Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: what are the big questions?

Towards eco-friendly pharmaceuticals: Regulatory and policy approaches for sustainable medicines use

Objectives

The current study aimed to investigate how regulatory frameworks and policies are used to support the use of sustainable medicines within the pharmaceutical sector.

Methods

The Scopus database was searched to retrieve papers. Advanced search tool of the Scopus online database was used focused on the papers that have the search query included in their titles. Data analysis incorporated bibliometric indicators like publication counts and trends, visualized through VOSviewer software version 1.6.20.

Key findings

A total of 43 publications on Sustainable Medicines Use were found between 2000 and 2024. Leading countries in publication output on sustainable medicines use were United Kingdom, United States, India, Italy, Portugal, and Switzerland, indicating their collaborative relationships and publication volumes. A total of 92 institutions have been involved in research on Sustainable Medicines Use. Key institutions such as the Faculty of Engineering and the Laboratory for Process and Environmental Engineering, Lowell Center for Sustainable Production, Greiner Environmental Inc., and the University of Florence are prominently featured, indicating their significant contributions to research in this area. Key journals such as the "Journal of Cleaner Production," "Business Strategy and the Environment," "Chemical Engineering Transactions," "Benchmarking," and "Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering" are prominently featured. The retrieved articles have been cited an average count of 22.26. The overlay visualization created using VOSviewer suggest a shift towards exploring new drug categories, innovative approaches, and the commercial aspects of sustainability. Future research directions are likely to delve deeper into innovative methods and sustainable chemical practices (green chemistry), reflecting an emphasis on developing greener processes and products.

Conclusion

This study offers a thorough analysis of the legislative and governmental strategies promoting the use of sustainable medicine. It offers important insights for promoting sustainability in the pharmaceutical industry by pointing out gaps, defining useful frameworks, and suggesting doable solutions. Achieving sustainable pharmaceutical practices that support worldwide environmental and public health objectives requires sustained research, policy development, and international cooperation. The area needs to keep developing and implementing sustainable methods like green chemistry to decrease environmental harm and improve sustainability. Furthermore, collaborations among academia, industry, and international organizations are essential to progress and interchange effective strategies.

Multi-biomarker approach to assess the toxicity of carbamazepine, a neuropharmaceutical, in the female fish Astyanax lacustris (Teleostei: Characidae)

Carbamazepine (CBZ) is a pharmaceutical commonly used in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder and has been detected in different aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Considering its possible role in altering nervous system and reproduction, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of CBZ on molecular and cellular biomarkers of the teleost Astyanax lacustris. Results demonstrated that CBZ, in environmentally relevant concentrations (500 ng L-1) increases fshβ gene expression levels, decreases muscle protein content and hepatic LPO (500 ng L-1 and 1250 ng L-1 of CBZ). Nonetheless, no effects were observed towards enzymatic activities, steroid plasma levels and/or lipid content. Considering that A. lacustris inhabits clean and polluted environments, it is possible to suggest that animals possess a level of tolerance to stressors, allowing them to maintain reproductive functions regardless of environmental challenges.

A nationwide probabilistic risk assessment and a new insight into source-specific risk apportionment of antibiotics in eight typical river basins in China: Human health risk and ecological risk

China is the largest producer and consumer of antibiotics, a nationwide study on the contamination of antibiotics in China is urgently needed, and source apportionment towards risks associated with antibiotics is now attracting increasing attention. In this study, based on eight antibiotics at 666 sampling sites, spatial variations and probabilistic risks (human health and ecological risk) of antibiotics in eight river basins in China were analyzed. Source-specific health and ecological risk associated with antibiotics in a typical basin was apportioned quantitatively. Results showed that mean antibiotic concentration in Haihe River Basin (HaiRB) and Yellow River Basin (178.25 and 257.36 ng·L-1, respectively) was higher than other basins. In HaiRB, the contribution of livestock and poultry breeding (31.89 %) was the largest of all sources for health risk, whereas pharmaceutical wastewater (35.97 %) was the most dominant source for ecological risk. To determine the most important source for risks associated with antibiotics, the concept of risks-targeted key source was proposed, and a risks-targeted key source apportionment model was developed. Results showed that pharmaceutical wastewater should be prior controlled among all sources. The concept and apportionment model of risks-targeted key source proposed in this study are applicable and referential for related studies.

Regional disparities in PPCPs contamination of urban wastewater treatment plants: Unveiling influential factors and ecological effects

This study investigates the discharge of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) into natural waters, highlighting a significant correlation with regional human activities. Despite the complexity of assessing factors influencing PPCPs sources, it remains underexplored. By conducting an extensive literature review of seven categories of PPCPs in WWTPs across five typical regions of China, the study reveals both similarities and disparities in PPCPs composition. Correlation analysis and four machine learning algorithms are employed to identify affecting factors for PPCPs emissions. The findings reveal that regional differences in per capita load are affected by treatment scale and population served by WWTPs. Economic indicators, wastewater treatment efficiency, and population age structure correlate with specific PPCPs. The RF algorithms demonstrated reliable predictive capabilities for PPCPs concentrations, identifying significant influencing factors such as service population, treatment capacity, and economic development. Ecological risk assessments indicate that certain PPCPs, such as norfloxacin (NOR) and ofloxacin (OFL), pose high risks to algae. These findings underscore the necessity for region-specific strategies to address PPCPs challenges, considering factors like economic development, urbanization, and demographic characteristics, and provide valuable insights into PPCPs presence and ecological risks.

Multigenerational immunotoxicity assessment: A three-generation study in Drosophila melanogaster upon developmental exposure to triclosan

Triclosan (TCS) is widely used as an antibacterial agent, nevertheless, its presence in different environmental matrices and its persistent environmental nature pose a significant threat to the organism, including humans. Numerous studies showed that TCS exposure could lead to multiple toxicities, including immune dysfunction. However, whether parental TCS exposure could impair the offspring's immune response remains limited. Maintaining the immune homeostasis is imperative to neutralize the pathogen and crucial for tissue repair and the organism's survival. Thus, this study aimed to assess the multigenerational immune response of TCS using Drosophila melanogaster. TCS was administered to organisms (1.0, 10, and 100.0 μg/mL) over three generations during their developing phases, and its effect on the immunological response of the unexposed progeny was evaluated. Total circulatory hemocyte (immune cells) count, crystal cell count, phagocytic activity, clotting time, gene expression related to immune response and epigenetics, ROS generation, and cell death were assessed in the offspring. A concentration-dependent decline in total hemocytes, crystal cells, phagocytic activity, and increased clotting time in the subsequent generations was observed. Furthermore, parental TCS exposure enhanced the ROS levels, induced cell death, and altered the expression of antimicrobial peptides drosomycin, diptericin, and inflammatory genes upd1, upd2, and upd3, in the offspring's hemocytes across successive generations. The upregulation of reaper hid, and grim suggests that TCS promotes apoptotic death in the offspring's hemocytes. Notably, the increased mRNA expression of epigenetic regulators dnmt2 and g9a in the hemocytes of the offspring indicates epigenetic modifications. Further, we also observed that the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) supplementation to the parents alleviated TCS toxicity and improved immunological functions in the progeny, indicating the role of ROS in the TCS-induced multigenerational immune toxicity. This finding provides valuable insights into the potential immune risk of prenatal TCS exposure to their offspring in the higher organism.

