Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses

Association of baseline serum sodium with long-term outcomes in newly diagnosed coronary heart disease patients without heart failure: a prospective cohort study

Sodium is crucial for maintaining cardiovascular health, especially in relation to heart failure. The impact of baseline serum sodium concentrations on the outcomes of newly diagnosed coronary heart disease (CHD) without heart failure remains unclear. This prospective cohort study included 681 patients who were newly diagnosed with CHD. Cox proportional hazards models and restricted cubic spline (RCS) analysis were used to assess the relationship between serum sodium concentrations and major adverse cardiovascular events. The improvement in traditional prediction models by the addition of serum sodium concentrations was assessed using changes in the C-statistic, net reclassification improvement (NRI), and integrated discrimination improvement (IDI). During a median follow-up of 51.04 months (IQR: 40.88-53.80 months), 131 events were recorded. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards models showed that the L2 group (136-138.9 mmol/L) had the highest MACE risk. Compared to L2, the hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the L1 (130-135.9 mmol/L), L3 (139-140.9 mmol/L), L4 (141-142.9 mmol/L), and L5 (143-147.0 mmol/L) groups were 0.31 (0.14-0.70, P = 0.005), 0.48 (030-0.78, P = 0.003), 0.56 (0.34-0.92, P = 0.022), and 0.37 (0.22-0.64, P < 0.001), respectively. Including serum sodium concentrations in the prediction model significantly improved the C-statistic from 0.647 to 0.679 (P = 0.022), with an NRI of 0.338 (P < 0.001) and an IDI of 0.026 (P < 0.001). RCS analysis showed a nonlinear relationship: within the 130-138 mmol/L sodium range, MACE risk gradually increased with higher sodium levels (HR 1.39, 95% CI 1.09-1.76, P = 0.008); whereas within the 138-147 mmol/L range, the risk gradually decreased (HR 0.88, 95% CI 0.80-0.98, P = 0.014). Baseline serum sodium concentrations are significantly associated with long-term cardiovascular risk in newly diagnosed CHD patients, showing an inverted U-shaped relationship, whereas low serum sodium may be specifically linked to higher risks of death and nonfatal myocardial infarction. Further research is needed to explore the impact of long-term changes in serum sodium concentrations on disease prognosis.

Home blood pressure measurement days and changes in urinary sodium-to-potassium ratio, estimated salt and potassium intakes and blood pressure: 1-year prospective study

OBJECTIVE

Current international guidelines recommend home blood pressure (BP) measurement and low sodium and high potassium intakes for the management of hypertension. We hypothesized that increased home BP measurement may result in more effective management of sodium and potassium intakes and BP.

METHODS

We examined associations of home BP measurement days with changes in the urinary sodium-to-potassium (Na/K) ratio, estimated salt and potassium intakes and BP. We included 209 healthy participants (mean age, 55.9 years; 56.5% women) from a prospective cohort study. We examined 1-year data on self-measured home BP and spot urine samples.

RESULTS

Median (interquartile range) days of home BP measurement was 324 (225-358) over 1-year. Baseline mean (SD) Na/K ratio, salt and potassium intakes, morning and evening SBP, and morning and evening DBP were 3.8 (2.3), 8.5 (1.9) g/day, 1833.5 (416.5) mg/day, 120.4 (14.0) mmHg, 118.2 (14.2) mmHg, 79.2 (10.1) mmHg, and 76.2 (10.1) mmHg, respectively. In multivariable-adjusted linear regression , β (standard error) per 10 days increase in number of home BP measurement were -0.031 (0.017) for Na/K ratio, -0.036 (0.015) for salt intake, -1.357 (2.797) for potassium intake, -0.178 (0.064) for morning SBP, -0.079 (0.041) for morning DBP, -0.109 (0.067) for evening SBP and -0.099 (0.045) for evening DBP. Additionally, relationships persisted for men and women, but changes in salt intake were more pronounced among participants taking antihypertensive medication (interaction P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

Continuous measurement of home BP may lead not only to self-monitoring of BP, but also to declines in salt intakes and some BP indices.

Metabolomics signature of blood pressure salt sensitivity and its link to cardiovascular disease: A dietary salt-intervention trial

Individuals with a high degree of salt sensitivity (SS) have a greater risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), but whether SS fosters CVD by influencing metabolomics homeostasis remains unclear. This study aimed to reveal the role of the SS-related metabolomics signature in the development of CVDs, based on the MetaSalt study, which was a dietary salt-intervention trial conducted at four centers in China in 2019. A total of 528 participants were recruited and underwent 3 days of baseline observations, a 10-day low-salt intervention, and a 10-day high-salt intervention. Plasma untargeted metabolomics, lipidomics, and BP measurements were scheduled at each stage. Participants were grouped into extreme SS, moderate SS, and salt-resistant (SR) individuals according to their BP responses to salt. Linear mixed models were used to identify SS-related metabolites and determine the relationship between the SS-related metabolomics signature and arterial stiffness. Mendelian randomization (MR) analyses were applied to establish the causal pathways among the SS-related metabolites, BP, and CVDs. Among the 713 metabolites, 467 were significantly changed after the high-salt intervention. Among them, the changes in 30 metabolites from the low-salt to the high-salt intervention differed among the SS groups. Of the remaining nonsalt-related metabolites, the baseline levels of 11 metabolites were related to SS. These 41 metabolites explained 23% of the variance in SS. Moreover, SS and its metabolomics signature were positively correlated with arterial stiffness. MR analyses demonstrated that the SS-related metabolites may affect CVD risk by altering BP, indicating that the increase in BP was the consequence of the changes in SS-related metabolites rather than the cause. Our study revealed that the metabolomics signature of SS individuals differs from that of SR individuals and that the changes in SS-related metabolites may increase arterial stiffness and foster CVDs. This study provides insight into understanding the biology and targets of SS and its role in CVDs.

Sodium Intake and Incident Atrial Fibrillation in Individuals With Vascular Disease

Importance

Numerous prospective cohort studies have reported a J-shaped association of urinary sodium excretion with cardiovascular events and mortality.

Objective

To study the association between sodium intake and incident atrial fibrillation (AF).

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study included participants in the Ongoing Telmisartan Alone and in Combination with Ramipril Global Endpoint Trial (ONTARGET) and Telmisartan Randomised Assessment Study in ACE Intolerant Subjects With Cardiovascular Disease (TRANSCEND) multicenter, randomized clinical trials comparing the effect of ramipril 10 mg daily with telmisartan 80 mg daily, or their combination (ONTARGET) or 80 mg telmisartan daily with placebo (TRANSCEND) for the outcome of death from cardiovascular causes, myocardial infarction, stroke, or hospitalization for heart failure. ONTARGET and TRANSCEND included 31 546 participants with vascular disease or high-risk diabetes, and this study excluded participants without a urine sample for sodium measurement, missing data for key covariates, a history of AF, or AF detected in the first year after enrollment. Analyses were performed in July 2023 to May 2024.

Exposure

Estimated sodium intake from a morning fasting urine sample (Kawasaki formula).

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main outcome was incident AF. The association between estimated sodium intake and incident AF was modeled using multivariable adjusted Cox regression and cubic splines.

Results

A total of 27 391 participants (mean [SD] age, 66.3 [7.2] years; 19 310 [70.5%] male) were included. Mean (SD) estimated sodium intake was 4.8 (1.6) g/d. During a mean (SD) follow-up of 4.6 (1.0) years, 1562 participants (5.7%) had incident AF. After multivariable adjustment, a J-shaped association between sodium intake and AF risk was observed (P for nonlinearity = .03). Sodium intake of 8 g/d or greater (3% of participants) was associated with incident AF (hazard ratio, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.01-1.74) compared with sodium intake of 4 to 5.99 g/d. Cubic splines showed that sodium intake greater than 6 g/d (19% of participants) was associated with a 10% increased AF risk per additional 1-g/d sodium intake (hazard ratio, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.03-1.18), but with no further lowering of AF risk at lower levels of sodium intake.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of sodium intake and AF risk, there was a J-shaped association between sodium intakes and AF risk in patients with cardiovascular disease or diabetes. Lowering sodium intake for AF prevention is best targeted at individuals who consume high sodium diets.

Salt versus no salt restriction in heart failure a review

BACKGROUND

For decades standard teaching recommended salt intake (sodium) reduction in patients suffering from heart failure. Neurohumoral activation with subsequent fluid retention provided a solid rationale for this long-standing recommendation. Until recently no large randomized clinical trial of sodium restriction was available, while some observational studies and metanalyses even suggested a worse outcome with strict sodium restriction in patients with heart failure.

METHODS

In this narrative review we aimed to extricate from the literature whether strict sodium restriction is beneficial in patients with heart failure. We searched PubMed indexed articles between 2000 and 2023 for these terms: heart failure, salt, sodium, fluid intake.

RESULTS

Most randomized trials were small and showed a wide heterogeneity of interventions. A single large, randomized clinical trial was stopped early due to futility. Overall, there is no evidence that severe sodium restriction reduces the incidence of mortality and hospitalization in patients with heart failure. Quality of life and functional class may improve slightly with sodium restriction.

CONCLUSION

Morbidity and mortality are not reduced with sodium restriction in patients with heart failure, although some symptomatic improvement may be expected.

