Validity and utility of Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): II. Externalizing superspectrum

The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) is an empirical effort to address limitations of traditional mental disorder diagnoses. These include arbitrary boundaries between disorder and normality, disorder co-occurrence in the modal case, heterogeneity of presentation within dis-orders, and instability of diagnosis within patients. This paper reviews the evidence on the validity and utility of the disinhibited externalizing and antagonistic externalizing spectra of HiTOP, which together constitute a broad externalizing superspectrum. These spectra are composed of elements subsumed within a variety of mental disorders described in recent DSM nosologies, including most notably substance use disorders and "Cluster B" personality disorders. The externalizing superspectrum ranges from normative levels of impulse control and self-assertion, to maladaptive disinhibition and antagonism, to extensive polysubstance involvement and personality psychopathology. A rich literature supports the validity of the externalizing superspectrum, and the disinhibited and antagonistic spectra. This evidence encompasses common genetic influences, environmental risk factors, childhood antecedents, cognitive abnormalities, neural alterations, and treatment response. The structure of these validators mirrors the structure of the phenotypic externalizing superspectrum, with some correlates more specific to disinhibited or antagonistic spectra, and others relevant to the entire externalizing superspectrum, underlining the hierarchical structure of the domain. Compared with traditional diagnostic categories, the externalizing superspectrum conceptualization shows improved utility, reliability, explanatory capacity, and clinical applicability. The externalizing superspectrum is one aspect of the general approach to psychopathology offered by HiTOP and can make diagnostic classification more useful in both research and the clinic.

Rethinking Cell Phone Use While Driving: Isolated Risk Behavior or a Pattern of Risk-Taking Associated with Impulsivity in Young Drivers?

This study examines whether cell phone use stands apart from a general pattern of risky driving practices associated with crashes and impulsivity-related personality traits in young drivers. A retrospective online survey study recruited 384 young drivers from across the United States using Amazon’s Mechanical Turk to complete a survey measuring risky driving practices (including cell phone use), history of crashes, and impulsivity-related personality traits. Almost half (44.5%) of the drivers reported being involved in at least one crash, and the majority engaged in cell phone use while driving (up to 73%). Factor analysis and structural equation modeling found that cell phone use loaded highly on a latent factor with other risky driving practices that were associated with prior crashes (b = 0.15, [95% CI: 0.01, 0.29]). There was also an indirect relationship between one form of impulsivity and crashes through risky driving (b = 0.127, [95% CI: 0.01, 0.30]). Additional analyses did not find an independent contribution to crashes for frequent cell phone use. These results suggest a pattern of risky driving practices associated with impulsivity in young drivers, indicating the benefit of exploring a more comprehensive safe driving strategy that includes the avoidance of cell phone use as well as other risky practices, particularly for young drivers with greater impulsive tendencies.

Childhood attention problems mediate effects of child maltreatment on decision-making performance in emerging adulthood

Decision-making impairments during emerging adulthood confer risk for challenges in social and occupational roles and may increase the odds of developing health problems. Childhood maltreatment is related to maladaptation in cognitive and affective domains (e.g., executive functioning, emotion regulation) implicated in the development of decision-making capacities. This study investigates childhood maltreatment and subsequent childhood attention problems as developmental antecedents of decision making performance in emerging adulthood. At Wave 1, equal numbers of maltreated and non-maltreated children (Mage = 11.28, SD = .97; 51.5% female; mean family income: $22,530/year) were recruited to take part in a research summer camp. The current study includes a subset of participants (n = 379) from Wave 1 who completed the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT) at Wave 2 (Mage = 19.68, SD = 1.12; 77.3% Black/African American, 11.1% White, 7.7% Hispanic, 4.0% Other race). The CGT measured decision-making performance by assessing betting behavior across trials that differed in probability of winning. ANOVA results showed that emerging adults who experienced maltreatment in childhood placed higher bets and less sensitively adjusted bets across trials varying in level of risk. Longitudinal structural equation modeling results indicated significant relationships between number of maltreatment subtypes and greater childhood inattention, controlling for IQ. In turn, greater attention problems in childhood predicted worse risk adjustment, or ability to modify betting based on the probability of winning on CGT trials. This mediated path shows one process by which maltreatment negatively affects decision making and risk taking processes in emerging adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Cannabis Use Is Differentially Associated with Individual Facets of Impulsivity through Expectancy Effects: A Comprehensive Application of the Acquired Preparedness Model

The acquired preparedness model (APM) posits that the relationship between impulsivity and substance use is mediated by drug effect expectancies. Though the APM has been utilized to explain college student cannabis use, a comprehensive model conceptualizing impulsivity as a multidimensional construct has not been examined. Guided by the APM, the current study examined facets of impulsivity as simultaneous predictors of cannabis use through positive and negative expectancies. College students (N = 478) completed an online survey assessing frequency of past-month cannabis use, facets of impulsivity, and cannabis expectancies. Using a bootstrapped path analysis, five facets of impulsivity were modeled as predictors of past-month cannabis use via positive and negative expectancies. A zero-inflated Poisson distribution was used, wherein dichotomous past-month cannabis use was examined independently of frequency. There was a significant indirect effect of sensation seeking on both increased likelihood and frequency of use through strong positive expectancies. Additionally, both negative and positive urgency were associated with a decreased likelihood of use through stronger negative expectancies, while lack of premeditation was associated with an increased likelihood of use through weaker negative expectancies. These results underscore the importance of examining impulsivity as a multi-dimensional construct in the understanding of college student cannabis use behavior.