Integrated omics analyses elucidate acetaminophen biodegradation by Enterobacter sp. APAP_BS8

Acetaminophen (APAP) is an extensively consumed over-the-counter and prescribed medication and a constituent of many active pharmaceutical compounds as well as personal care products. Its wide-scale prevalence in the environment due to inefficient treatment technologies has classified APAP as a contaminant of emerging concern. Thus, it is imperative to explore efficient and sustainable methods for remediation of contaminated environments. Considering the need for potent microbial resources, the present study deals with the evaluation of Enterobacter sp. APAP_BS8, degrading ∼88% of APAP (300 mg kg-1) in 16 days in microcosms, and accomplishes the mechanistic perspectives of degradation through in-depth insights into genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. Whole genome analysis of the 4.9 Mbp genome sequence revealed deaminated glutathione amidase, glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase, LLM class flavin-dependent oxidoreductase, and oxidoreductase genes can mediate the degradation. Increased expression of proteins corresponding to these genes was observed in proteome analysis. Molecular docking and simulations presented operative interaction and binding of the degradation pathway intermediates at the catalytic site of the identified enzymes. Analysis of the metabolome identified hydroxyquinol, 4-aminophenol, and 3-hydroxy-cis, cis-muconate as intermediates. The outcomes revealed that Enterobacter sp. APAP_BS8 exhibits potential enzymatic machinery for APAP degradation, thus providing scope for formulating sustainable bioremediation technologies.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Canadian municipal wastewater and biosolids: occurrence, fate, and time trends 2010-2013 to 2022

The concentrations of 135 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were determined in raw influent, final effluent, and treated biosolids at Canadian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to evaluate the fate of PPCPs through liquid and solids trains of typical treatment types used in Canada and to assess changes in PPCP concentrations in wastewater matrices between 2010-2013 and 2022. PPCPs dominant in influent and effluent included the antidiabetic metformin, analgesics/anti-inflammatories (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, 2-hydroxy-ibuprofen), caffeine and its metabolite (1,7 - dimethylxanthine), theophylline (a bronchodilator and metabolite of caffeine), an insect repellent (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, DEET), and iopamidol (a contrast media for X-rays). PPCPs dominant in biosolids differed from those in influent/effluent and included antibiotics (fluoroquinolones and doxycycline), antidepressants (sertraline, citalopram, and amitriptyline), a preservative and antimicrobial agent (triclosan), an antihistamine (diphenhydramine), and an antifungal (clotrimazole). These elevated concentrations in influent/effluent and biosolids reflected their use in Canadian communities. PPCPs dominant in influent/effluent had relatively low hydrophobicity whereas those in biosolids tended to be more hydrophobic, or electrostatic forces governed their sorption. Higher removal of PPCPs was generally observed at WWTPs that used biological treatment compared to primary physical/chemical treatment. PPCP concentration changes in wastewater matrices between 2010-2013 and 2022 were influenced by risk management measures, warnings, the development of new pharmaceuticals, the COVID-19 pandemic, and other factors. These time trends reflected the limited information available on PPCP use in Canada. Continued periodic monitoring of PPCPs is recommended to fill data gaps on community use and release to the environment.

A critical review of bioanalytical and clinical applications of solid phase microextraction

Studying the functions, mechanisms, and effects of drugs and other exogenous compounds on biological systems, together with investigations performed to understand biosystems better, comprises one of the most fascinating areas of research. Although classical sample preparation techniques are dominantly used to infer the relevant information from the investigated system, they fail to meet various imperative requirements, such as being environmentally friendly, applicable in-vivo, and compatible with online analysis. As a chameleon in the analytical toolbox, solid phase microextraction (SPME) is one of the best tools available for studying biological systems in unconventional ways. In this review, SPME is spotlighted, and its capability for bioanalytical applications, including drug analysis, untargeted and targeted metabolomics, in-vivo and clinical studies, is scrutinized based on studies reported in the past five years. In addition, novel extractive phases and instrumental coupling strategies developed to serve bioanalytical research are discussed to give the perspective for state-of-the-art and future developments. The literature assessment showed that SPME could act as a critical tool to investigate in-vivo biological systems and provide information about the elusive portion of the metabolome. Moreover, recently introduced miniaturized SPME probes further improved the low-invasive nature of the sampling and enabled sampling even from a single cell. The coupling of SPME directly to mass spectrometry significantly reduced the total analytical workflow and became one of the promising tools suitable for fast diagnostic purposes and drug analysis. The numerous applications and advancements reported in bioanalysis using SPME show that it will continue to be an indispensable technique in the future.

Urban stormwater discharge contributes more micropollutants to surface water in humid regions of China: Comparison with treated wastewater

Micropollutants have raised increasing concern due to their adverse effect on ecosystems and human health. So far, the effects of micropollutants in urban stormwater discharge on surface water quality or ecosystem health remains unclear. In this study, target and non-target screening methods were used to quantify and identify micropollutants in urban stormwater, wastewater, and surface water in humid regions of China. Results showed that the average concentration of micropollutants in surface waters in wet weather was 1.8 times that in dry weather. The cumulative concentrations of 143 micropollutants in samples from stormwater discharge were in the range of 490-1659 ng/L, which were comparable to or exceeded those from wastewater discharge. In terms of mass load in the studying area, stormwater discharges contained 10.8 kg of micropollutants in the month, a higher level compared to 4.58 kg in treated wastewater. Furthermore, the calculated risk quotients revealed medium to high ecological risk to aquatic organisms from substances such as telmisartan, irbesartan, 1,7-dimethylxanthine, and caffeine at ng/L concentrations, which are in typical levels in urban stormwater and surface waters in wet weathers. Our study reveals that urban stormwater discharge is an important pathway for micropollutants to surface waters, and urges for increased emphasis on, and reinforcement of, urban stormwater monitoring and control measures to minimize the transport of micropollutants to receiving waterbodies.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care product modelling: Unleashing artificial intelligence and machine learning capabilities and impact on one health and sustainable development goals

The presence of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environment poses a significant threat to environmental resources, given their potential risks to ecosystems and human health, even in trace amounts. While mathematical modelling offers a comprehensive approach to understanding the fate and transport of PPCPs in the environment, such studies have garnered less attention compared to field and laboratory investigations. This review examines the current state of modelling PPCPs, focusing on their sources, fate and transport mechanisms, and interactions within the whole ecosystem. Emphasis is placed on critically evaluating and discussing the underlying principles, ongoing advancements, and applications of diverse multimedia models across geographically distinct regions. Furthermore, the review underscores the imperative of ensuring data quality, strategically planning monitoring initiatives, and leveraging cutting-edge modelling techniques in the quest for a more holistic understanding of PPCP dynamics. It also ventures into prospective developments, particularly the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) methodologies, to enhance the precision and predictive capabilities of PPCP models. In addition, the broader implications of PPCP modelling on sustainability development goals (SDG) and the One Health approach are also discussed. GIS-based modelling offers a cost-effective approach for incorporating time-variable parameters, enabling a spatially explicit analysis of contaminant fate. Swin-Transformer model enhanced with Normalization Attention Modules demonstrated strong groundwater level estimation with an R2 of 82 %. Meanwhile, integrating Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) time-series with gravity recovery and climate experiment (GRACE) data has been pivotal for assessing water-mass changes in the Indo-Gangetic basin, enhancing PPCP fate and transport modelling accuracy, though ongoing refinement is necessary for a comprehensive understanding of PPCP dynamics. The review aims to establish a framework for the future development of a comprehensive PPCP modelling approach, aiding researchers and policymakers in effectively managing water resources impacted by increasing PPCP levels.