Nutrients and Foods Recommended for Blood Pressure Control on Twitter in Japan: Content Analysis

BACKGROUND

Management and prevention of hypertension are important public health issues. Healthy dietary habits are one of the modifiable factors. As Twitter (subsequently rebranded X) is a digital platform that can influence public eating behavior, there is a knowledge gap regarding the information about foods and nutrients recommended for blood pressure control and who disseminates them on Twitter.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the nature of the information people are exposed to on Twitter regarding nutrients and foods for blood pressure control.

METHODS

A total of 147,898 Japanese tweets were extracted from January 1, 2022, to December 31, 2022. The final sample of 2347 tweets with at least 1 retweet was manually coded into categories of food groups, nutrients, user characteristics, and themes. The number and percentage of tweets, retweets, and themes in each category were calculated.

RESULTS

Of the 2347 tweets, 80% (n=1877) of tweets mentioned foods, which were categorized into 17 different food groups. Seasonings and spices, including salt, were most frequently mentioned (1356/1877, 72.2%). This was followed by vegetable and fruit groups. The 15 kinds of nutrients were mentioned in 1566 tweets, with sodium being the largest proportion at 83.1% (n=1301), followed by potassium at 8.4% (n=132). There was misinformation regarding salt intake for hypertension, accounting for 40.8% (n=531) of tweets referring to salt, including recommendations for salt intake to lower blood pressure. In total, 75% (n=21) of tweets from "doctors" mentioned salt reduction is effective for hypertension control, while 31.1% (n=74) of tweets from "health, losing weight, and beauty-related users," 25.9% (n=429) of tweets from "general public," and 23.5% (n=4) tweets from "dietitian or registered dietitian" denied salt reduction for hypertension. The antisalt reduction tweets accounted for 31.5% (n=106) of the most disseminated tweets related to nutrients and foods for blood pressure control.

CONCLUSIONS

The large number of tweets in this study indicates a high interest in nutrients and foods for blood pressure control. Misinformation asserting antisalt reduction was posted primarily by the general public and self-proclaimed health experts. The number of tweets from nutritionists, registered dietitians, and doctors who were expected to correct misinformation and promote salt reduction was relatively low, and their messages were not always positive toward salt reduction. There is a need for communication strategies to combat misinformation, promote correct information on salt reduction, and train health care professionals to effectively communicate evidence-based information on this topic.

Modelling Food Substitution Using the Ofcom Nutrient Profiling Model on Population Intakes from the Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition 2015

This study aimed to model how substituting foods consumed by Canadians for alternatives with more favourable nutrient profiling (NP) scores would impact dietary intakes. The Ofcom NP system, developed to help the UK Office of Communication differentiate foods that can be advertised to children, was applied to foods consumed by Canadians aged 2 years and older in the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) (n = 19,447). Foods were substituted for similar options from the Euromonitor branded food composition database (Scenario 1) or from the primarily aggregated food profiles in the CCHS survey food composition database (Scenario 2) with either the most favourable (optimistic; 1A and 2A) or a more favourable Ofcom score (realistic; 1B and 2B). Mean intakes of Ofcom scores, calories, saturated fat, sugars, and sodium from these scenarios were compared to baseline. Only 2.9% of foods consumed had a similar Euromonitor option with a lower Ofcom score. Scenarios 1A, 1B, and 2A had lower Ofcom scores, calorie, sodium, saturated fat, and sugar intakes compared to baseline. Scenario 2B had lower levels of all outcome measures, except for an increase in calories compared to baseline. Selection of foods with more favourable NP scores has the potential to decrease the Canadian intake of nutrients of concern.

Adherence to 24-Hour Movement Guidelines Among Chinese Older Adults: Prevalence, Correlates, and Associations With Physical and Mental Health Outcomes

BACKGROUND

It is known that 24-hour movement behaviors, including physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior (SB), and sleep, are crucial components affecting older adults' health. Canadian 24-hour movement guidelines for older adults were launched in 2020, emphasizing the combined role of these 3 movement behaviors in promoting older adults' health. However, research on the prevalence and correlates of guideline adherence and its associations with health-related outcomes is limited, especially among Chinese older adults.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and correlates of meeting 24-hour movement guidelines among Chinese older adults. Furthermore, this study aimed to examine the associations of guideline adherence with older adults' physical and mental health outcomes.

METHODS

Using a stratified cluster random sampling approach, a total of 4562 older adults (mean age 67.68 years, SD 5.03 years; female proportion: 2544/4562, 55.8%) were recruited from the latest provincial health surveillance of Hubei China from July 25 to November 19, 2020. Measures included demographics, movement behaviors (PA, SB, and sleep), BMI, waist circumference, waist-hip ratio (WHR), percentage body fat (PBF), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, physical fitness, depressive symptoms, and loneliness. Generalized linear mixed models were employed to examine the associations between variables using SPSS 28.0 (IBM Corp).

RESULTS

Only 1.8% (83/4562) of participants met all 3 movement guidelines, while 32.1% (1466/4562), 3.4% (155/4562), and 66.4% (3031/4562) met the individual behavioral guidelines for PA, SB, and sleep, respectively. Participants who were older, were female, and lived in municipalities with lower economic levels were less likely to meet all 3 movement guidelines. Adhering to individual or combined movement guidelines was associated with greater physical fitness and lower values of BMI, waist circumference, WHR, PBF, depressive symptoms, and loneliness, with the exception of the relationship of SB+sleep guidelines with loneliness. Furthermore, only meeting SB guidelines or meeting both PA and SB guidelines was associated with lower systolic blood pressure.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to investigate adherence to 24-hour movement guidelines among Chinese older adults with regard to prevalence, correlates, and associations with physical and mental health outcomes. The findings emphasize the urgent need for promoting healthy movement behaviors among Chinese older adults. Future interventions to improve older adults' physical and mental health should involve enhancing their overall movement behaviors and should consider demographic differences.

Quantitative prediction of postpartum hemorrhage in cesarean section on machine learning

BACKGROUND

Cesarean section-induced postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) potentially causes anemia and hypovolemic shock in pregnant women. Hence, it is helpful for obstetricians and anesthesiologists to prepare pre-emptive prevention when predicting PPH occurrence in advance. However, current works on PPH prediction focus on whether PPH occurs rather than assessing PPH amount. To this end, this work studies quantitative PPH prediction with machine learning (ML).

METHODS

The study cohort in this paper was selected from individuals with PPH who were hospitalized at Shijiazhuang Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital from 2020 to 2022. In this study cohort, we built a dataset with 6,144 subjects covering clinical parameters, anesthesia operation records, laboratory examination results, and other information in the electronic medical record system. Based on our built dataset, we exploit six different ML models, including logistic regression, linear regression, gradient boosting, XGBoost, multilayer perceptron, and random forest, to automatically predict the amount of bleeding during cesarean section. Eighty percent of the dataset was used as model training, and 20 % was used for verification. Those ML models are constantly verified and improved by root mean squared error(RMSE) and mean absolute error(MAE). Moreover, we also leverage the importance of permutation and partial dependence plot (PDP) to discuss their feasibility.

RESULT

The experiment results show that random forest obtains the highest accuracy for PPH amount prediction compared to other ML methods. Random forest reaches the mean absolute error of 21.7, less than 5.4 % prediction error. It also gains the root mean squared error of 33.75, less than 9.3 % prediction error. On the other hand, the experimental results also disclose indicators that contributed most to PPH prediction, including Ca, hemoglobin, white blood cells, platelets, Na, and K.

CONCLUSION

It effectively predicts the amount of PPH during a cesarean section by ML methods, especially random forest. With the above insight, ML predicting PPH amounts provides early warning for clinicians, thus reducing complications and improving cesarean sections' safety. Furthermore, the importance of ML and permutation, complemented by incorporating PDP, promises to provide clinicians with a transparent indication of individual risk prediction.

Perceived Taste and Olfactory Dysfunctions and Subsequent Stroke Risk

Background

Taste and olfactory dysfunction are commonly associated with neurodegenerative diseases and cardiovascular risk factors, but their specific associations with stroke risk remain uncertain.

Objectives

The purpose of this paper was to explore whether perceived taste and olfactory dysfunctions were associated with stroke risk.

Methods

Included were 85,656 participants (mean age 51.0 ± 15.3 years) of the Kailuan study. Perceived olfactory and taste dysfunctions were assessed via a questionnaire at baseline (in 2014-2016). Incident stroke cases were confirmed by review of medical records. Cox proportional hazards models were used to investigate associations of perceived olfactory and taste dysfunctions with stroke risk, and mediation analysis was used to estimate the mediating effect of chronic disease statuses.

Results

We documented 2,198 incident stroke cases during a mean of 5.6 years of follow-up. Perceived taste dysfunction was associated with a doubled risk of developing total stroke (adjusted HR: 2.03; 95% CI: 1.36-3.04; P < 0.001) even with adjustment of lifestyle factors, biomarkers (ie, blood lipids, blood glucose, blood pressure, and uric acid), and other potential confounders. However, perceived olfactory dysfunction (adjusted HR: 1.22; 95% CI: 0.79-1.90; P = 0.34) was not significantly associated with a high risk of total stroke. Similar results of both perceived taste and olfactory dysfunctions were observed for ischemic stroke. Presence of chronic diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and overweight/obesity, mediated 4% to 5% of the association of perceived taste dysfunction with both total stroke and ischemic stroke.

Conclusions

In this large cohort study, perceived taste dysfunction was associated with a high risk of developing stroke.