Advancing our understanding of cognitive development and motor vehicle crash risk: A multiverse representation analysis

Neurobiological and cognitive maturational models are the dominant theoretical account of adolescents' risk-taking behavior. Both the protracted development of working memory (WM) through adolescence, as well as individual differences in WM capacity have been theorized to be related to risk-taking behavior, including reckless driving. In a cohort study of 84 adolescent drivers Walshe et al. (2019) found adolescents who crashed had an attenuated trajectory of WM growth compared to adolescent drivers who never reported being in a crash, but observed no difference in WM capacity at baseline. The objectives of this report were to attempt to replicate these associations and to evaluate their robustness using a hybrid multiverse - specification curve analysis approach, henceforth called multiverse representation analysis (MRA). The authors of the original report provided their data: 84 adolescent drivers with annual evaluations of WM and other risk factors from 2005 to 2013, and of driving experiences in 2015. The original analysis was implemented as described in the original report. An MRA approach was used to evaluate the robustness of the association between developmental trajectories of WM and adolescents' risk-taking (indexed by motor vehicle crash involvement) to different reasonable methodological choices. We enumerated 6 reasonable choice points in data processing-analysis configurations: (1) model type: latent growth or multi-level regression, (2) treatment of WM data; (3) which waves are included; (4) covariate treatment; (5) how time is coded; and (6) link function/estimation method: weighted least squares means and variance estimation (WLSMV) with a linear link versus logistic regression with maximum likelihood estimation. This multiverse consists of 96 latent growth models and 18 multi-level regression models.

Psychometric Properties of Behavioral Checklist for Coping with Stress in Patients with Mood Disorders

OBJECTIVE

Even though the importance of stress-coping, there is no reliable and valid scale to measure the stress-coping behavior yet. The purpose of this study is to explore the psychometric properties of Behavioral Checklist for Coping with Stress (BCCS).

METHODS

A total of 458 subjects including healthy subjects and patients with bipolar or depressive disorders were analyzed. The reliability and validity of BCCS were examined by Chronbach's alpha and exploratory factor analysis using Principal Component Analysis. In order to evaluate criterion-related validity, the Pearson's correlation analyses between factors of BCCS and relevant scales were performed.

RESULTS

BCCS showed good Chronobach's alpha (0.695-0.833) and had acceptable validity. Factor 1 and factor 4 of BCCS were negatively correlated with depression, anxiety and positivity correlated with task and problem-solving, avoidance, tension-releasing copings in common. Factor 2 and 3 were positively correlated with impulsivity, emotionality, avoidance, behavioral and verbal aggression and tension-releasing copings in common. Different from factor 2, factor 3 was positively correlated with depression, anxiety and anger-suppression.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study suggest that this BCCS might be a reliable and valid scale for measuring stress-coping behaviors. This scale could facilitate research to investigate clinical implications related to behavioral stress-coping.

Executive Functions in Late Adolescence and Early Adulthood and Their Relationship with Risk-Taking Behavior

Executive functions (EF) continue developing throughout adolescence, with immaturity in EF theorized to underlie risk-taking. 129 older adolescents and young adults (aged 17 to 22 years) were assessed using a battery of cool and hot EF tasks, and a behavioral measure of risk-taking propensity. Minimal age-related differences in EF performance were evident, confirming they were largely functionally mature by mid-adolescence. Inconsistent with the predictions of imbalance models of adolescent development, weaker EF was not associated with greater risk-taking propensity. The findings suggest that during later adolescence and early adulthood, not all forms of risk-taking are associated with EF.

Beyond Their HIV Status: the Occurrence of Multiple Health Risk Behavior Among Adolescents from a Rural Setting of Sub-Saharan Africa

Background

Health risk behaviors during adolescence may cluster into patterns that might be predicted by specific factors, among which HIV may have an important role.

Method

In a cross-sectional study conducted between 2017 and 2018, clustering of HRB and its associated factors was investigated in rural Kenya among 588 adolescents (36% perinatally HIV infected; 28% perinatally HIV exposed but uninfected; and 36% HIV unexposed/uninfected). Latent class analysis of 22 behaviors followed by multinomial logistic regression were conducted. Four risk behavior classes were identified.

Results

No significant differences were found in behavioral class membership across the three HIV groups (p = 0.366). The risk of membership to the higher risk behavioral classes relative to class 1 (the substance and drug abstinent low risk takers) increased with older adolescent age (p = 0.047), increased among adolescent who experienced mental distress (p < 0.001), and those who felt unsafe in their neighborhood (p < 0.002). Better working memory (p = 0.0037) was found to be protective.

Conclusion

The results highlight a need to include screening and interventions for internalizing mental health problems and deficits in executive functioning, as well as steps to involve family members and communities to address psychosocial risk factors in adolescents in Kenya.