Ecotoxicological risk assessment of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) against different aquatic species leveraging intelligent consensus prediction and i-QSTTR modeling

The increasing presence of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in aquatic ecosystems, driven by widespread human use, poses significant risks, including acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic species. However, the scarcity of experimental toxicity data on APIs and related compounds due to the high costs, time requirements, and ethical concerns associated with animal testing hinders comprehensive risk assessment. In response, we developed quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR) and interspecies quantitative structure toxicity-toxicity relationship (i-QSTTR) models for three key aquatic species: zebrafish, water fleas, and green algae, using NOEC as an endpoint, following OECD guidelines. Algae, daphnia, and fish, recognized as standard organisms in toxicity testing, are crucial bio-indicators due to their size, transparency, adaptability, and regulatory acceptance. We used partial least squares (PLS) and multiple linear regression (MLR) methods for model development alongside machine learning techniques such as Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machines (SVM), K-nearest Neighbor (kNN), and Neural Networks (NN) to enhance the predictivity. Lipophilicity, electronegativity, unsaturation, a molecular cyclized degree in molecular structure, large fragments, aliphatic secondary C(sp2), and R-CR-R groups were identified as critical biomarkers for API toxicity. Screening of the PPDB (pesticide properties databases) and DrugBank validated the practical application of these models, offering valuable tools for regulatory decisions, safer API design, and the preservation of aquatic biodiversity.

Tackling Pharmaceutical Pollution Along the Product Lifecycle: Roles and Responsibilities for Producers, Regulators and Prescribers

Pharmaceuticals produce considerable environmental harm. The industry's resource-intensive nature, coupled with high energy costs for manufacturing and transportation, contribute to the "upstream" harms from greenhouse gas emissions and ecosystem pollution, while factors such as overprescription, overuse, and pharmaceutical waste contribute to the "downstream" harms. Effectively addressing pharmaceutical pollution requires an understanding of the key roles and responsibilities along the product lifecycle. In this commentary, we argue that three actors-producers, regulators, and prescribers-have unique and interdependent responsibilities to address these issues. Producers and market access regulators are upstream actors who can manage and mitigate harms by both shifting manufacturing, business practices, and regulatory requirements and producing transparent, robust data on environmental harms. By contrast, prescribers are downstream actors whose capacity to reduce environmental harms arises principally as a "co-benefit" of reducing inappropriate prescribing and overuse. Potentially complicating the prescriber's role are the calls for prescribers to recommend "environmentally preferable medicines". These calls continue to increase, even with the sparsity of transparent and robust data on the impact of pharmaceuticals on the environment. Recognizing the interdependencies among actors, we argue that, rather than being ineffectual, these calls draw needed attention to the critical responsibility for upstream actors to prioritize data production, reporting standards and public transparency to facilitate future downstream efforts to tackle pharmaceutical pollution.

A critical meta-analysis of predicted no effect concentrations for antimicrobial resistance selection in the environment

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the greatest threats to human health with a growing body of evidence demonstrating that selection for AMR can occur at environmental antimicrobial concentrations. Understanding the concentrations at which selection for resistance may occur is critical to help inform environmental risk assessments and highlight where mitigation strategies are required. A variety of experimental and data approaches have been used to determine these concentrations. However, there is minimal standardisation of existing approaches and no consensus on the relative merits of different methods. We conducted a semi-systematic literature review to collect and critically appraise available minimal selective concentration (MSC) and predicted no effect concentration for resistance (PNECR) data and the approaches used to derive them. There were 21 relevant articles providing 331 selective concentrations, ranging from 0.00087 µg/L (ciprofloxacin) to 2000 µg/L (carbenicillin). Meta-analyses of these data found that selective concentrations are highly compound-dependent, and only a subset of all antimicrobials have been the focus of most of the research. The variety of approaches that have been used, knowledge gaps and future research priorities were identified, as well as recommendations for those considering the selective risks of antimicrobials in the environment.

Development of tungsten-modified iron oxides to decompose an over-the-counter painkiller, Acetaminophen by activating peroxymonosulfate

Acetaminophen (APAP) is a well-known type of over-the-counter painkillers and is frequently found in surface waterbodies, causing hepatotoxicity and skin irritation. Due to its persistence and chronic effects on the environment, innovative solutions must be provided to decompose APAP, effectively. Innovative catalysts of tungsten-modified iron oxides (TF) were successfully developed via a combustion method and thoroughly characterized using SEM, TEM, XRD, XPS, a porosimetry analysis, Mössbauer spectroscopy, VSM magnetometry, and EPR. With the synthesis method, tungsten was successfully incorporated into iron oxides to form ferrites and other magnetic iron oxides with a high porosity of 19.7 % and a large surface area of 29.5 m2/g. Also, their catalytic activities for APAP degradation by activating peroxymonosulfate (PMS) were evaluated under various conditions. Under optimal conditions, TF 2.0 showed the highest APAP degradation of 95 % removal with a catalyst loading of 2.0 g/L, initial APAP concentration of 5 mg/L, PMS of 6.5 mM, and pH 2.15 at room temperature. No inhibition by solution pHs, alkalinity, and humic acid was observed for APAP degradation in this study. The catalysts also showed chemical and mechanical stability, achieving 100 % degradation of 1 mg/L APAP during reusability tests with three consecutive experiments. These results show that TFs can effectively degrade persistent contaminants of emerging concern in water, offering an impactful contribution to wastewater treatment to protect human health and the ecosystem.

Occurrence and risks of PPCPs of a typical mountainous region: Implications for sustainable urban water systems

Urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) play vital roles in the urban water cycle, ensuring access to safe drinking water and maintaining aquatic ecosystems. This study comprehensively assessed the occurrence and risks of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in urban WWTPs and DWTPs. Our findings revealed widespread PPCPs presence, with concentrations ranging from <1 ng/L to several thousand ng/L. Significant regional disparities in occurrence and composition were observed linked to population types and economic structures. Furthermore, strong correlations were observed between DWTPs and WWTPs indicating consistent transport and transformation patterns of PPCPs within the urban water cycle. Approximately two-thirds of PPCPs were degraded post-WWTP treatment, with about one-tenth persisting in drinking water following surface water dilution and purification processes. Thus, we suggested that controlling the total concentration of the five priority PPCPs in the effluent from the WWTP to <1100 ng/L have potential to reduce the environmental and health risk of PPCPs. Additionally, this research identified influential water quality parameters, such as pH, dissolved oxygen, and temperature, through redundancy analysis. This research underscores the importance of establishing emission standards to mitigate PPCP-related risks and supports sustainable urban water system advancement.