Global guidelines recommendations for dietary sodium and potassium intake

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) cause a significant global health challenge, with unhealthy diets identified as a major risk factor. Sodium and potassium, which are essential minerals for human health, play important roles in various bodily functions, and an imbalance in their intake can have significant health implications, particularly concerning hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. This review compiles dietary sodium and potassium intake recommendations from prominent global health organizations and compares global guidelines to Japan's Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) guidelines. Sodium and potassium intake guidelines from organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA), Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and DRI for Japanese exhibit variations. Compared to other Asian countries, Japan's historically higher sodium goal aligns with Southeast Asia where traditional preserved foods contribute to high sodium intake. Contrarily, Japan's lower potassium goal contrasts with other countries in Asia promoting a diet rich in fruits and vegetables. The ongoing effort by Japan to align with global recommendations reflects a gradation approach considering social habits. While harmonizing international efforts is essential, appreciating regional diversities is paramount through tailoring guidelines to cultural and dietary habit practices. Implementing context-specific guidelines informed by scientific research can contribute to global efforts in promoting healthy diets and reducing the burden of NCDs. Global guidelines that recommended the daily dietary intake goal for sodium and potassium exhibit variations. These disparities are influenced by diverse factors, including cultural dietary habits, socioeconomic status, health priorities, and available scientific research. Each population should follow the recommendations of their region.

Development and validation of a scale to measure hypertensive Chinese individual's behavior toward salt reduction consumption

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop and validate the Salt Reduction Behavior Scale (SRBS) to measure the behavior of hypertensive Chinese individuals in adhering to salt reduction practices.

METHODS

The SRBS was constructed based on the Health Belief Model, consisting of five constructs: knowledge, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, and cues to action. Data were collected from 2,082 hypertensive patients in Beijing, China, who completed a questionnaire administered through an online platform. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test was used to assess the adequacy of the sample and the Bartlett's test of sphericity to examine the factorability of the dataset. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to assess the structural validity and reliability of the SRBS.

RESULTS

The KMO analysis yielded a notably elevated value of 0.95, indicating that the data was highly suitable for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Bartlett's test of sphericity yielded a statistically significant test statistic (P < 0.001). The 32-item SRB questionnaire demonstrated strong internal consistency with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.923. A second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) revealed that, after removing the unrelated construct of barriers, SRB could be represented by four sub-constructs: knowledge, severity, benefits, and action. The final version of the SRBS consists of 21 items. These items displayed high factor loadings, indicating a strong relationship between the items and their respective sub-constructs. The discriminant validity analysis revealed that the SRBS sub-constructs were distinct from each other. The SRBS scores were positively correlated with self-reported salt reduction practices. This demonstrates that individuals with higher SRBS scores were more likely to engage in actual salt reduction behaviors, indicating concurrent validity.

CONCLUSION

The results illustrate that the Salt Reduction Behavior Scale is a robust and comprehensive instrument for assessing salt reduction behavior among hypertensive Chinese individuals. The scale's specific sub-constructs provide a detailed understanding of their knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to salt consumption. Healthcare professionals and policymakers can utilize this tool to tailor interventions and educational programs to encourage healthier dietary habits, thereby reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases in China.

Croatian Action on Salt and Health (CRASH): On the Road to Success-Less Salt, More Health

The World Health Organization recommends adjusting salt intake as a part of the nine global targets to reduce premature mortality from non-communicable chronic diseases as a priority and the most cost-effective intervention. In 2006, the main aim of the Croatian Action on Salt and Health was to decrease salt intake by 16% because of its critical intake and consequences on human health. We have organized educative activities to increase awareness on salt harmfulness, define food categories of prime interest, collaborate with industries and determine salt intake (24 h urine sodium excretion). It was determined that the proportion of salt in ready-to-eat baked bread should not exceed 1.4%. In the period 2014-2022, salt in semi-white bread was reduced by 14%, 22% in bakery and 25% in the largest meat industry. Awareness of the harmfulness of salt on health increased from 65.3% in 2008 to 96.9% in 2023 and salt intake was reduced by 15.9-1.8 g/day (22.8% men, 11.7% women). In the last 18 years, a significant decrease in salt intake was achieved in Croatia, awareness of its harmfulness increased, collaboration with the food industry was established and regulatory documents were launched. However, salt intake is still very high, underlying the need for continuation of efforts and even stronger activities.

Enhancing chronic wound healing with Thai indigenous rice variety, Kaab Dum: Exploring ER stress and senescence inhibition in HaCaT keratinocyte cell line

Kaab Dum, a prominent indigenous rice variety cultivated in the Pak Phanang Basin of Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand, is the focus of our study. We investigate the therapeutic potential of indigenous Kaab Dum rice extract in the context of chronic wounds. Our research encompasses an examination of the nutritional compositions and chemical profiles of Kaab Dum rice extract. Additionally, we assess how the extract affects chronic wounds in TGF-β-induced HaCaT cells. Our evaluation methods include the detection of cellular oxidative stress, the examination of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, wound healing assays, analysis of cell cycle arrest and the study of cellular senescence through senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining. Our research findings demonstrate that TGF-β induces oxidative stress in HaCaT cells, which subsequently triggers ER stress, confirmed by the expression of the PERK protein. This ER stress results in cell cycle arrest in HaCaT cells, characterized by an increase in p21 protein, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (CDKI). Ultimately, this leads to cellular senescence, as confirmed by SA-β-gal staining. Importantly, our study reveals the effectiveness of Kaab Dum rice extract in promoting wound healing in the chronic wound model. The extract reduces ER stress and senescent cells. These beneficial effects are potentially linked to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the rice extract. The findings of our study have the potential to make significant contributions to the development of enhanced products for both the prevention and treatment of chronic wounds.

Na and K Intake from Lunches Served in a Japanese Company Cafeteria and the Estimated Improvement in the Dietary Na/K Ratio Using Low-Na/K Seasonings and Dairy to Prevent Hypertension

The excessive intake of sodium (Na) and insufficient intake of potassium (K) are major concerns in the prevention of hypertension. Using low-Na/K seasonings (reducing 25% of the NaCl and adding K salt) may improve the dietary Na/K ratio and help prevent hypertension. To devise an intervention study using low-Na/K seasonings at a company cafeteria, we calculated the Na and K contents of the meals served at the cafeteria and estimated changes in the intakes when suitable low-Na/K seasonings were used. We also considered using milk as a good source of K. We used an ingredient list of a company cafeteria and calculated Na and K contents in each dish. The average amounts of NaCl and K per use were 5.04 g and 718 mg, respectively. Seasonings contributed 70.9% of the NaCl. With the use of low-Na/K seasonings, an estimated reduction in NaCl of 0.8 g/day and an estimated increase in K of 308 mg/day was achieved. With an additional serving (200 mL) of milk, NaCl was reduced by 0.57 g/day and K was increased by 610 mg/day, with an overall decrease in the dietary Na/K ratio from 3.20 to 2.40. The use of low-Na/K seasonings and dairy may improve the dietary Na/K ratio among cafeteria users and help prevent hypertension.

Effect of Faba Bean Isolate and Microbial Transglutaminase on Rheological Properties of Pork Myofibrillar Protein Gel and Physicochemical and Textural Properties of Reduced-Salt, Low-Fat Pork Model Sausages

The study was performed to determine the effect of faba bean protein isolate (FBPI) alone or in combination with microbial transglutaminase (MTG) on the rheological properties of pork myofibrillar protein gel (MPG), and physiochemical and textural properties of reduced-salt, low-fat pork model sausages (LFMSs). The cooking yields of MPGs with MTG or FBPI alone decreased and increased, respectively. However, the combination of FBPI and MTG was similar to the control (CTL) without FBPI or MTG. Gel strength values of MPG added with both FBPI and MTG were higher than treatments with FBPI or MTG alone. The hydrophobicity values of CTL were lower than those of MPG with FBPI alone, whereas the addition of MTG decreased the hydrophobicity of MPGs. The incorporation of FBPI alone or in combination with MTG decreased sulfhydryl groups (p<0.05). Shear stress values of MPGs with MTG tended to be higher than those of non-MTG treatments at all shear rates, and the addition of FBPI into MPGs increased shear stress values. Reduced-salt (1.0%) LFMSs with FBPI alone or combined with MTG had both lower cooking loss and expressible moisture values than those of CTL and similar values to the reference sample (REF, 1.5% salt). Textural properties of reduced-salt LFMSs with FBPI or MTG were similar to those of REF. These results demonstrated that the combination of FBPI and MTG could improve the water binding capacity and textural properties of pork MPGs and LFMSs and might be suitable for application in the development of healthier meat products.

The potential for current sodium and potassium production to support a global switch to the use of potassium-enriched salt: a desktop research study

OBJECTIVE

Switching regular salt (sodium chloride) to salt enriched with potassium chloride (25 % potassium chloride, 75 % sodium chloride) has been shown to reduce blood pressure and the risk of cardiovascular diseases. We sought to define the potential for the current production of sodium chloride and potassium chloride to support a global switch to the use of potassium-enriched salt.

DESIGN

We summarised data from geological surveys, government reports and trade organisations describing the global production and supply of sodium chloride and potash (the primary source of potassium chloride) and compared this to potential requirements for potassium-enriched salt.

SETTING

Global.

PARTICIPANTS

Not applicable.