Risk Preferences of Children and Adolescents in Relation to Gender, Cognitive Skills, Soft Skills, and Executive Functions

We conduct experiments eliciting risk preferences with over 1,400 children and adolescents aged 3-15 years old. We complement our data with an assessment of cognitive and executive function skills. First, we find that adolescent girls display significantly greater risk aversion than adolescent boys. This pattern is not observed among young children, suggesting that the gender gap in risk preferences emerges in early adolescence. Second, we find that at all ages in our study, cognitive skills (specifically math ability) are positively associated with risk taking. Executive functions among children, and soft skills among adolescents, are negatively associated with risk taking. Third, we find that greater risk-tolerance is associated with higher likelihood of disciplinary referrals, which provides evidence that our task is equipped to measure a relevant behavioral outcome. For academics, our research provides a deeper understanding of the developmental origins of risk preferences and highlights the important role of cognitive and executive function skills to better understand the association between risk preferences and cognitive abilities over the studied age range.

Linking executive functions to distracted driving, does it differ between young and mature drivers?

Distracted driving is a leading cause of traffic accidents. Certain executive functions significantly affect the willingness of distracted driving; however, little research has compared the effects of executive functions on distracted driving behaviors in different aged populations. This study explores and compares the behavioral and cognitive processes underlying distracted driving behaviors in young and mature drivers. A total of 138 participants aged 18–65 years old completed a self-report questionnaire for measuring executive function index and distracted driving behaviors. Independent sample t-tests were conducted for executive functions (motivational drive, organization, strategic planning, impulse control, and empathy) and driving variables to examine any differences between young and mature groups. Partial correlation coefficients and z-score of these comparisons were calculated to compare the differences between age groups. Furthermore, multiple hierarchical regression models were constructed to determine the relative contributions of age, gender, and executive functions on distracted driving behaviors. Results demonstrated the following: (1) Mature drivers performed better for impulse control, the executive function index as well as the measure of distracted driving behavior than young drivers; (2) the relationships between executive functions and distracted driving behaviors did not significantly differ between young and mature drivers; (3) for both young and mature drivers, motivational drive and impulse control were found to significantly improve the prediction of distracted driving behavior in regression models. The findings emphasize that similar behavioral and cognitive processes are involved in distracted driving behavior of young and mature drivers, and can promote a single strategy for driver education and accident prevention interventions for both age groups.

Risk taking, sensation seeking and personality as related to changes in substance use from adolescence to young adulthood

INTRODUCTION

This study examined changes in substance use from adolescence to young adulthood as related to adolescents' risk taking, sensation seeking, antisocial activities, and personality traits.

METHODS

Chilean youth (N = 890, 52% female) were studied in adolescence (14.5 and 16.2 years) and young adulthood (M age 21.3 years). Risk taking was assessed via a laboratory-based performance task (Balloon Analogue Risk Task), and self-administered questionnaires assessed sensation seeking, antisocial behaviors, personality and substance use.

RESULTS

Frequent involvement in sensation seeking and antisocial activities were associated with increased odds of continued marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood and of illicit substance use at young adulthood. High risk taking was associated with a reduced likelihood of discontinuing marijuana use at young adulthood, and high agreeableness and conscientiousness were associated with reduced likelihood of new onset marijuana use and illicit substance use at young adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight specific risk-taking tendencies and personality characteristics that relate to initiating, continuing, or discontinuing substance use at entry into adulthood. Sensation seeking and involvement in antisocial activities were the two foremost risk factors for continued use, which is a forecaster of drug dependence. Findings suggest potential prevention and intervention targets for abstaining from or discontinuing substance use as youth transition to adulthood.

The Association Between Social Media Use and Hazardous Alcohol Use Among Youths: A Four-Country Study

Aims

To examine the continuing role of daily popular social media use in youth hazardous alcohol consumption in four countries across continents.

Methods

A web-based survey was given to youths aged 15–25 in the USA (n = 1212), South Korea (n = 1192), Finland (n = 1200) and Spain (n = 1212). Hazardous alcohol use (alcohol use disorders identification test-C) was the dependent variable. Main independent variables measured daily use of different social media services. Controls included compulsive Internet use, offline belonging, psychological distress, impulsivity, risk-taking, age and gender. Linear regression models and mediation analyses with bootstrapping were done for each country.

Results

Daily use of Facebook and Instagram was associated with higher hazardous alcohol use among youths in Finland, South Korea and Spain. Daily instant messaging was related to higher hazardous alcohol use among South Korean and Finnish youths. Daily YouTube use was associated with higher hazardous alcohol use among youths in South Korea, but lower hazardous alcohol use among youths in the USA and Finland. Daily Twitter use was related to lower hazardous drinking among youths in Finland but higher hazardous drinking among youths in Spain. The mediation analyses revealed that uploading pictures to social media is a possible facilitator of social media-related hazardous alcohol use among youths in the USA and Spain.

Conclusion

Certain social media platforms might inspire and/or attract hazardously drinking youths, contributing to the growing opportunities for social media interventions.

Working Memory Development and Motor Vehicle Crashes in Young Drivers

IMPORTANCE

Adolescent drivers have the highest rate of motor vehicle crashes, and among equally novice drivers, crash risk is inversely age graded. Working memory (WM), crucial to driving hazard awareness, is also age graded, with ongoing development into late adolescence. Variability in WM capacity and growth trajectory positions WM as a candidate crash risk factor for study, clinical screening, and possible preventative intervention.