Bioaccumulation and tissue distribution of pharmaceuticals and their transformation products in fish along the pollution gradients of a wastewater-impacted river

A field study on the occurrence and distribution of forty-three pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in water and fish samples from anthropogenically impacted section of the Sava River (Croatia) was performed to estimate the importance of bioaccumulation for the environmental risk assessment of PhACs. The study was performed using a highly specific LC-MS/MS method, tailored to include the most prominent PhACs from different therapeutic categories as well as their major metabolites and/or transformation products (TPs). The results revealed a widespread occurrence of PhAC residues both in water and fish samples with a large spatial variability reflecting the distance from the dominant wastewater discharges. The most prominent PhAC categories in less polluted upstream part of the river were common psychostimulants caffeine and cotinine, therapeutic opioids and cardiovascular drugs, while in the river section affected by the local municipal and industrial wastewater inputs, antibiotic drugs became clearly predominant, especially in fish tissue samples. The apparent bioconcentration factors (BCFs) of investigated PhACs varied over several orders of magnitude, from 0.02 ± 0.01 L kg-1 for O-desmethyl tramadol in fish muscle to 784 ± 260 L kg-1 for terbinafine in fish liver, indicating rather large differences in their bioconcentration potential and affinity to different tissues, with the tissue-specific BCFs increasing in the following order: muscle < gills < gonads < heart < liver < kidneys. The bioconcentration potential of most of the PhACs included in this study was only low to moderate however moderately high BCFs of certain PhACs (e.g. sertraline, terbinafine, loratadine, diazepam and azithromycin) in some tissues should be taken into consideration when assessing their potential environmental risks. Moreover, it was shown that BCFs could be strongly affected by biotransformation in fish. Risk prioritization based on risk quotient (RQ) and ToxPi index, revealed antibiotics, in particular azithromycin, and therapeutic psychoactive substances as the most hazardous pharmaceutical contaminants in the Sava River.

Emerging organic compounds in surface and groundwater reflect the urban dynamics in sub-Saharan cities

Rapid and uncontrolled urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa has led to an increased production and expansion of synthetic chemicals, resulting in significant pollution of the aquatic environments, particularly by Emerging Organic Contaminants (EOCs). Due to the low income of the population in this region, there is often a lack of control over water and fishery resources prior to consumption. Therefore, the current study aims to use EOCs as markers of water resource quality degradation, and to assess the potential environmental risk of these compounds on some aquatic organisms. Among 120 targeted compounds, 66 were detected at 22 sites in Douala city, Cameroon, including 9 rivers and 13 groundwater samples. The detected EOCs were classified into three categories, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products (n = 55), lifestyle compounds (n = 7) and industrial compounds (n = 4). Surface water was highly impacted, with EOC total concentrations reaching 61,273 ng/L, versus 16,677 ng/L in groundwater. Contamination levels and the type of contaminants were closely linked to land use patterns in the study area. Contamination was mainly attributed to domestic, hospital and brewery's industry wastewaters, landfill and pit latrines. Consumption patterns and physicochemical properties of compounds, in particular their persistence, polarity and octanol/water gradient (Kow), explain their occurrence at high concentrations (up to μg/L) in groundwater. According to Risk Quotient (RQ) with a maximum of 93.4 in surface water and 8.5 in groundwater, about 1/3 of the identified compounds pose a serious threat to aquatic organisms, including algae, invertebrates and fish. For the first time in Central African, we revealed these high levels of water contamination by EOCs and identified the risk for the environmental health. Our study demonstrates the urgency to adopt sustainable water management strategies in large cities of the region.

Occurrence and source identification of the disinfectant didecyldimethylammonium chloride in a Japanese watershed receiving effluent from swine farms

Didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), a toxic quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) linked to multidrug resistance, is used widely in households and hospitals and on swine farms to prevent disease transmission. However, little is known about its occurrence in watersheds receiving livestock wastewaters or manure. We monitored DDAC and tracers (veterinary and human drugs) once a season over a year at 14 sites in a Japanese watershed where swine outnumbered humans 1.2 to 1 and where both swine and human wastewaters were largely treated on site. DDAC concentrations in sewage-treatment-plant effluent (33-52 ng/L) were close to, whereas those in river waters (3.6-16,672 ng/L) far exceeded, those reported worldwide. DDAC mass flows at the catchment outlet (1692-3816 μg/s) were higher than those of any of the drugs. DDAC concentrations were significantly correlated with total concentrations of veterinary drugs (Spearman's correlation coefficient, 0.95, P < 0.01), indicating that the major pathway of DDAC entry to surface waters was via effluent discharge from swine farms. Comparison of observed and predicted mass flows implied that a substantial percentage of DDAC was washed from the barn floor into swine excrement. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate QAC hotspots attributable to animal husbandry.

Pharmaceuticals in avian scavengers and other birds of prey: A toxicological perspective to improve risk assessments

Pharmaceuticals are emerging contaminants given their increasing use worldwide due to intensive food production and population growth. These compounds reach the environment through different pathways with potential negative consequences for wildlife. One dramatic example occurred in Asia, where three native vulture populations collapsed almost to extinction due to acute intoxication with diclofenac, a veterinary use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). As seen with diclofenac, avian scavengers are useful sentinels to monitor for the presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment given their position at the top of the trophic chain, and in the case of obligate avian scavengers (vultures), their intimate link to domestic animal carcasses. Unfortunately, little is known about the wider exposure and potential health and population risks of pharmaceuticals to birds of prey. Here we compile literature data regarding relevant toxicological aspects of the most important pharmaceutical groups for birds of prey in terms of toxicity: NSAIDs, antibiotics, external antiparasitics and barbiturates. This work also includes critical information for future risk assessments, including concentrations of drug residues that can remain in animal tissues after treatment, or specific pharmaceutical features that might influence their toxicity in avian scavengers and other birds of prey. We also consider future research needs in this field and provide management recommendations to prevent potential intoxication events with pharmaceuticals in these species. This review highlights the need to consider specific risk assessments regarding exposure to pharmaceuticals, especially those used in veterinary medicine, for birds of prey.

Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) exposure to fluoxetine: Bioaccumulation and biotransformation products

The significant rise in antidepressant consumption in recent years was accentuated by COVID-19 pandemic. Among these antidepressant, fluoxetine, a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI), is the most prescribed worldwide. The present study investigated its bioaccumulation and metabolization in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, generally recognized as a reliable bioindicator for assessing environmental quality and the accumulation of various contaminants. Mussels were exposed to a nominal concentration of fluoxetine (3.1 μg/L) for 28 days. Mussels were sacrificed at day 2, 7, 14 and 28 of exposure. The order of accumulation level was gills > digestive glands > soft tissues, and a regular increase in fluoxetine and norfluoxetine was observed across the various sampling days for both digestive glands and soft tissues. The calculated bioconcentration factor (BCF) ranged from 253 at D2 to 1734 at D28 for fluoxetine, and pseudo-BCF from 7 at D2 to 64 at D28 for norfluoxetine. Non-targeted approaches highlighted ten metabolites, which are reported for the first time in Mytilus, in addition to norfluoxetine. Notably, this study highlighted two phase I metabolites and one phase II metabolite previously unreported. These findings contribute to the understanding of fluoxetine accumulation and metabolism in Mytilus and enhance the knowledge of pharmaceuticals detoxification processes in non-target organisms.