RESULTS

Approximately 280 million tonnes of sodium chloride were produced in 2020 with China and the USA the main producers. Global production of potash from which potassium chloride is extracted was about forty-four million tonnes with Canada, Belarus, Russia and China providing 77 % of the world's supply. There were forty-eight countries in which potassium-enriched salt is currently marketed with seventy-nine different brands identified. Allowing for loss of salt between manufacture and consumption, a full global switch from regular salt to potassium-enriched salt would require about 9·7 million tonnes of sodium chloride to be replaced with 9·7 million tonnes of potassium chloride annually.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant upscaling of the production of potassium chloride and the capacity of companies able to manufacture potassium-enriched salt, as well as a robust business case for the switch to potassium chloride, would be required.

No change in 24-h sodium intake estimated from spot urine in Norwegian adults from 2006 to 2019: the population-based Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT)

OBJECTIVE

Monitoring time trends in salt consumption is important for evaluating the impact of salt reduction initiatives on public health outcomes. There has so far not been available data to indicate if salt consumption in Norway has changed during the previous decade. We aimed to assess whether average 24-h salt intake estimated from spot urine samples in the adult population of mid-Norway changed from 2006-2008 to 2017-2019 and to describe variations by sex, age and educational level.

DESIGN

Repeated cross-sectional studies.

SETTING

The population-based Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT).

PARTICIPANTS

In each of two consecutive waves (HUNT3: 2006-2008 and HUNT4: 2017-2019), spot urine samples were collected from 500 men and women aged 25-64 years, in addition to 250 men and women aged 70-79 years in HUNT4. Based on spot urine concentrations of Na, K and creatinine and age, sex and BMI, we estimated 24-h Na intake using the International Cooperative Study on Salt and Blood Pressure (INTERSALT) equation for the Northern European region.

RESULTS

Mean (95 % CI) estimated 24-h salt intakes in men were 11·1 (95 % CI 10·8, 11·3) g in HUNT3 and 10·9 (95 % CI 10·6, 11·1) g in HUNT4, P = 0·25. Corresponding values in women were 7·7 (95 % CI 7·5, 7·9) g and 7·7 (95 % CI 7·5, 7·9) g, P = 0·88. Mean estimated salt intake in HUNT4 decreased with increasing age in women, but not in men, and it did not differ significantly across educational level in either sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Estimated 24-h salt intake in adult men and women in mid-Norway did not change from 2006-2008 to 2017-2019.

Neuronally differentiated macula densa cells regulate tissue remodeling and regeneration in the kidney

Tissue regeneration is limited in several organs, including the kidney, contributing to the high prevalence of kidney disease globally. However, evolutionary and physiological adaptive responses and the presence of renal progenitor cells suggest an existing remodeling capacity. This study uncovered endogenous tissue remodeling mechanisms in the kidney that were activated by the loss of body fluid and salt and regulated by a unique niche of a minority renal cell type called the macula densa (MD). Here, we identified neuronal differentiation features of MD cells that sense the local and systemic environment and secrete angiogenic, growth, and extracellular matrix remodeling factors, cytokines and chemokines, and control resident progenitor cells. Serial intravital imaging, MD nerve growth factor receptor and Wnt mouse models, and transcriptome analysis revealed cellular and molecular mechanisms of these MD functions. Human and therapeutic translation studies illustrated the clinical potential of MD factors, including CCN1, as a urinary biomarker and therapeutic target in chronic kidney disease. The concept that a neuronally differentiated key sensory and regulatory cell type responding to organ-specific physiological inputs controls local progenitors to remodel or repair tissues may be applicable to other organs and diverse tissue-regenerative therapeutic strategies.

Salt intake across the hypertension care cascade in the Bangladeshi adult population: a nationally representative cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to examine the distribution of daily salt intake across the hypertension care cascade and assess the proportional distribution of these care cascade categories across various salt consumption level.

DESIGN

A population-based national cross-sectional study.

SETTINGS

Data from the Bangladesh STEPS 2018 survey were used, encompassing both urban and rural strata within all eight divisions. National estimates were generated from weighted data.

PARTICIPANTS

A diverse population of 6754 men and women aged 18-69 years was included in the study.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Daily salt consumption was estimated using the spot urine sodium concentration following Tanaka equation. Distribution of salt intake among different categories of hypertension care cascade, including hypertensives, aware of hypertension status, on treatment and under control, was assessed.

RESULTS

Individuals with hypertension consume more salt on average (9.18 g/day, 95% CI 9.02 to 9.33) than those without hypertension (8.95 g/day, 95% CI 8.84 to 9.05) (p<0.02). No significant differences were found in salt intake when comparing aware versus unaware, treated versus untreated and controlled versus uncontrolled hypertension. In the overall population, 2.7% (95% CI 2.1% to 3.6%) of individuals without hypertension adhered to the recommended salt intake (<5 g/day) while 1.6% (95% CI 1.0% to 2.4%) with hypertension did so (p<0.03). Among individuals with hypertension, 2.4% (95% CI 1.4% to 4.0%) of those aware followed the guideline while only 0.8% (95% CI 0.4% to 1.9%) of those unaware adhered (p<0.03). Additionally, no significant differences were observed in adherence between the treated versus untreated and controlled versus uncontrolled hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with hypertension consume significantly more salt than those without, with no significant variations in salt intake based on aware, treated and controlled hypertension. Adhering to WHO salt intake guidelines aids better blood pressure management. By addressing salt consumption across hypertension care cascade, substantial progress can be made in better blood pressure control.

Review Article on Molecular Mechanism of Regulation of Hypertension by Macro-elements (Na, K, Ca and Mg), Micro-elements/Trace Metals (Zn and Cu) and Toxic Elements (Pb and As)

Hypertension (HT) is a medical condition arising due to increase in blood pressure (BP) prevalent worldwide. The balanced dietary intakes of macro-elements and micro-elements including Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Cu have been described to maintain BP in humans by regulating the osmolarity of blood, cells/tissues, prevention of generation of oxidative and nitrosative stress (OANS), and endothelial damage through their functioning as important components of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), antioxidant enzyme defense system, and maintenance of blood vascular-endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) functions. However, inadequate/excess dietary intakes of Na/K, Ca/Mg, and Zn/Cu along with higher Pb and As exposures recognized to induce HT through common mechanisms including the followings: endothelial dysfunctions due to impairment of vasodilatation, increased vasoconstriction and arterial stiffness, blood clotting, inflammation, modification of sympathetic activity and higher catecholamine release, increased peripheral vascular resistance, and cardiac output; increased OANS due to reduced and elevated activities of extracellular superoxide dismutase and NAD(P)H oxidase, less nitric oxide bioavailability, decrease in cGMP and guanylate cyclase activity, increase in intracellular Ca2+ ions in VSMCs, and higher pro-inflammatory cytokines; higher parathyroid and calcitriol hormones; activation/suppression of RAAS resulting imbalance in blood Na+, K+, and water regulated by renin, angiotensin II, and aldosterone through affecting natriuresis/kaliuresis/diuresis; elevation in serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, decrease in HDL cholesterol due to defect in lipoprotein metabolism. The present study recommends the need to review simple dietary mineral intervention studies/supplementation trials before keeping their individual dietary excess intakes/exposures in consideration because their interactions lead to elevation and fall of their concentrations in body affecting onset of HT.

Evaluating agreement between evidence from randomised controlled trials and cohort studies in nutrition: a meta-research replication study

This meta-research study aims to evaluate the agreement of effect estimates between bodies of evidence (BoE) from RCTs and cohort studies included in the same nutrition evidence synthesis, to identify factors associated with disagreement, and to replicate the findings of a previous study. We searched Medline, Epistemonikos and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews for nutrition systematic reviews that included both RCTs and cohort studies for the same patient-relevant outcome or intermediate-disease marker. We rated similarity of PI/ECO (population, intervention/exposure, comparison, outcome) between BoE from RCTs and cohort studies. Agreement of effect estimates across BoE was analysed by pooling ratio of risk ratios (RRR) for binary outcomes and difference of standardised mean differences (DSMD) for continuous outcomes. We performed subgroup and sensitivity analyses to explore determinants associated with disagreements. We included 82 BoE-pairs from 51 systematic reviews. For binary outcomes, the RRR was 1.04 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.99 to 1.10, I2 = 59%, τ2 = 0.02, prediction interval (PI) 0.77 to 1.41). For continuous outcomes, the pooled DSMD was  - 0.09 (95% CI  - 0.26 to 0.09, PI  - 0.55 to 0.38). Subgroup analyses yielded that differences in type of intake/exposure were drivers towards disagreement. We replicated the findings of a previous study, where on average RCTs and cohort studies had similar effect estimates. Disagreement and wide prediction intervals were mainly driven by PI/ECO-dissimilarities. More research is needed to explore other potentially influencing factors (e.g. risk of bias) on the disagreement between effect estimates of both BoE.Trial registration: CRD42021278908.

Sex-specific associations between sodium and potassium intake and overall and cause-specific mortality: a large prospective U.S. cohort study, systematic review, and updated meta-analysis of cohort studies

BACKGROUND

The impact of sodium intake on cardiovascular disease (CVD) health and mortality has been studied for decades, including the well-established association with blood pressure. However, non-linear patterns, dose-response associations, and sex differences in the relationship between sodium and potassium intakes and overall and cause-specific mortality remain to be elucidated and a comprehensive examination is lacking. Our study objective was to determine whether intake of sodium and potassium and the sodium-potassium ratio are associated with overall and cause-specific mortality in men and women.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective analysis of 237,036 men and 179,068 women in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. Multivariable-adjusted Cox proportional hazard regression models were utilized to calculate hazard ratios. A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies was also conducted.