OBJECTIVE

To test the association between crashes and differential WM development.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This prospective cohort study used data from a longitudinal cohort of 118 community youth in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Working memory and other risk factors were measured annually from age 11 to 13 years (prelicensure, in 2005) to 14 to 16 years (in 2009), and again at 18 to 20 years (in 2013). In 2015, a follow-up survey of driving experience identified 84 participants who had started driving. Latent growth curve modeling was used to examine the association between variability in the baseline (intercept) and developmental trajectory (slope) of WM and the crash outcome.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Self-reported crashes were the primary outcome. Variability in the relative growth of WM development along with traits and behaviors associated with risky driving were assessed.

RESULTS

Of 84 participants (39 [46%] male; mean [SD] age, 20.46 [1.09] years), 25 (29.8%) reported they had been involved in at least 1 crash. Controlling for other crash risk factors, the model indicated that variation in the linear slope of WM growth was inversely associated with reporting a crash (b = -6.41; SE = 2.64; P = .02). Crashes were also associated with reckless driving behavior (b = 0.40; SE = 0.18; P = .03). Variation in the intercept of WM was not associated with crashes (b = -0.245; SE = 0.67; P = .72).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The results suggest that a relatively slower WM growth trajectory is associated with young driver crashes. Routine assessment of WM across adolescence may help to identify at-risk teen drivers and opportunities for providing adaptive interventions (eg, driving aids or training) that can address limitations in WM-related skills that are critical for safe driving.

Neurodevelopmental Trajectories Related to Attention Problems Predict Driving-Related Risk Behaviors

Objective: Investigate neurodevelopmental trajectories related to attention/hyperactivity problems (AP) in a community sample of adolescents and whether these trajectories predict later-emerging health risk behaviors. Method: One hundred sixty-six participants underwent up to three magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans (n = 367) between 11 and 20 years of age. AP were measured during early adolescence using the Child Behaviour Checklist, and engagement in risk behaviors was measured during late adolescence using the "DRIVE" survey (i.e., driving risks) and items assessing alcohol-harms. Results: Greater AP scores during early adolescence were related to less reduction over time of left dorsal prefrontal, left ventrolateral prefrontal, and right orbitofrontal thickness. Less thinning of the orbitofrontal cortex was related to greater driving-related risk behaviors at late adolescence. Conclusion: Findings highlight altered neurodevelopmental trajectories in adolescents with AP. Furthermore, altered orbitofrontal development was related to later-emerging driving-related risk, and this neurobiological change mediated the association between attention problems and risk behaviors.

Menor performance das funções executivas prediz maior consumo de álcool e tabaco em adolescentes

RESUMO Objetivo O estudo propôs-se a avaliar diferentes domínios das funções executivas em adolescentes como preditores ao uso de álcool e cigarro. Métodos Utilizou-se um delineamento transversal. A amostra foi composta por 239 adolescentes com idade média de 15,34 (±2,32). Os testes Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) e Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) avaliaram o uso de álcool e cigarro respectivamente. O Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20) foi utilizado para rastreio de saúde mental. Os testes Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) e Continuous Performance Task (CPT) avaliaram os domínios executivos. Foi utilizado o estimador Odds Ratio adjusted (ORa). Resultados Os modelos logísticos ajustados demonstraram associação entre os domínios controle inibitório (ORa = 1.043; IC de 95% = 1,013-1,069; p = 0,001), flexibilidade cognitiva (ORa = 1.069; IC de 95% = 1,01-1,11; p = 0,001) e a tomada de decisão (ORa = 1.025; IC de 95% = 0,258-0,867; p < 0,014) e o uso de álcool. Também houve associação entre os domínios controle inibitório (ORa = 1.053; IC de 95% = 1,017-1,041; p = 0,003) e flexibilidade cognitiva (ORa =1.047; IC 95% = 1,004-1,250; p = 0,001) e o uso de cigarro. A faixa dos 14 aos 16 anos com 1,065 (ORa = 1.065; IC de 95% = 1,05-1,95; p = 0,010) razão de chances maiores para o uso de álcool e 1,067 (ORa = 1.067; IC de 95% = 0,156-1,453; p = 0,016) razão de chances para o uso de cigarro. Conclusão Os domínios cognitivos das funções executivas são fatores preditores associados ao uso de álcool e cigarro por adolescentes. Adolescentes com piores desempenhos nos domínios das funções executivas possuem maiores chances de fazer o uso de álcool ou cigarro.

Deviant Peer Behavior and Adolescent Delinquency: Protective Effects of Inhibitory Control, Planning, or Decision Making?

We examined relations between adolescent perceptions of deviant peer behavior and delinquency as moderated by inhibitory control, planning, and decision making in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development at age 15 (N = 991). Adolescents reported perceptions of deviant peer behavior. Inhibitory control, planning, and decision making were assessed behaviorally. Delinquency was evaluated with a latent variable comprised of parent-guardian perceptions of adolescent delinquency and adolescent self-reports. Only inhibitory control moderated the relationship between deviant peer behavior and delinquency, showing that better inhibition protected against delinquency in contexts of high levels of adolescent perceptions of deviant peer behavior. Findings are discussed in the context of theories of adolescent delinquency and risk taking.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the executive function-health behaviour relationship

Objective

This study provides the first comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between executive function (EF) and performance of health behaviours in healthy populations.