Tracing residual patterns and microbial communities of pharmaceuticals and personal care products from 17 urban landfills leachate in China

Landfill leachate contributes significantly to the presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environment, and is a crucial source of contamination. To examine the occurrence of PPCPs and microbial communities, this study comprehensively investigated the concentrations of PPCPs and the abundance of microorganisms in the leachate from 17 municipal landfills across China. Generally, Lidocaine, Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate-C11, and Triclocarban, which are closely associated with human activities, exhibited a detection frequency of 100 % in the leachate. Driven by consumer demand, analgesic and antipyretic drugs have emerged as the most prominent PPCPs in leachate (accounting for 39.9 %). Notably, the Ibuprofen peaked at 56.3 μg/L. Regarding spatial distribution, the contamination of PPCPs in leachates from the eastern regions of China was significantly higher than that in other regions, owing to the level of economic development and demographic factors. Furthermore, the 16S rRNA results revealed significant differences in microbial communities among the leachates from different areas. Although the impact of PPCPs on microbial communities may not be as significant as that of environmental factors, most positive correlations between PPCPs and microorganisms indicate their potential role in providing nutrients and creating favorable conditions for microbial growth. Overall, this research offers new perspectives on the residual features of PPCPs and the microbial community structure in leachates from various regions in China.

Towards Sustainable Antibiotic Use in Aquaculture and Antimicrobial Resistance: Participatory Experts' Overview and Recommendations

Notably, 56 worldwide experts gathered for the Antimicrobial Assessment on Global Aquaculture Production (AGAP) series of workshops to (1) evaluate the current state of knowledge on antimicrobial use and identify existing gaps; (2) formulate strategies to identify ecologically relevant impact indicators and establish thresholds for assessment; (3) identify pivotal socioeconomic factors and effective governance mechanisms essential for implementing monitoring practices in aquaculture and extending them across sectors and countries for aquaculture sustainability; (4) develop pathways to enhance our comprehension between antibiotic use in aquaculture and antimicrobial resistance; and (5) explore potential antibiotic monitoring tools that can be universally adapted and implemented across region and sectors. The main outcomes were a roadmap for establishing investigation priorities on the relevant topics regarding antibiotic use in aquaculture, socioeconomic drivers for using antibiotics and behaviors that need more robust and transparent regulatory frameworks to guide farmers, training on antimicrobial use, and access to veterinarians and extension services agents for education. Overall, the workshop evidenced the power of collaboration in addressing complex global challenges to achieve sustainable aquaculture. Despite diligent efforts, some constraints may have inadvertently narrowed the possibility of having more experts and left some pertinent topics unaddressed, but they are needed in the discussion.

Pharmaceuticals in raw and treated water from drinking water treatment plants nationwide: Insights into their sources and exposure risk assessment

Due to the large amounts of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) currently being consumed and released into the environment, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of pharmaceutical pollution in both raw and treated water from full-scale drinking water treatment plants nationwide. Our investigation revealed that 30 out of 37 PPCPs were present in raw water with mean concentrations ranging from 0.01-131 ng/L. The raw water sources, surface water (ND - 147 ng/L), subsurface water (ND - 123 ng/L) and reservoir sources (ND - 135 ng/L) exhibited higher mean concentration levels of pharmaceutical residues compared to groundwater sources (ND - 1.89 ng/L). Meanwhile, in treated water, 17 of the 37 analyzed PPCPs were present with carbamazepine, clarithromycin, fluconazole, telmisartan, valsartan, and cotinine being the most common (detection frequency > 40 %), and having mean concentrations of 1.22, 0.12, 3.48, 40.1, 6.36, and 3.73 ng/L, respectively. These findings highlight that, while water treatment processes are effective, there are some persistent compounds that prove challenging to fully eliminate. Using Monte Carlo simulations, risk assessment indicated that most of these compounds are likely to have negligible impact on human health, except for the antihypertensives. Telmisartan was identified as posing the highest ecological risk (RQ > 1), warranting further investigation, and monitoring. The study concludes by prioritizing specific 14 pharmaceuticals, including telmisartan, clarithromycin, lamotrigine, cotinine, lidocaine, tramadol, and others, for future monitoring to safeguard both ecological and human health.

Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Solid and Liquid Environmental Matrices: A Review

Among the various compounds regarded as emerging contaminants (ECs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are of particular concern. Their continuous release into the environment has a negative global impact on human life. This review summarizes the sources, occurrence, persistence, consequences of exposure, and toxicity of PPCPs, and evaluates the various analytical methods used in the identification and quantification of PPCPs in a variety of solid and liquid environmental matrices. The current techniques of choice for the analysis of PPCPs are state-of-the-art liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS2). However, the complexity of the environmental matrices and the trace levels of micropollutants necessitate the use of advanced sample treatments before these instrumental analyses. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) with different sorbents is now the predominant method used for the extraction of PPCPs from environmental samples. This review also addresses the ongoing analytical method challenges, including sample clean-up and matrix effects, focusing on the occurrence, sample preparation, and analytical methods presently available for the determination of environmental residues of PPCPs. Continuous development of innovative analytical methods is essential for overcoming existing limitations and ensuring the consistency and diversity of analytical methods used in investigations of environmental multi-class compounds.

Occurrence and environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in the Mondego river (Portugal)

In this case study pharmaceuticals were analysed in the Mondego river (Portugal) and their environmental risk assessed by means of risk quotients based on an extensive retrieval of ecotoxicological data for freshwater and saltwater species. The Mondego river crosses Coimbra, the most populated city in the Portuguese Centro Region hosting a complex of regional hospitals. Environmentally relevant and prioritised pharmaceuticals were investigated in this study and their potential hazards were evaluated by conducting a separate risk assessment for the freshwater and estuary parts of the examined river section. A target analysis approach with method detection limits down to 0.01 ng L-1 was used to determine pharmaceuticals. Twenty-one prioritised target analytes out of seven therapeutical classes (antibiotics, iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM), analgesics, lipid reducers, antiepileptics, anticonvulsants, beta-blockers) were investigated by applying ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionisation source. The relative pattern of pharmaceuticals along the middle to the lower Mondego showed a quite uniform picture while an approximately 40fold increase of absolute concentrations was observed downstream of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharge of Coimbra. The most frequently measured substance groups were the ICM, represented by the non-ionic ICM iopromide (βmin: 3.03 ng L-1 - βmax: 2,810 ng L-1). Environmentally more critical substances such as carbamazepine, diclofenac, and bezafibrate, with concentrations up to and 52.6 ng L-1, 59.8 ng L-1, and 10.2 ng L-1 respectively, may potentially affect aquatic wildlife. Carbamazepine revealed elevated risk quotients (RQs >1) along the middle and lower Mondego with a maximum RQ of 53 downstream of Coimbra. Especially for saltwater species, carbamazepine and clarithromycin pose high potential risks. Especially in periods of low water discharge of the Mondego river, other pharmaceuticals as diclofenac and bezafibrate may pose additional risks downstream of the WWTP.