RESULTS

During 6,009,748 person-years of follow-up, there were 77,614 deaths, 49,297 among men and 28,317 among women. Adjusting for other risk factors, we found a significant positive association between higher sodium intake (≥ 2,000 mg/d) and increased overall and CVD mortality (overall mortality, fifth versus lowest quintile, men and women HRs = 1.06 and 1.10, Pnonlinearity < 0.0001; CVD mortality, fifth versus lowest quintile, HRs = 1.07 and 1.21, Pnonlinearity = 0.0002 and 0.01). Higher potassium intake and a lower sodium-potassium ratio were associated with a reduced mortality, with women showing stronger associations (overall mortality, fifth versus lowest quintile, HRs for potassium = 0.96 and 0.82, and HRs for the sodium-potassium ratio = 1.09 and 1.23, for men and women, respectively; Pnonlinearity < 0.05 and both P for interaction ≤ 0.0006). The overall mortality associations with intake of sodium, potassium and the sodium-potassium ratio were generally similar across population risk factor subgroups with the exception that the inverse potassium-mortality association was stronger in men with lower body mass index or fruit consumption (Pinteraction < 0.0004). The updated meta-analysis of cohort studies based on 42 risk estimates, 2,085,904 participants, and 80,085 CVD events yielded very similar results (highest versus lowest sodium categories, pooled relative risk for CVD events = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.06-1.20; Pnonlinearity < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates significant positive associations between daily sodium intake (within the range of sodium intake between 2,000 and 7,500 mg/d), the sodium-potassium ratio, and risk of CVD and overall mortality, with women having stronger sodium-potassium ratio-mortality associations than men, and with the meta-analysis providing compelling support for the CVD associations. These data may suggest decreasing sodium intake and increasing potassium intake as means to improve health and longevity, and our data pointing to a sex difference in the potassium-mortality and sodium-potassium ratio-mortality relationships provide additional evidence relevant to current dietary guidelines for the general adult population.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO Identifier: CRD42022331618.

Sodium Intake and Cause-Specific Mortality Among Predominantly Low-Income Black and White US Residents

IMPORTANCE

Epidemiologic evidence regarding the outcomes of dietary sodium intake on mortality remains limited for low-income individuals, particularly Black people.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the associations of excessive dietary sodium with all-cause and cause-specific mortality among predominantly low-income Black and White Americans.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cohort study included participants aged 40 to 79 years from the Southern Community Cohort Study who were recruited at Community Health Centers in 12 southeastern states from 2002 to 2009. Analyses were conducted between March 2022 and June 2023.

EXPOSURES

Dietary sodium intake was assessed using a validated food frequency questionnaire at baseline.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Multivariable-adjusted Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs for mortality outcomes (all-cause, cardiovascular disease [CVD], coronary heart disease [CHD], stroke, heart failure, cancer, and other) associated with sodium intake. Nonlinear associations and population-attributable risk (PAR) of the mortality burden associated with excess sodium were further assessed.

RESULTS

Among the 64 329 participants, 46 185 (71.8%) were Black, 18 144 (28.2%) were White, and 39 155 (60.9%) were female. The mean (SD) age at study enrollment was 51.3 (8.6) years for Black participants and 53.3 (9.3) years for White counterparts. Mean (SD) dietary sodium intake was 4512 (2632) mg/d in Black individuals and 4041 (2227) mg/d in White individuals; 37 482 Black individuals (81.2%) and 14 431 White individuals (79.5%) exceeded the current dietary recommendations of 2300 mg/d. During a median (IQR) follow-up of 13.8 (11.3-15.8) years, 17 811 deaths were documented, including 5701 from CVD. After adjustment for potential confounders, in Black individuals, HRs per 1000-mg increase in daily sodium intake were 1.07 (95% CI, 1.03-1.10) and 1.08 (95% CI, 1.02-1.14) for deaths from total CVD and CHD, respectively; while in White individuals, the corresponding HRs were 1.08 (95% CI, 1.02-1.14) and 1.13 (95% CI, 1.03-1.23). No significant associations were found for cancer mortality. PAR estimates suggest that sodium intake above the recommended threshold may account for 10% of total CVD, 13% of CHD, and 30% of heart failure deaths in this low-income southern population.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cohort study of 64 329 low-income Americans, nearly 80% of study participants consumed sodium exceeding the current recommended daily amount, which was associated with 10% to 30% of CVD mortality. Public health programs targeted to reduce sodium intake among this underserved population may be beneficial.

Nutrient intake and adherence to the Nordic nutrition recommendations in a Swedish cohort with abdominal obesity

BACKGROUND

The Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR) are developed to promote public health and to prevent food-related diseases such as obesity and cardiovascular diseases.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the nutrient intake and adherence to the NNR in a Swedish cohort with abdominal obesity.

DESIGN

Dietary intake data were collected using 3-day food diaries and anthropometry and clinical chemistry parameters were measured at baseline of a long-term intervention studying weight-loss management.

RESULTS

Eighty-seven subjects with abdominal obesity successfully completed a 3-day food diary. Twelve of these subjects were excluded for further analysis due to implausible low-energy reporting. The remaining 75 subjects (76% females) had mean age of 52.3 ± 10.1 years and a mean body mass index of 34.3 ± 3.1 kg/m2. Mean total fat intake (41.2 ± 7.0E%) was exceeded by 56% of the sample size compared to the maximum recommended intake (RI) of 40E%, whereas mean carbohydrate intake (40.4 ± 8.0E%) was lower than the RI (45-60E%). The intake of saturated fatty acids was high compared to the NNR with only 2 women and none of men reported intakes within the RI of <10 E%. Adherence to the RI for dietary fibre was very low (16.0% and 13.3% when expressed as g/d and g/MJ, respectively). Analyses of micronutrient intake showed lowest adherences for vitamin D and sodium.

CONCLUSIONS

The nutrient intake in our subjects compared to NNR was rather low with a high total fat intake, particularly too high intake of saturated fatty acids, high salt consumption, and very low dietary fibre and vitamin D intake. More effort is clearly needed to promote healthy dietary habits among subjects with obesity.

Dietary management of dyslipidemia

The rising burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) has made the achievement of optimal lipoprotein levels a major public health priority. As nearly a fifth of global mortality is associated with dietary factors, and recommendations have been mired in controversy, a fresh look on the available data is attempted. Well established concepts regarding nutrition and cardiometabolic health, role of macronutrients, calories, and controversial foods are discussed followed by recommendations in the Indian context. A healthy dietary pattern rather than individual foods or nutrients is emphasized, and this is generally plant based with optional consumption of dairy, eggs, and meats within the suggested limits. Suggestions/recommendations are given for consumption of individual foods, remembering that choosing appropriate replacement foods is as important as restricting unhealthy foods.

Salt: a narrative review and local policy initiatives in Israel

High salt intake is a well-known risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Some recent prospective studies have challenged the salt-CVD link. We conducted a narrative review based on a systematic search and provided a national policy update. We reviewed 14 observational prospective studies in healthy adults, reporting the association between sodium intake and excretion or reduction and CVD incidence. Validated by cohort studies, recommended sodium consumption levels (< 1.5-2 gram per day) are still relevant for the prevention of CVD in adults. We discussed the findings and policy initiatives implemented in Israel. Such initiatives included voluntary and mandatory food labeling, and culturally tailored educational programs. The Ministry of Health in Israel initiated a salt reduction policy in recent years-aimed for the future of the industry as well as the population.

Salt Sensitivity of Blood Pressure in Black People: The Need to Sort Out Ancestry Versus Epigenetic Versus Social Determinants of Its Causation

Race is a social construct, but self-identified Black people are known to have higher prevalence and worse outcomes of hypertension than White people. This may be partly due to the disproportionate incidence of salt sensitivity of blood pressure in Black people, a cardiovascular risk factor that is independent of blood pressure and has no proven therapy. We review the multiple physiological systems involved in regulation of blood pressure, discuss what, if anything is known about the differences between Black and White people in these systems and how they affect salt sensitivity of blood pressure. The contributions of genetics, epigenetics, environment, and social determinants of health are briefly touched on, with the hope of stimulating further work in the field.

The Association between Urinary Sodium-Potassium Ratio, Kidney Function, and Blood Pressure in a Cohort from the General Population

INTRODUCTION

Subclinical kidney dysfunction may contribute to salt-sensitive hypertension. We assessed the association between the urinary sodium-potassium ratio (Na/K ratio) and blood pressure (BP) in a general population cohort without diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, or treated hypertension. We investigated whether any such association was mediated by the kidney function markers measured glomerular filtration rate (mGFR), urinary albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR), and urinary epidermal growth factor-creatinine ratio (EGF-Cr).

METHODS

The Tromsø Study is a population-based study of inhabitants of the municipality of Tromsø, Northern Norway. Participants aged 50-62 years, without diabetes, chronic kidney disease, or cardiovascular disease, were invited to the substudy Renal Iohexol Clearance Survey in Tromsø 6 (RENIS-T6; 2007-09). For the present study, we excluded participants reporting the use of 1 or more antihypertensive agents, leaving 1,311 RENIS-T6 participants for a cross-sectional analysis. We measured office BP, 24-h ambulatory blood pressure (ABP), and mGFR using iohexol clearance. Na/K ratio, ACR, and EGF-Cr were measured in morning urine samples.