Method

Electronic databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science) were searched, and forward and backward citation tracking was undertaken to identify articles investigating the relationship between EF and health behaviour. Studies were eligible if they examined the direct correlational relationship between EF and health behaviour in healthy populations, were available in English and published in peer-reviewed journals in any year.

Results

Sixty-one articles covering 65 tests were included in a random effects meta-analysis. Several moderators were assessed, including: the type, and addictiveness of the health behaviour; the type of EF measure; study design, and sample characteristics. Overall EF had a significant, but small correlation with health behaviour; EF was significantly positively associated with health-protective behaviours and significantly negatively associated with health-damaging behaviours. There was considerable heterogeneity in the observed effect sizes, but this was not explained by the examined moderators.

Conclusions

Although the meta-analysis indicates a significant effect for EF on health behaviour, effect size is small. Due to the complex nature of EF, more research is required to further elucidate the relationship between EF and health behaviour in its entire conceptualization.

How Is Religiousness Associated With Adolescent Risk-Taking? The Roles of Emotion Regulation and Executive Function

Existing literature has demonstrated an association between higher adolescent religiousness and lower risk-taking via higher self-regulation. This study sought to elucidate the roles of emotion regulation and executive function as parallel mediators in the link between religiousness and risk-taking in a sample of 167 adolescents (mean age = 14.13 years, 52% male, 82% White at Time 1). Longitudinal results across three waves utilizing structural equation modeling indicated higher religiousness was associated with higher emotion regulation, whereas religiousness was not associated with executive function. Subsequently, higher emotion regulation and executive function were associated with lower risk-taking. Emotion regulation mediated the association between religiousness and risk-taking. The findings highlight religiousness as a contextual protective factor for adolescents.

Trust, Sexual Trust, and Sexual Health: An Interrogative Review

Trust is experienced almost constantly in all forms of social and interpersonal relationships, including sexual relationships, and may contribute both directly and indirectly to sexual health. The purpose of this review is to link three aspects of trust to sexual health: (1) the role of trust in sexual relationships; (2) the role of trust in sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention, particularly condom use; and (3) the relevance of trust in sexual relationships outside of the traditional model of monogamy. The review ends with consideration of perspectives that could guide new research toward understanding the enigmas of trust in partnered sexual relations in the context of sexual and public health.

Adolescent Risk Behavior: Differentiating Reasoned And Reactive Risk-taking

Although explanatory models of adolescent risk behavior have predominantly focused on adolescents' limited ability to self-regulate impulsive and/or reward-driven behavior (reactive risk behavior), recent arguments suggest that a significant proportion of adolescent risk behavior may actually be strategic and planned in advance (reasoned risk behavior). The present study evaluates hypothesized predictors of reasoned versus reactive risk behavior using self-reported and neurocognitive task data from a large, diverse adolescent sample (N = 1266 participants; N = 3894 risk behaviors). Participants' mean age was 16.5 years (SD = 1.1); 56.9% were female, 61.9% White, 17.1% Black, 7.0% Hispanic, and 14.1% other race/ethnicity; 40% were in 10th grade, 60% in 12th grade. As hypothesized, reasoned risk behavior (compared to reactive risk behavior) was associated with higher levels of sensation seeking, better working memory, greater future orientation, and perceiving risk behavior to be more beneficial than risky. These results support the distinction between reasoned and reactive risk behavior as meaningful subtypes of adolescent risk behavior and challenge prevailing frameworks that attribute adolescent risk behavior primarily to poor response inhibition.

Early psychosocial deprivation and adolescent risk-taking: The role of motivation and executive control

Risk-taking in adolescence has been often associated with early life adversities. However, the impact of such macrolevel factors on risk behavior has been rarely studied in humans. To address these gaps we recruited a sample of young adolescents who were part of a randomized control trial of foster care. Children institutionalized at or soon after birth were randomly assigned either to be removed from institutions and placed into a family or foster care intervention or to remain in institutions receiving care as usual. These children were subsequently followed up through 12 years of age and compared with a sample of children who had never been institutionalized. Using this sample, we examined the impact of early childhood deprivation on risk-taking behavior and explored the role of motivation (i.e., sensation seeking) and executive control (i.e., planning). Early psychosocial deprivation decreased engagement in risk-taking among young adolescents by reducing sensation seeking, a motivation often associated with risk-taking in adolescence. The impact of early psychosocial deprivation on sensation seeking and consequently on engagement in risk-taking was further reduced by its deleterious effects on executive control. These findings challenge the traditional view according to which risk behavior is a maladaptive response to adversities and suggest that it may represent adolescents' attempts to fulfill important motivations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity Can Increase Exposure to Risky Media and Moderate Its Effects on Adolescent Risk Behaviors

Media exposure to risky behaviors (e.g., alcohol use, violence) has been associated with adolescent engagement in risk-taking behaviors, but not all adolescents are equally at risk. Here we focus on individual differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking and assess their effects on the relation between media risk exposure and adolescent risk behavior. Survey data from 1990 Black and White US adolescents (mean age = 15.6 ± 1.10 years; 48% female) and content analysis of top-grossing films and popular TV shows were analyzed using linear regression models. High levels of impulsivity and sensation seeking were associated with greater exposure to risky media content, and also operated as moderators, exacerbating the impact of media risk exposure on adolescent risk behaviors. Prevention efforts targeting negative effects of media on adolescent health should prioritize youth with high levels of impulsivity and sensation seeking.