Collaborative adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of high concentration pharmaceutical pollutants in water using a novel dendritic fibrous nano-silica modified with chitosan and UiO-66

This study presents a novel hybrid mesoporous material for degrading drug pollutants in water. The hybrid materials, derived from UiO-66 metal-organic framework and chitosan, coated on nano-silica, showed excellent drug adsorption through hydrogen-bonding interactions and efficient photodegradation of antibiotics. The hybrid material's enhanced conductivity and reduced band gap significantly improved pollution reduction by minimising electron-hole recombination. This allows for more efficient charge transport and better light absorption, boosting the material's ability to break down pollutants. Structural and morphological analyses were conducted using various techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. Optimising the adsorption-photodegradation process involved investigating pH, catalyst dose, and radiation time. Non-linear optimisation revealed an efficiency exceeding 85 % for 400 mg/L tetracycline and doxycycline, the model antibiotics. The optimal parameters for maximal elimination were determined as pH = 4.3, hybrid mesosphere dose = 4.0 mg/mL, and radiation time = 10 min. Kinetic studies favored pseudo-second-order diffusion models over pseudo-first-order models. The hybrid mesosphere showed sustained efficiency after three cycles and performed well in real aqueous samples, removing over 80 % of each antibiotic. This study demonstrates the potential of the hybrid mesoporous material for removing pharmaceutical pollutants in water systems.

The Tissue-Specific Eco-Exposome: Differential Pharmaceutical Bioaccumulation and Disposition in Fish among Trophic Positions

Though bioaccumulation of pharmaceuticals by aquatic organisms continues to receive scientific attention, the internal disposition of these contaminants among different tissue compartments of fish species has been infrequently investigated, particularly among fish at different trophic positions. We tested a human to fish biological read-across hypothesis for contaminant disposition by examining tissue-specific accumulation in three understudied species, longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus; piscivore), gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum; planktivore/detritivore), and smallmouth buffalo (Ictiobus bubalus; benthivore), from a river influenced by municipal effluent discharge. In addition to surface water, fish plasma, and brain, gill, gonad, liver, and lateral muscle fillet tissues were analyzed via isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Caffeine and sucralose, two common effluent tracers, were quantitated at low micrograms per liter levels in surface water, while an anticonvulsant, carbamazepine, was observed at levels up to 37 ng/L. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) fluoxetine and sertraline and primary metabolites were detected in at least one tissue of all three species at low micrograms per kilogram concentrations. Within each species, brain and liver of select fish contained the highest levels of SSRIs compared to plasma and other tissues, which is generally consistent with human tissue disposition patterns. However, we observed differential accumulation among specific tissue types and species. For example, mean levels of sertraline in brain and liver tissues were 13.4 µg/kg and 1.5 µg/kg in gizzard shad and 1.3 µg/kg and 7.3 µg/kg in longnose gar, respectively. In contrast, smallmouth buffalo did not consistently accumulate SSRIs to detectable levels. Tissue-specific eco-exposome efforts are necessary to understand mechanisms associated with such marked bioaccumulation and internal dispositional differences among freshwater fish species occupying different trophic positions. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:1894-1902. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Ecological risk assessment of commonly used antibiotics in aquatic ecosystems along the coast of China

The consistent input of antibiotics into aquatic environments may pose risks to various creatures and ecosystems. However, risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic environments is frequently limited by the lack of toxicity data. To investigate the risk of commonly used antibiotics to various aquatic creatures, we focused on the distribution patterns and temporal dynamics of antibiotics in the coastal estuary area of China and performed a comprehensive ecological risk assessment for four antibiotics: erythromycin (ERY), tetracycline (TCN), norfloxacin (NOR) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX). An interspecies correlation estimation (ICE)-species sensitivity distribution (SSD) combined model was applied to predict the toxicity data of untested aquatic species, and an accurate ecological risk assessment procedure was developed to evaluate the risk level of PPCPs. The results of risk quotient assessments and probabilistic risk assessments (PRAs) suggested that four objective antibiotics in the Chinese coastal estuary area were at a low risk level. These antibiotics posed a high risk in antibiotic-related global hot spots, with probabilistic risk values for ERY, NOR, SMX, and TCN of 81.33 %, 27.08 %, 21.13 %, and 15.44 %, respectively. We applied an extrapolation method to overcome the lack of toxicity data in ecological risk assessment, enhanced the ecological reality of water quality criteria derivation and reduced the uncertainty of risk assessment for antibiotics.

Modelling lethality and teratogenicity of zebrafish (Danio rerio) due to β-lactam antibiotics employing the QSTR approach

Nowadays, β-lactam antibiotics are one of the most consumed OTC (over-the-counter) medicines in the world. Its frequent use against several infectious diseases leads to the development of antibiotic resistance. Another unavoidable risk factor of β-lactam antibiotics is environmental toxicity. Numerous terrestrial as well as aquatic species have suffered due to the excessive use of these pharmaceuticals. In this present study, we have performed a toxicity assessment employing a novel in silico technique like quantitative structure-toxicity relationships (QSTRs) to explore toxicity against zebrafish (Danio rerio). We have developed single as well as inter-endpoint QSTR models for the β-lactam compounds to explore important structural attributes responsible for their toxicity, employing median lethal (LC50) and median teratogenic concentration (TC50) as the endpoints. We have shown how an inter-endpoint model can extrapolate unavailable endpoint values with the help of other available endpoint values. To verify the models' robustness, predictivity, and goodness-of-fit, several universally popular metrics for both internal and external validation were extensively employed in model validation (single endpoint models: r2 = 0.631 - 0.75, Q2F1 = 0.607 - 0.684; inter-endpoint models: r2 = 0.768 - 0.84, Q2F1 = 0.678 - 0.76). Again, these models were engaged in the prediction of these two responses for a true external set of β-lactam molecules without response values to prove the reproducibility of these models.

Performance evaluation of a new sponge-based moving bed biofilm reactor for the removal of pharmaceutical pollutants from real wastewater