RESULTS

Urinary Na/K ratio was significantly associated with systolic office BP and ABP independently of cardiovascular risk factors and kidney function markers. A one-standard deviation unit increase in the Na/K ratio was associated with increased systolic ABP by 1.0 (0.3-1.6) mm Hg. Urinary Na/K ratio showed a stronger association with office BP than ABP. EGF-Cr, ACR, and mGFR did not mediate the relationship between urinary Na/K ratio and systolic BP.

CONCLUSIONS

In a representative sample of the middle-aged North-European population without diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, or treated hypertension, there was a consistent association between urinary Na/K ratio and BP. The association with BP was not mediated through kidney function measures, suggesting a relationship between a diet with high sodium and low potassium and higher BP regardless of kidney function.

Strengthening national salt reduction strategies using multiple methods process evaluations: case studies from Malaysia and Mongolia

OBJECTIVE

To understand the extent to which national salt reduction strategies in Malaysia and Mongolia were implemented and achieving their intended outcomes.

DESIGN

Multiple methods process evaluations conducted at the mid-point of strategy implementation, guided by theoretical frameworks.

SETTING

Malaysia (2018-2019) and Mongolia (2020-2021).

PARTICIPANTS

Desk-based reviews of related documents, interviews with key stakeholders (n 12 Malaysia, n 10 Mongolia), focus group discussions with health professionals in Malaysia (n 43) and health provider surveys in Mongolia (n 12).

RESULTS

Both countries generated high-quality local evidence about salt intake and levels in foods and culturally specific education resources. In Malaysia, education and reformulation activities were delivered with moderate dose (quantity) but reach among the population was low. Within 5 years, Mongolia implemented education among schools, health professionals and food producers on salt reduction with high reach, but with moderate dose (quantity) and reach among the general population. Both countries faced challenges in implementing legislative interventions (mandatory salt labelling and salt limits in packaged foods) and both could improve the scaling up of their reformulation and education activities.

CONCLUSIONS

In the first half of Malaysia's and Mongolia's strategies, both countries generated necessary evidence and education materials, mobilised health professionals to deliver salt reduction education and achieved small-scale reformulation in foods. Both subsequently should focus on implementing regulatory policies and achieving population-wide reach and impact. Process evaluations of existing salt reduction strategies can help strengthen intervention delivery, aiding achievement of WHO's 30 % reduction in salt intake by 2025 target.

Potassium - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023

Potassium (K) is an essential mineral that is necessary for normal cell and membrane function and for maintaining both fluid balance and acid-base balance. Potassium is furthermore very important for normal excitation, for example in nerves and muscle. It is widely available in several food products, with the most important dietary sources being potatoes, fruits, vegetables, cereal and cereal products, milk and dairy products, and meat and meat products. Potassium deficiency and toxicity is rare in healthy people, but dietary potassium is associated with other health outcomes. Results from observational studies have shown that a potassium intake above 3500 mg/day (90 mmol/day) is associated with a reduced risk of stroke. Similarly, intervention studies provide evidence that this level of potassium intake has a beneficial effect on blood pressure, particularly among persons with hypertension and in persons with a high sodium intake (>4 g/day, equivalent to >10 g salt/day).

Salt content of prepacked cereal-based products and their potential contribution to salt intake of the Italian adult population: Results from a simulation study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

High sodium intake is one of the main risk factors for noncommunicable diseases, and its consumption should be reduced. This study aimed to simulate changes in the daily salt intake of the Italian adult population based on consumption scenarios of prepacked cereal-based foods sold in Italy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Information on food packages was retrieved from 2893 cereal-based products. Potential changes in salt intake were simulated based on food consumption scenarios that consider the daily consumption of cereal-based products suggested in the Italian Dietary Guidelines and their current daily consumption by Italian adults. The highest salt content was retrieved in bread (median, 25th-75th percentile: 1.3, 1.1-1.4 g/100 g) and bread substitutes (1.8, 1.0-2.2 g/100 g). If the suggested daily amounts were consumed, bread would contribute to 44% of the 5 g salt/day target, whereas bread substitutes, breakfast cereals, biscuits and sweet snacks would marginally contribute (1-2%). Compared to bread with median salt content, a -44% and +10% salt intake would be observed if products within the first and the last quartile of salt content were chosen, respectively. However, considering the actual intake of Italian consumers, bread would cover 25% and bread substitutes 7% of the daily salt target.

CONCLUSION

Food labels have a pivotal role and efforts are required to encourage consumers to use them to make healthy choices. Moreover, these results may contribute to setting sodium benchmarks in cereal-based products and encourage the food industry to reduce the salt content in the products.

Adding salt to foods and hazards of microvascular, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases

BACKGROUND

We aimed to examine the association of the frequency of adding salt to foods and the hazards of the incidence and mortality risks for a range of vascular outcomes, including microvascular, cerebrovascular, and cardiovascular diseases.

METHODS

438,307 participants from the UK Biobank who completed the questionnaire on the frequency of adding salt to foods and were free of vascular disease at baseline were enrolled. Information on the frequency of adding salt to foods (do not include salt used in cooking) was collected at baseline through a touch-screen questionnaire. The primary outcomes included incident microvascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, and cardiovascular diseases, respectively. The secondary outcomes included: (1) each component of these vascular diseases (10 components in total), (2) first occurrence of fatal and non-fatal vascular diseases.

RESULTS

During a median follow-up of 12.1 years, a total of 17,169 (3.9%), 10,437 (2.4%), and 48,203 (11.0%) participants developed microvascular, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases, respectively. Overall, the hazards of incident microvascular, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases increased with the increasing frequency of adding salt to foods (all P for trend <0.001). Similar trends were found for the secondary outcomes. Moreover, the positive association of always adding salt to foods with hazard of cardiovascular diseases was stronger among current-smokers (P-interaction = 0.010), younger participants (P-interaction <0.001), and those with lower body mass index levels (P-interaction = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher frequency of adding salt to foods was associated with higher hazards of non-fatal and fatal microvascular, cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases, and each component of these vascular diseases.

Age differences in the impact of dietary salt on metabolism, blood pressure and cognitive function in male rats

The influence of salt consumption on physiological processes, especially blood pressure (BP), metabolism, and cognition, remains a topical concern. While guidelines endorse reduced salt diets, there are gaps in understanding the age-specific implications and challenges in adherence. The present study delved into the differential effects of salt intake on young adult and aged male rats over a 12-week period, using control, low-, and high-salt diets. Key metrics, such as BP, cognition, and general parameters, were monitored. Our findings revealed significant age-dependent effects of salt intake on survival rates, body weight, blood sodium, blood glucose, blood lipids, BP, heart rates, and cognition. Notably, young adult rats did not show significant sodium level changes on a high-salt diet, whereas aged rats experienced increased sodium levels even on a normal salt diet. Blood glucose levels decreased significantly in aged rats on a high-salt diet but remained stable in young adults. Aged rats had the highest survival rates on low-salt diets. Low-salt diets led to reduced BP in both age groups, more significantly in young adults. Young adult rats displayed increased BP variability on both high- and low-salt diets, while a decrease in BP variability was exclusive to aged rats on a low-salt diet. There were significant differences across age groups in short-term memory, but not in long-term memory. The study provides a nuanced understanding of the age-dependent physiological effects of salt intake, suggesting the necessity of age-specific guidelines for public health.

Dietary Salt Restriction and Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet: A Single Way to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk?

The dietary restriction of salt intake and the adhesion to Mediterranean dietary patterns are among the most recommended lifestyle modifications for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. A large amount of evidence supports these recommendations; indeed, several studies show that a higher adherence to Mediterranean dietary patterns is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Likewise, findings from observational and clinical studies suggest a causal role of excess salt intake in blood pressure increase, cardiovascular organ damage, and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases. In this context, it is also conceivable that the beneficial effects of these two dietary patterns overlap because Mediterranean dietary patterns are typically characterized by a large consumption of plant-based foods with low sodium content. However, there is little data on this issue, and heterogeneous results are available on the relationship between adherence to salt restriction and to Mediterranean dietary patterns. Thus, this short review focuses on the epidemiological and clinical evidence of the relationship between the adherence to Mediterranean dietary patterns and dietary salt restriction in the context of cardiovascular risk.

Potassium and Hypertension: A State-of-the-Art Review

Hypertension is the single most important and modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Non pharmacologic interventions, in particular dietary modifications have been established to decrease blood pressure (BP) and hypertension related adverse cardiovascular events. Among those dietary modifications, sodium intake restriction dominates guidelines from professional organizations and has garnered the greatest attention from the mainstream media. Despite guidelines and media exhortations, dietary sodium intake globally has not noticeably changed over recent decades. Meanwhile, increasing dietary potassium intake has remained on the sidelines, despite similar BP-lowering effects. New research reveals a potential mechanism of action, with the elucidation of its effect on natriuresis via the potassium switch effect. Additionally, potassium-substituted salt has been shown to not only reduce BP, but also reduce the risk for stroke and cardiovascular mortality. With these data, we argue that the focus on dietary modification should shift from a sodium-focused to a sodium- and potassium-focused approach with an emphasis on intervention strategies which can easily be implemented into clinical practice.