Predictive Validity of the Three-Factor Model of Impulsivity for Risky Behaviors

Impulsivity is a multifaceted construct particularly relevant for understanding a wide variety of behaviors, especially risky behaviors. A recent conceptualization of impulsivity identifies three impulsivity factors-pervasive influence of feelings, feelings trigger action, and lack of follow-through-that have been shown to predict different behaviors. In this contribution, we examine the psychometric properties of an Italian version of such a three-factor model on a relatively large sample (N = 845). Moreover, on a subsample (n = 766) we determined whether specific dimensions of impulsivity are related to a series of risky behaviors, assessed 3 weeks later, by testing the predictive validity of the multidimensional inventory also in comparison with a standard measure of personality (HEXACO). An exploratory structural equation model confirmed the original 3-dimension structure and showed that the Italian adaptation has satisfactory psychometric properties. Convergent validity with the HEXACO dimensions was established. Furthermore, only the factors feelings trigger action and lack of follow-through, not pervasive influence of feelings, predicted risky behaviors. Findings provide a clear support to the 3-factor model of impulsivity and demonstrate its usefulness for a better comprehension of risky behaviors.

Effects of mindfulness training on regulatory and academic abilities in preadolescents: Results from a pilot study

Regulatory abilities such as self-regulation and stress regulation are key predictors of essential developmental outcomes, including intellectual and socioemotional milestones as well as academic achievement. Preadolescence has been proposed as a period that is crucial for training these abilities. The present pilot study investigated the effects of mindfulness training on preadolescents‘ regulatory abilities and school-related outcomes. A group of 34 fifth graders received either mindfulness training (experimental group), Marburg Concentration Training (alternative treatment group), or no treatment (passive control group) and were monitored over a four-month intervention period. Regulatory abilities were assessed first, with two self-report questionnaires that operationalized impulsivity and coping with stress, respectively. Second, physical stress regulation was examined on the basis of diurnal cortisol as well as salivary α-amylase (sAA) profiles. Finally, school-related outcomes were measured with a paperpencil based performance test of verbal memory. Results show that impulsivity increased in all groups over time, whereas there were no significant training effects on self-reported coping with stress. Both training groups showed more adaptive physiological stress regulation in terms of steeper diurnal cortisol slopes and marginally less pronounced sAA awakening responses, however, with respect to physiological measures, no data of the passive control group are available. With respect to school-related outcomes, the results indicate a slight superiority regarding verbal memory for the mindfulness training group compared to the Marburg Concentration Training group.

Sleep duration and risk-taking in adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Risk-taking is associated with increased morbidity and mortality among adolescents, with insufficient sleep a potential factor contributing to heightened risk-taking propensity in this age group. A systematic review of the evidence examining the relationship between sleep duration and risk-taking in adolescents was conducted using PsycINFO, PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and CINAHL databases. These searches identified 26 studies including 579,380 participants, 24 of which were appropriate for meta-analysis. Pooled results indicated that insufficient sleep was associated with 1.43 [1.26, 1.62] times greater odds of risk-taking. This relationship was witnessed across diverse categories of risk-taking, including alcohol use, drug use, smoking, violent/delinquent behaviour, transport risk-taking/road safety, sexual risk-taking and trait risk-taking. Risk of bias analysis showed that the quality of the included studies was mixed. Further, few studies utilized either longitudinal or experimental designs, thus limiting causal conclusions. These findings highlight the importance of further research to examine the causal relationship between sleep duration and risk-taking and to elucidate the mechanisms that underpin this relationship.

Structural Home Environment Effects on Developmental Trajectories of Self-Control and Adolescent Risk Taking

Extant literature has demonstrated that self-control is critical for health and adjustment in adolescence. Questions remain regarding whether there are individuals that may be most vulnerable to impaired self-control development and whether aspects of the structural home environment may predict membership in these subgroups, as well as the behavioral consequences of impaired self-control trajectories. The present study utilized growth mixture modeling and data from 1083 individuals (50% female, 82% White) from age 8.5 to 15 years to identify four latent classes of self-control development. Additionally, higher household chaos and lower socioeconomic status at age 8.5 were associated with maladaptive trajectories of self-control at ages 8.5-11.5. In turn, maladaptive self-control trajectories at ages 8.5-11.5 were associated with higher risk taking at age 15. The results highlight the importance of increased structure and support for at-risk youth.