Pharmaceutical pollutants, a group of emerging contaminants, have attracted outstanding attention in recent years, and their removal from aquatic environments has been addressed. In the current study, a new sponge-based moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) was developed to remove chemical oxygen demand (COD) and the pharmaceutical compound Ibuprofen (IBU). A 30-L pilot scale MBBR was constructed, which was continuously fed from the effluent of the first clarifier of the Southern Tehran wastewater treatment plant. The controlled operational parameters were pH in the natural range, Dissolved Oxygen of 1.5-2 mg/L, average suspended mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), and mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) of 1.68 ± 0.1 g/L and 1.48 ± 0.1 g/L, respectively. The effect of hydraulic retention time (HRT) (5 h, 10 h, 15 h), filling ratio (10%, 20%, 30%), and initial IBU concentration (2 mg/L, 5 mg/L, 10 mg/L) on removal efficiencies was assessed. The findings of this study revealed a COD removal efficiency ranging from 48.9 to 96.7%, with the best removal efficiency observed at an HRT of 10 h, a filling ratio of 20%, and an initial IBU concentration of 2 mg/L. Simultaneously, the IBU removal rate ranged from 25 to 92.7%, with the highest removal efficiency observed under the same HRT and filling ratio, albeit with an initial IBU concentration of 5 mg/L. An extension of HRT from 5 to 10 h significantly improved both COD and IBU removal. However, further extension from 10 to 15 h slightly enhanced the removal efficiency of COD and IBU, and even in some cases, removal efficiency decreased. Based on the obtained results, 20% of the filling ratio was chosen as the optimum state. Increasing the initial concentration of IBU from 2 to 5 mg/L generally improved COD and IBU removal, whereas an increase from 5 to 10 mg/L caused a decline in COD and IBU removal. This study also optimized the reactor's efficiency for COD and IBU removal by using response surface methodology (RSM) with independent variables of HRT, filling ratio, and initial IBU concentration. In this regard, the quadratic model was found to be significant. Utilizing the central composite design (CCD), the optimal operating parameters at an HRT of 10 h, a filling ratio of 21%, and an initial IBU concentration of 3 mg/L were pinpointed, achieving the highest COD and IBU removal efficiencies. The present study demonstrated that sponge-based MBBR stands out as a promising technology for COD and IBU removal.

Effects of metformin on wild fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) using in-lake mesocosms in a boreal lake ecosystem

Due to its widespread use for the treatment of Type-2 diabetes, metformin is routinely detected in surface waters globally. Laboratory studies have shown that environmentally relevant concentrations of metformin can adversely affect the health of adult fish, with effects observed more frequently in males. However, the potential risk to wild fish populations has yet to be fully elucidated and remains a topic of debate. To explore whether environmentally relevant metformin exposure poses a risk to wild fish populations, the present study exposed wild fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) to 5 or 50 μg/L metformin via 2 m diameter in-lake mesocosms deployed in a natural boreal lake in Northern Ontario at the International Institute for Sustainable Development - Experimental Lakes Area (IISD-ELA). Environmental monitoring was performed at regular intervals for 8-weeks, with fish length, weight (body, liver and gonad), condition factor, gonadosomatic index, liver-somatic index, body composition (water and biomolecules) and hematocrit levels evaluated at test termination. Metabolic endpoints were also evaluated using liver, brain and muscle tissue, and gonads were evaluated histologically. Results indicate that current environmental exposure scenarios may be sufficient to adversely impact the health of wild fish populations. Adult male fish exposed to metformin had significantly reduced whole body weight and condition factor and several male fish from the high-dose metformin had oocytes in their testes. Metformin-exposed fish had altered moisture and lipid (decrease) content in their tissues. Further, brain (increase) and liver (decrease) glycogen were altered in fish exposed to high-dose metformin. To our knowledge, this study constitutes the first effort to understand metformin's effects on a wild small-bodied fish population under environmentally relevant field exposure conditions.

A computational analysis of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of ibuprofen and dibutyl phthalate on gene expression in fish

The impact of emerging pollutants such as ibuprofen and dibutyl phthalate on aquatic species is a growing concern and the need for proper assessment and evaluation of these toxicants is imperative. The objective of this study was to examine the toxicogenomic impacts of ibuprofen and dibutyl phthalate on Clarias gariepinus, a widely distributed African catfish species. Results showed that exposure to the test compounds caused significant changes in gene expression, including upregulation of growth hormone, interleukin, melatonin receptors, 17β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase, heat shock protein, doublesex, and mab-3 related transcription factor. On the other hand, expression of forkhead Box Protein L2 and cytochrome P450 was downregulated, revealing a potential to induce female to male sex reversal. The binding affinities and hydrophobic interactions of the test compounds with the reference genes were also studied, showing that ibuprofen had the lowest binding energy and the highest affinity for the docked genes. Both compounds revealed a mutual molecular interaction with amino acids residues within the catalytic cavity of the docked genes. These results provide new insights into the toxic effects of ibuprofen and dibutyl phthalate on Clarias gariepinus, contributing to a better understanding of the environmental impact of these pollutants.

Occurrence, seasonal variations, and fate of household and personal care chemicals in a wastewater treatment plant with Bacillus bioreactor process

Household and personal care chemicals (HPCCs) constitute a significant component of everyday products, with their global usage on the rise. HPCCs are eventually discharged into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). However, the behaviors of HPCCs inside the Bacillus Bioreactor (BBR) process, including their prevalence, fate, and elimination mechanisms, remain underexplored. Addressing this gap, our study delves into samples collected from a BBR process at a significant WWTP in the northeast of China. Our results spotlight the dominance of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LASs) in the influent with concentrations ranging between 238 and 789 μg/L, much higher than the other HPCC concentrations, and remained dominant in the subsequent treatment units. After treatment using the BBR process, the concentrations of HPCCs in the effluent were diminished. Examination of different treatment units underscores the grit chamber removed over 60% of higher-concentration HPCCs, while the performance of the (RBC) tank needs to be improved. Except for the ultraviolet radiation (UV)-filters, seasonal variations exert minimal impact on the concentrations and removal efficiencies of other HPCCs in the BBR process. According to the mass balance analysis, the important mechanisms for HPCC removal were biodegradation and sludge adsorption. Also, the octocrylene (OCT) concerns raised by the environmental risk assessment of the HPCCs residuals in the final effluent, indicate a moderate risk to the surrounding aquatic environment (0.1 < RQ < 1), whereas other HPCCs have a lower risk level (RQ < 0.1). Overall, the research offers new perspectives on the fate and elimination mechanisms of HPCCs throughout the BBR process.

Effects of antibiotic resistance genes on health risks of rivers in habitat of wild animals under human disturbance - based on analysis of antibiotic resistance genes and virulence factors in microbes of river sediments

Studying the ecological risk of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) to wild animals from human disturbance (HD) is an important aspect of "One Health". The highest risk level of ARGs is reflected in pathogenic antibiotic-resistant bacteria (PARBs). Metagenomics was used to analyze the characteristics of PARBs in river sediments. Then, the total contribution of ARGs and virulence factors (VFs) were assessed to determine the health risk of PARBs to the rivers. Results showed that HD increased the diversity and total relative abundance of ARG groups, as well as increased the kinds of PARBs, their total relative abundance, and their gene numbers of ARGs and VFs. The total health risks of PARBs in wild habitat group (CK group), agriculture group (WA group), grazing group (WG group), and domestic sewage group (WS group) were 0.067 × 10-3, -1.55 × 10-3, 87.93 × 10-3, and 153.53 × 10-3, respectively. Grazing and domestic sewage increased the health risk of PARBs. However, agriculture did not increase the total health risk of the rivers, but agriculture also introduced new pathogenic mechanisms and increased the range of drug resistance. More serious was the increased transfer risk of ARGs in the PARBs from the rivers to wild animals under agriculture and grazing. If the ARGs in the PARBs are transferred from the rivers under HD to wild animals, then wild animals may face severe challenges of acquiring new pathogenic mechanisms and developing resistance to antibiotics. Further analysis showed that the total phosphorus (TP) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) were related to the risk of ARGs. Therefore, controlling human emissions of TP and DON could reduce the health risk of rivers.