The Future for the Children of Tomorrow: Avoiding Salt in the First 1000 Days

It is widely known that optimal nutrition in the first 1000 days of life positively impacts the child's development throughout adulthood. In this setting, salt should not be added to complementary feeding. In developed countries, salt intake is generally higher than recommended for children. Excessive salt intake is the major determinant of hypertension and is associated with several cardiovascular outcomes. Therefore, pediatricians have a key role in raising awareness among parents to avoid salt consumption in the first 1000 days of life to ensure better health for their children. Starting from a review of the literature published in PubMed/MedLine regarding the short- and long-term consequences of salt consumption during the first 1000 days of life, our comprehensive review aims to analyze the beneficial effects of avoiding salt at such a vulnerable stage of life as the first 1000 days. Obesity, hypertension, increased salt sensitivity, high sweet drink consumption, increased mortality, and morbidity persisting in adult age represent the principal consequences of a higher salt intake during the first 1000 days of life.

Dietary quality and cardiometabolic indicators in the USA: A comparison of the Planetary Health Diet Index, Healthy Eating Index-2015, and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension

BACKGROUND

The Planetary Health Diet Index (PHDI) measures adherence to the sustainable dietary guidance proposed by the EAT-Lancet Commission on Food, Planet, Health. To justify incorporating sustainable dietary guidance such as the PHDI in the US, the index needs to be compared to health-focused dietary recommendations already in use. The objectives of this study were to compare the how the Planetary Health Diet Index (PHDI), the Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) relate to cardiometabolic risk factors.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

Participants from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2015-2018) were assigned a score for each dietary index. We examined disparities in dietary quality for each index. We used linear and logistic regression to assess the association of standardized dietary index values with waist circumference, blood pressure, HDL-C, fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and triglycerides (TG). We also dichotomized the cardiometabolic indicators using the cutoffs for the Metabolic Syndrome and used logistic regression to assess the relationship of the standardized dietary index values with binary cardiometabolic risk factors. We observed diet quality disparities for populations that were Black, Hispanic, low-income, and low-education. Higher diet quality was associated with improved continuous and binary cardiometabolic risk factors, although higher PHDI was not associated with high FPG and was the only index associated with lower TG. These patterns remained consistent in sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Sustainability-focused dietary recommendations such as the PHDI have similar cross-sectional associations with cardiometabolic risk as HEI-2015 or DASH. Health-focused dietary guidelines such as the forthcoming 2025-2030 Dietary Guidelines for Americans can consider the environmental impact of diet and still promote cardiometabolic health.

Effects of Behavioral Interventions for Salt Reduction on Blood Pressure and Urinary Sodium Excretion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Hypertension is a prevalent cardiovascular condition, with excessive sodium intake being a significant risk factor. Various studies have investigated measures to reduce salt intake, including integrated lifestyle interventions and health education. However, the effectiveness of behavioral interventions focused solely on salt reduction remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to investigate the effects of a behavioral intervention based on salt reduction on blood pressure and urinary sodium excretion. A comprehensive search of the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, EMBASE, PubMed, and Web of Science was conducted to identify relevant literature. Study and intervention characteristics were extracted for descriptive synthesis, and the quality of the included studies was assessed. A total of 10 studies, comprising 4,667 participants (3,796 adults and 871 children), were included. The interventions involved the provision of salt-restriction spoons or devices, salt-reduction education, self-monitoring devices for urinary sodium, and salt-reduction cooking classes. Meta-analysis results showed that behavioral interventions focused on salt reduction significantly reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP) (-1.17 mmHg; 95% CI, -1.86 to -0.49), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (-0.58 mmHg; 95% CI, -1.07 to -0.08) and urinary sodium excretion (-21.88 mmol/24 hours; 95% CI, -32.12 to -11.64). These findings suggest that behavioral change interventions centered on salt reduction can effectively lower salt intake levels and decrease blood pressure levels. However, to enhance effectiveness, behavioral interventions for salt reduction should be combined with other salt-reduction strategies.

Reduction and Growth Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by Use of Anti-Listerial Nisin, P100 Phages and Buffered Dry Vinegar Fermentates in Standard and Sodium-Reduced Cold-Smoked Salmon

Cold-smoked salmon are ready-to-eat products that may support the growth of pathogenic Listeria monocytogenes during their long shelf-life. Consumption of such contaminated products can cause fatal listeriosis infections. Another challenge and potential risk associated with CS salmon is their high levels of sodium salt. Excess dietary intake is associated with serious health complications. In the present study, anti-listerial bacteriocin (nisin), P100 bacteriophages (Phageguard L, PGL) and fermentates (Verdad N6, P-NDV) were evaluated as commercial bio-preservation strategies for increased control of L. monocytogenes in standard (with NaCl) and sodium-reduced (NaCl partially replaced with KCl) CS salmon. Treatments of CS salmon with nisin (1 ppm) and PGL (5 × 107 pfu/cm2) separately yielded significant initial reductions in L. monocytogenes (up to 0.7 log) compared to untreated samples. Enhanced additive reductions were achieved through the combined treatments of nisin and PGL. Fermentates in the CS salmon inhibited the growth of Listeria but did not lead to its eradication. The lowest levels of L. monocytogenes during storage were observed in nisin- and PGL-treated CS salmon containing preservative fermentates and stored at 4 °C, while enhanced growth was observed during storage at an abusive temperature of 8 °C. Evaluation of industry-processed standard and sodium-replaced CS salmon confirmed significant effects with up to 1.7 log reductions in L. monocytogenes levels after 34 days of storage of PGL- and nisin-treated CS salmon-containing fermentates. No differences in total aerobic plate counts were observed between treated (PGL and nisin) or non-treated standard and sodium-reduced CS salmon at the end of storage. The microbiota was dominated by Photobacterium, but with a shift showing dominance of Lactococcus spp. and Vagococcus spp. in fermentate-containing samples. Similar and robust reductions in L. monocytogenes can be achieved in both standard and sodium-replaced CS salmon using the bio-preservation strategies of nisin, PGL and fermentates under various and relevant processing and storage conditions.

Exploring educational inequalities in hypertension control, salt knowledge and awareness, and patient advice: insights from the WHO STEPS surveys of adults from nine Eastern European and Central Asian countries

OBJECTIVE

To inform strategies aimed at improving blood pressure (BP) control and reducing salt intake, we assessed educational inequalities in high blood pressure (HBP) awareness, treatment and control; physician's advice on salt reduction; and salt knowledge, perceptions and consumption behaviours in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.

DESIGN

Data were collected in cross-sectional, population-based nationally representative surveys, using a multi-stage clustered sampling design. Five HBP awareness, treatment and control categories were created from measured BP and hypertension medication use. Education and other variables were self-reported. Weighted multinomial mixed-effects regression models, adjusted for confounders, were used to assess differences across education categories.

SETTINGS

Nine Eastern European and Central Asian countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan).

PARTICIPANTS

Nationally representative samples of 30 455 adults aged 25-65 years.

RESULTS

HBP awareness, treatment and control varied substantially by education. The coverage of physician's advice on salt was less frequent among participants with lower education, and those with untreated HBP or unaware of their HBP. The education gradient was evident in salt knowledge and perceptions of salt intake but not in salt consumption behaviours. Improved salt knowledge and perceptions were more prevalent among participants who received physician's advice on salt reduction.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong education gradient in HBP awareness, treatment and control as well as salt knowledge and perceived intake. Enhancements in public and patient knowledge and awareness of HBP and its risk factors targeting socio-economically disadvantaged groups are urgently needed to alleviate the growing HBP burden in low- and middle-income countries.

Self-Reported Frequency of Adding Salt to Food and Risk of Incident Chronic Kidney Disease

Importance

The self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods could reflect a person's long-term salt taste preference, and salt intake has been associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Whether self-reported adding of salt to foods is associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains unknown.

Objective

To prospectively examine the association of self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods with incident CKD risk in a general population of adults.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This population-based cohort study evaluated UK Biobank participants aged 37 to 73 years who were free of CKD at baseline. Participants were enrolled from 2006 to 2010 and prospectively followed up for disease diagnosis. Data were analyzed from October 2022 to April 2023.

Exposure

Self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods, categorized into never or rarely, sometimes, usually, and always.

Main Outcome and Measure

Incident CKD cases were defined by diagnostic codes. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs were calculated by using Cox proportional hazards models. Models were adjusted for several potential confounders including age, sex, race and ethnicity, Townsend Deprivation Index, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), body mass index, (BMI), smoking status, alcohol drinking status, regular physical activity, high cholesterol, diabetes, CVD, hypertension, infectious disease, immune disease, and nephrotoxic drugs use at baseline.

Results

Within a cohort of 465 288 individuals (mean [SD] age 56.32 [8.08] years; 255 102 female participants [54.83%]; 210 186 male participants [45.17%]), participants with higher self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods were more likely to have a higher BMI, higher Townsend Deprivation Index score, and diminished baseline eGFR compared with those who reported a lower frequency of adding salt to foods. Participants who added salt to their foods were also more likely than those who did not add salt to their foods to be current smokers and have diabetes or CVD at baseline. During a median (IQR) follow-up of 11.8 (1.4) years, 22 031 incident events of CKD were documented. Higher self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods was significantly associated with a higher CKD risk after adjustment for covariates. Compared with those who reported never or rarely adding salt to foods, those who reported sometimes adding salt to food (adjusted HR [aHR], 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.07), those who reported usually adding salt to food (aHR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.02-1.11), and those who reported always adding salt to food (aHR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.05-1.18) had an increased risk of CKD (P for trend < .001). In addition, eGFR, BMI, and physical activity significantly modified the associations, which were more pronounced among participants with a higher eGFR, lower BMI, or lower level of physical activity.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of 465 288 individuals, a higher self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods was associated with a higher risk of CKD in the general population. These findings suggest that reducing the frequency of adding salt to foods at the table might be a valuable strategy to lower CKD risk in the general population.