Network specialization during adolescence: Hippocampal effective connectivity in boys and girls

Adolescence is a complex period of concurrent mental and physical development that facilitates adult functioning at multiple levels. Despite the growing number of neuroimaging studies of cognitive development in adolescence focusing on regional activation patterns, there remains a paucity of information about the functional interactions across these participating regions that are critical for cognitive functioning, including memory. The current study used structural equation modeling (SEM) to determine how interactions among brain regions critical for memory change over the course of adolescence. We obtained functional MRI in 77 individuals aged 8-16 years old, divided into younger (ages 8-10) and older (ages > 11) cohorts, using an incidental encoding memory task to activate hippocampus formation and associated brain networks, as well as behavioral data on memory function. SEM was performed on the imaging data for four groups (younger girls, younger boys, older girls, and older boys) that were subsequently compared using a stacked model approach. Significant differences were seen between the models for these groups. Younger boys had a predominantly posterior distribution of connections originating in primary visual regions and terminating on multi-modal processing regions. In older boys, there was a relatively greater anterior connection distribution, with increased effective connectivity within association and multi-modal processing regions. Connection patterns in younger girls were similar to those of older boys, with a generally anterior-posterior distributed network among sensory, multi-modal, and limbic regions. In contrast, connections in older girls were widely distributed but relatively weaker. Memory performance increased with age, without a significant difference between the sexes. These findings suggest a progressive reorganization among brain regions, with a commensurate increase in efficiency of cognitive functioning, from younger to older individuals in both girls and boys, providing insight into the age- and gender-specific processes at play during this critical transition period.

Modeling Trajectories of Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity Dimensions from Early to Late Adolescence: Universal Trends or Distinct Sub-groups?

Developmental imbalance models attribute the rise in risk-taking during adolescence to a universal imbalance between rising reward sensitivity and lagging cognitive control. This study tested predictions of an alternate Lifespan Wisdom Model that distinguishes between exploratory/adaptive (e.g., sensation seeking) and maladaptive (e.g., acting-without-thinking, delay discounting) risk-taking propensities and attributes the latter to a sub-set of youth with weak cognitive control. Latent trajectory modeling of six waves of data from 387 adolescents (52% females; spanning average ages of 11-18 years) revealed distinct sub-groups with heterogeneous trajectory patterns for acting-without-thinking and delay-discounting. Only those trajectory groups with weak cognitive control, characterized as "high-increasing" acting-without thinking and "high-stable" delay discounting were predictive of a maladaptive risk-taking outcome, namely substance use disorder. Sensation seeking demonstrated a universal peak, but high levels of sensation seeking were not associated with weakness in cognitive control and were unrelated to substance use disorder, controlling for impulsivity. The findings suggest that maladaptive risk-taking characterized by weak cognitive control over reward-driven impulses is a phenomenon limited to only a sub-set of youth.

WM in Adolescence: What Is the Relationship With Emotional Regulation and Behavioral Outcomes?

Adolescence is a fundamental transition phase, marked by physical, social, cognitive and emotional changes. At this stage in development two contrasting phenomena take place: brain changes cause a sensitivity to emotional aspects (Dahl, 2004); while also control processes register as well impressive improvements (e.g., Hooper et al., 2004; Best and Miller, 2010). The study is aimed to investigate the relationship between a core cognitive feature such as working memory (WM) (Diamond, 2013) and complex abilities such as emotion regulation (ER) and behavioral self-reported outcomes using a structural equation model approach. A sample of 227 typically developed adolescents between 14 and19 years of age (148 females; mean age in months 202.8, SD 18.57) participated in this study. The following tasks and self-reports were administered in a 45-min test session at school: Symmetry Span task (Kane et al., 2004). Reading Span task (Daneman and Carpenter, 1980), Mr. Cucumber (Case, 1985); Youth Self-Report (YSR, 11-18 years, Achenbach and Rescorla, 2001); Difficulties ER Scale (DERS, Gratz and Roemer, 2004; Italian version by Giromini et al., 2012). Results showed that difficulties in ER correlated with WM: high levels of ER difficulties are associated with low WM efficiency while no significant contributions of these predictors was observed on externalizing or internalizing symptoms. This study showed a significant relationship between self-reported difficulties in ER and WM, while no significant contribution of the considered predictors was showed on the outcomes, adding knowledge about how behavioral and emotional self-reported outcomes may relate to these processes.

Transcranial direct current stimulation over the right DLPFC selectively modulates subprocesses in working memory

Background

Working memory, as a complex system, consists of two independent components: manipulation and maintenance process, which are defined as executive control and storage process. Previous studies mainly focused on the overall effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on working memory. However, little has been known about the segregative effects of tDCS on the sub-processes within working memory.

Method

Transcranial direct current stimulation, as one of the non-invasive brain stimulation techniques, is being widely used to modulate the cortical activation of local brain areas. This study modified a spatial n-back experiment with anodal and cathodal tDCS exertion on the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), aiming to investigate the effects of tDCS on the two sub-processes of working memory: manipulation (updating) and maintenance. Meanwhile, considering the separability of tDCS effects, we further reconfirmed the causal relationship between the right DLPFC and the sub-processes of working memory with different tDCS conditions.

Results

The present study showed that cathodal tDCS on the right DLPFC selectively improved the performance of the modified 2-back task in the difficult condition, whereas anodal tDCS significantly reduced the performance of subjects and showed an speeding-up tendency of response time. More precisely, the results of discriminability index and criterion showed that only cathodal tDCS enhanced the performance of maintenance in the difficult condition. Neither of the two tDCS conditions affected the performance of manipulation (updating).

Conclusion

These findings provide evidence that cathodal tDCS of the right DLPFC selectively affects maintenance capacity. Besides, cathodal tDCS also serves as an interference suppressor to reduce the irrelevant interference, thereby indirectly improving the working memory capacity. Moreover, the right DLPFC is not the unique brain regions for working memory manipulation (updating).

Another look at impulsivity: Could impulsive behavior be strategic?

In the present article, we propose that impulsive behavior may be a response to certain needs or goals that people have in the moment and could therefore be strategic. We review briefly the dominant approaches and findings in the impulsivity literature. We then examine different behaviors that are typically considered impulsive such as delay discounting, risky sexual behavior, risk taking in the context of emotion dysregulation, and adolescent risk behavior and present evidence suggesting that they follow the general principles of goal pursuit. Specifically, they are (a) enacted when perceived as relevant to the individual's motivation; (b) less likely when alternative means to fulfill these goals are available; and (c) supported rather than reduced by sufficient executive control, a hallmark of goal pursuit. We do not argue that there is no impulsive behavior. Rather, we suggest that such behavior may represent individuals' attempts to fulfill current motivations or needs. This approach emphasizes the functionality and dynamism of the behavior, it provides a framework to explain the inconsistencies in the literature, it helps us to move away from pathologizing or moralizing the behavior, and it provides insights about potential strategies to mitigate the negative consequences of acting impulsively.

Associations Among Infant Iron Deficiency, Childhood Emotion and Attention Regulation, and Adolescent Problem Behaviors

This study examined whether iron deficiency (ID) in infancy contributes to problem behaviors in adolescence through its influence on poor regulatory abilities in childhood. Chilean infants (N = 1,116) were studied when there was no national program for iron fortification (1991-1996), resulting in high rates of ID (28%) and iron-deficiency anemia (IDA, 17%). Infants (54% male) were studied at childhood (Mage  = 10 years) and adolescence (Mage  = 14 years). IDA in infancy was related to excessive alcohol use and risky sexual behavior in adolescence through its effect on poor emotion regulation in childhood. Attentional control deficits at age 10 were also related to both infant IDA and heightened risk taking in adolescence. Findings elucidate how poor childhood regulatory abilities associated with infant IDA compromise adjustment in adolescence.

Executive Function Capacities, Negative Driving Behavior and Crashes in Young Drivers

Motor vehicle crashes remain a leading cause of injury and death in adolescents, with teen drivers three times more likely to be in a fatal crash when compared to adults. One potential contributing risk factor is the ongoing development of executive functioning with maturation of the frontal lobe through adolescence and into early adulthood. Atypical development resulting in poor or impaired executive functioning (as in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) has been associated with risky driving and crash outcomes. However, executive function broadly encompasses a number of capacities and domains (e.g., working memory, inhibition, set-shifting). In this review, we examine the role of various executive function sub-processes in adolescent driver behavior and crash rates. We summarize the state of methods for measuring executive control and driving outcomes and highlight the great heterogeneity in tools with seemingly contradictory findings. Lastly, we offer some suggestions for improved methods and practical ways to compensate for the effects of poor executive function (such as in-vehicle assisted driving devices). Given the key role that executive function plays in safe driving, this review points to an urgent need for systematic research to inform development of more effective training and interventions for safe driving among adolescents.

Working Memory Training in Adolescents Decreases Laboratory Risk Taking in the Presence of Peers

Adolescence is a period of heightened risk-taking relative to both adulthood and childhood, due in part to peers' increased influence on adolescent decision making. Because adolescents' choices have harmful consequences, there is great interest in specific interventions that might attenuate risk taking. We hypothesized that it might be possible to reduce adolescent risk taking through an intervention targeting the ability/tendency to engage cognitive control processes. While some studies of Working Memory Training (WMT) have indicated subsequent enhancement of adults' cognitive control abilities, potential impacts on adolescent cognitive control have not been explored. Accordingly, we tested whether four weeks of WMT (relative to Active Control Training, ACT) might increase performance on cognitive control measures and decrease risk-taking in adolescents. Adolescents receiving WMT, compared to those receiving ACT, exhibited some evidence of improved short-term memory performance following the 4-week training period. Improvements did not significantly transfer to performance on basic cognitive control measures. However, on two risk-taking tasks administered at post-training either with or without an anonymous peer audience, adolescents who received WMT evinced suppressed levels of risk taking when observed by peers, an effect not seen in ACT. Further work is needed to more fully characterize the potential of WMT interventions in stemming risk behavior within adolescent samples.

Beyond stereotypes of adolescent risk taking: Placing the adolescent brain in developmental context

Recent neuroscience models of adolescent brain development attribute the morbidity and mortality of this period to structural and functional imbalances between more fully developed limbic regions that subserve reward and emotion as opposed to those that enable cognitive control. We challenge this interpretation of adolescent development by distinguishing risk-taking that peaks during adolescence (sensation seeking and impulsive action) from risk taking that declines monotonically from childhood to adulthood (impulsive choice and other decisions under known risk). Sensation seeking is primarily motivated by exploration of the environment under ambiguous risk contexts, while impulsive action, which is likely to be maladaptive, is more characteristic of a subset of youth with weak control over limbic motivation. Risk taking that declines monotonically from childhood to adulthood occurs primarily under conditions of known risks and reflects increases in executive function as well as aversion to risk based on increases in gist-based reasoning. We propose an alternative Life-span Wisdom Model that highlights the importance of experience gained through exploration during adolescence. We propose, therefore, that brain models that recognize the adaptive roles that cognition and experience play during adolescence provide a more complete and helpful picture of this period of development.