Salt-sensitive trait of normotensive individuals is associated with altered autonomous cardiac regulation: a randomized controlled intervention study

Blood pressure (BP) responses to sodium intake show great variation, discriminating salt-sensitive (SS) from salt-resistant (SR) individuals. The pathophysiology behind salt sensitivity is still not fully elucidated. We aimed to investigate salt-induced effects on body fluid, vascular tone, and autonomic cardiac response with regard to BP change in healthy normotensive individuals. We performed a randomized crossover study in 51 normotensive individuals with normal body mass index and estimated glomerular filtration rate. Subjects followed both a low-Na+ diet (LSD, <50 mmol/day) and a high-Na+ diet (HSD, >200 mmol/day). Cardiac output, systemic vascular resistance (SVR), and cardiac autonomous activity, through heart rate variability and cross-correlation baroreflex sensitivity (xBRS), were assessed with noninvasive continuous finger BP measurements. In a subset, extracellular volume (ECV) was assessed by iohexol measurements. Subjects were characterized as SS if mean arterial pressure (MAP) increased ≥3 mmHg after HSD. After HSD, SS subjects (25%) showed a 6.1-mmHg (SD 1.9) increase in MAP. No differences between SS and SR in body weight, cardiac output, or ECV were found. SVR was positively correlated with Delta BP (r = 0.31, P = 0.03). xBRS and heart rate variability were significantly higher in SS participants compared to SR participants after both HSD and LSD. Sodium loading did not alter heart rate variability within groups. Salt sensitivity in normotensive individuals is associated with an inability to decrease SVR upon high salt intake that is accompanied by alterations in autonomous cardiac regulation, as reflected by decreased xBRS and heart rate variability. No discriminatory changes upon high salt were observed among salt-sensitive individuals in body weight and ECV.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Extracellular fluid expansion in normotensive individuals after salt loading is present in both salt-sensitive and salt-resistant individuals and is not discriminatory to the blood pressure response to sodium loading in a steady-state measurement. In normotensive subjects, the ability to sufficiently vasodilate seems to play a pivotal role in salt sensitivity. In a normotensive cohort, differences in sympathovagal balance are also present in low-salt conditions rather than being affected by salt loading. Whereas treatment and prevention of salt-sensitive blood pressure increase are mostly focused on renal sodium handling and extracellular volume regulation, our study suggests that an inability to adequately vasodilate and altered autonomous cardiac functioning are additional key players in the pathophysiology of salt-sensitive blood pressure increase.

Association between sodium and potassium intake levels and body compositions of Chinese college students

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

To investigate the relationship between sodium (Na) and potassium (K) nutritional condition and body compositions in youth aiming to give target population reasonable diet recommendations.

METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN

The cross-sectional study was conducted involving 512 healthy youth aged 18 to 31 years from universities in Beijing. Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and bioelectrical impedance analyzer (BIA) were used to collect dietary intake information and body compositions.

RESULTS

There was an increasing tendency in fat-related indicators and muscle-related indicators of the dietary Na tertile group (p <0.05). Additionally, Weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and muscle-related indicators increased with the dietary K tertile group (p <0.05). Across increasing tertiles of dietary Na intake, the odds ratio (OR) was increased significantly (p < 0.05) in fat-related indicators. On the contrary, with the increased dietary Na intake, the OR decreased (p < 0.05) in appendicular skeletal muscle mass index (ASMI) and body lean mass. As tertiles of dietary K intake increased, the OR in both skeletal muscle mass index (SMMI) and lean mass index (LMI) decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

High dietary Na is a risk factor for abnormal lipid distribution in college students. High dietary K can maintain skeletal muscle mass and reduce the risk of obesity. Na in the diet has a greater impact on the body composition of young people than K. Low dietary Na and high dietary K still need to be strengthened in science popularization and practice among more college students.

Population-level salt intake in the WHO European Region in 2022: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The WHO recommends that adults consume less than 5 g of salt per day to reduce the risk of CVD. This study aims to examine the average population daily salt intake in the fifty-three Member States of the WHO European Region.

DESIGN

A systematic review was conducted to examine the most up-to-date salt intake data for adults published between 2000 and 2022. Data were obtained from peer-reviewed and grey literature, WHO surveys and studies, as well as from national and global experts.

SETTING

The fifty-three Member States of the WHO European Region.

PARTICIPANTS

People aged 12 years or more.

RESULTS

We identified fifty studies published between 2010 and 2021. Most countries in the WHO European Region (n 52, 98 %) reported salt intake above WHO recommended maximum levels. In almost all countries (n 52, 98 %), men consume more salt than women, ranging between 5·39 and 18·51 g for men and 4·27 and 16·14 g for women. Generally, Western and Northern European countries have the lowest average salt intake, whilst Eastern European and Central Asian countries have the highest average. Forty-two percentage of the fifty-three countries (n 22) measured salt intake using 24 h urinary collection, considered the gold standard method.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that salt intakes in the WHO European Region are significantly above WHO recommended levels. Most Member States of the Region have conducted some form of population salt intake. However, methodologies to estimate salt intake are highly disparate and underestimations are very likely.

Overview of research progress on the association of dietary potassium intake with serum potassium and survival in hemodialysis patients, does dietary potassium restriction really benefit hemodialysis patients?

For the general population, increasing potassium intake can reduce the incidence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. However, since hyperkalemia is a common and life-threatening complication in maintenance hemodialysis patients, which can increase the risk of malignant arrhythmia and sudden death, the current mainstream of management for hemodialysis patients is dietary potassium restriction in order to prevent hyperkalemia. Hemodialysis patients are usually advised to reduce dietary potassium intake and limit potassium-rich fruits and vegetables, but there is limited evidence to support this approach can reduce mortality and improve quality of life. There is still no consistent conclusion on the association between dietary potassium intake and serum potassium and survival in hemodialysis patients. According to the current small observational studies, there was little or even no association between dietary potassium intake and serum potassium in hemodialysis patients when assurance of adequate dialysis and specific dietary patterns (such as the plant-based diet mentioned in the article) are being followed, and excessive dietary potassium restriction may not benefit the survival of hemodialysis patients. Additionally, when assessing the effect of diet on serum potassium, researchers should not only focus on the potassium content of foods, but also consider the type of food and the content of other nutrients. However, more large-scale, multi-center clinical trials are required to provide high-quality evidence support. Besides, further research is also needed to determine the optimal daily potassium intake and beneficial dietary patterns for hemodialysis patients.

A Review of Healthy Dietary Choices for Cardiovascular Disease: From Individual Nutrients and Foods to Dietary Patterns

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the first cause of mortality globally. Diet plays a fundamental role in cardiovascular health and is closely linked to the development of CVD. Numerous human studies have provided evidence on the relationship between diet and CVD. By discussing the available findings on the dietary components that potentially influence CVD progression and prevention, this review attempted to provide the current state of evidence on healthy dietary choices for CVD. We focus on the effects of individual macronutrients, whole food products, and dietary patterns on the risks of CVD, and the data from population-based trials, observational studies, and meta-analyses are summarized. Unhealthy dietary habits, such as high intake of saturated fatty acids, sugar-sweetened beverages, red meat, and processed meat as well as high salt intake are associated with the increased risk of CVD. Conversely, increased consumption of plant-based components such as dietary fiber, nuts, fruits, and vegetables is shown to be effective in reducing CVD risk factors. The Mediterranean diet appears to be one of the most evidence-based dietary patterns beneficial for CVD prevention. However, there is still great debate regarding whether the supplementation of vitamins and minerals confers cardioprotective benefits. This review provides new insights into the role of dietary factors that are harmful or protective in CVD, which can be adopted for improved cardiovascular health.

Global burden and influencing factors of chronic kidney disease due to type 2 diabetes in adults aged 20-59 years, 1990-2019

Population structure and lifestyles may have contributed to the epidemiological status of Chronic Kidney Disease due to Type 2 Diabetes (CKD-T2D). This study is a secondary data analysis. Using data from the Global Burden of Disease Study, we describe the changes in CKD-T2D burden and its influencing factors in the population aged 20-59 years from 1990 to 2019. Globally, the incidence, death, and Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) rate of CKD-T2D showed an upward trend and increased with age, and the burden in males was higher than that in females. Population growth and aging were important driving factors for the increase of CKD-T2D DALY burden, while high systolic blood pressure and high body-mass index were the primary attributable risk factors. High body-mass index exhibited higher contributions to high Socioeconomic Development Index (SDI) countries, whereas low SDI countries were more impacted by high systolic blood pressure. The population attributable fraction of CKD-T2D DALY caused by high body-mass index was positively correlated with SDI, while high temperature and lead exposure were negatively correlated. Therefore, strengthening disease screening for people aged 20-59 years and formulating early intervention measures based on the level of socioeconomic development may effectively alleviate the burden of CKD-T2D.