Time-dependent hormesis transfer from five high-frequency personal care product components to mixtures

There is potential for personal care products (PCPs) components and mixtures to induce hormesis. How hormesis is related to time and transmitted from components to mixtures are not clear. In this paper, we conducted determination of components in 16 PCP products and then ran frequent itemset mining on the component data. Five high-frequency components (HFCs), betaine (BET), 1,3-butanediol (BUT), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA), glycerol (GLO), and phenoxyethanol (POE), and 14 mixtures were identified. For each mixture system, one mixture ray with the actual mixture ratios in the products was selected. Time-dependent microplate toxicity analysis was used to test the luminescence inhibition toxicity of five HFCs and 14 mixture rays to Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 at 12 concentration gradients and eight exposure times. It is showed that BET, EDTA, POE, and 13 mixture rays containing at least one J-type component showed time-dependent hormesis. Characteristic parameters used to describe hormesis revealed that the absolute value of the maximum stimulatory effect (|Emin|) generally increased with time. Notably, mixtures composed of POE and S-type components showed greater |Emin| than POE alone at the same time. Importantly, the maximum stimulatory effective concentration, NOEC/the zero effective concentration point, and EC50 remained relatively stable. Nine hormesis transmission phenomena were observed in different mixture rays. While all mixtures primarily exhibited additive action, varying degrees of synergism and antagonism were noted in binary mixtures, with no strong synergism or antagonism observed in ternary and quaternary mixtures. These findings offer valuable insights for the screening of HFCs and their mixtures, as well as the study of hormesis transmission in personal care products.

Would Pharmacy Students Advocate Green Pharmacy Given Their Preference for Medicines With Environmental Impact?

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the preferences among university students in Gothenburg, Sweden for medicines that have a different environmental impact with respect to effect and explore to what extent having received information about pharmaceuticals' potential harm to the environment is associated with the stated preferences.

METHODS

A survey was conducted among students in different study programs at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. In all, 704 students received oral and written information about the study at the end of a lecture and were invited to take part (response rate: 83.5%). The questionnaire contained items about medicinal environmental information and 2 scenarios with fictious medicines as options for the treatment or symptom relief of minor ailments in humans.

RESULTS

Overall, 53.3% of the students (pharmacy students: 57.8%) had received information about the environmental impact of medicines, and 79.6% (pharmacy students: 80.6%) reported that they had concerns about the consequences. Twenty percent (pharmacy students: 9.0%) named the university as an information source. The students were most satisfied overall with the least effective and most environmentally friendly medicines. Consistently, pharmacy students gave higher scores to the most environmentally harmful medicines, especially compared with medical and health care students. Pharmacy students, who, to the same extent as medical and health care students had received information about medicines' environmental impact, were less likely to state environmentally friendly options with an inferior effect as their preferred choice.

CONCLUSION

Pharmacy students generally rated the medicines higher than other student groups, despite being aware of the harmful effects on the environment.

HRMS-based suspect screening of pharmaceuticals and their transformation products in multiple environmental compartments: An alternative to target analysis?

The comprehensive monitoring of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in the environment is challenging given the myriad of substances continuously discharged, the increasing number of new compounds being produced (and released), or the variety of the associated human metabolites and transformation products (TPs). Approaches such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)-based suspect analysis have emerged to overcome the drawbacks of classical target analytical methods, e.g., restricted chemical coverage. In this study, we assess the readiness of HRMS-based suspect screening to replace or rather complement target methodologies by comparing the performance of both approaches in terms of i) detection of PhACs in various environmental samples (water, sediments, biofilm, fish plasma, muscle and liver) in a field study; ii) PhACs (semi)quantification and iii) prediction of their environmental risks. Our findings revealed that target strategies alone significantly underestimate the variety of PhACs potentially impacting the environment. However, relying solely on suspect strategies can misjudge the presence and risk of low-level but potentially risky PhACs. Additionally, semiquantitative approaches, despite slightly overestimating concentrations, can provide a realistic overview of PhACs concentrations. Hence, it is recommended to adopt a combined strategy that first evaluates suspected threats and subsequently includes the relevant ones in the established target methodologies.

Does Environmental Exposure to Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Product Residues Result in the Selection of Antimicrobial-Resistant Microorganisms, and is this Important in Terms of Human Health Outcomes?

The environment plays a critical role in the development, dissemination, and transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) enter the environment through direct application to the environment and through anthropogenic pollution. Although there is a growing body of evidence defining minimal selective concentrations (MSCs) of antibiotics and the role antibiotics play in horizontal gene transfer (HGT), there is limited evidence on the role of non-antibiotic PPCPs. Existing data show associations with the development of resistance or effects on bacterial growth rather than calculating selective endpoints. Research has focused on laboratory-based systems rather than in situ experiments, although PPCP concentrations found throughout wastewater, natural water, and soil environments are often within the range of laboratory-derived MSCs and at concentrations shown to promote HGT. Increased selection and HGT of AMR by PPCPs will result in an increase in total AMR abundance in the environment, increasing the risk of exposure and potential transmission of environmental AMR to humans. There is some evidence to suggest that humans can acquire resistance from environmental settings, with water environments being the most frequently studied. However, because this is currently limited, we recommend that more evidence be gathered to understand the risk the environment plays in regard to human health. In addition, we recommend that future research efforts focus on MSC-based experiments for non-antibiotic PPCPS, particularly in situ, and investigate the effect of PPCP mixtures on AMR. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:623-636. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Aquatic Environment: How Can Regions at Risk be Identified in the Future?

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are an indispensable component of a healthy society. However, they are well-established environmental contaminants, and many can elicit biological disruption in exposed organisms. It is now a decade since the landmark review covering the top 20 questions on PPCPs in the environment (Boxall et al., 2012). In the present study we discuss key research priorities for the next 10 years with a focus on how regions where PPCPs pose the greatest risk to environmental and human health, either now or in the future, can be identified. Specifically, we discuss why this problem is of importance and review our current understanding of PPCPs in the aquatic environment. Foci include PPCP occurrence and what drives their environmental emission as well as our ability to both quantify and model their distribution. We highlight critical areas for future research including the involvement of citizen science for environmental monitoring and using modeling techniques to bridge the gap between research capacity and needs. Because prioritization of regions in need of environmental monitoring is needed to assess future/current risks, we also propose four criteria with which this may be achieved. By applying these criteria to available monitoring data, we narrow the focus on where monitoring efforts for PPCPs are most urgent. Specifically, we highlight 19 cities across Africa, Central America, the Caribbean, and Asia as priorities for future environmental monitoring and risk characterization and define four priority research questions for the next 10 years. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:575-588. © 2023 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

What Approaches Should be Used to Prioritize Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products for Research on Environmental and Human Health Exposure and Effects?

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are released from multiple anthropogenic sources and thus have a ubiquitous presence in the environment. The environmental exposure and potential effects of PPCPs on biota and humans has aroused concern within the scientific community and the public. Risk assessments are commonly conducted to evaluate the likelihood of chemicals including PPCPs that pose health threats to organisms inhabiting various environmental compartments and humans. Because thousands of PPCPs are currently used, it is impractical to assess the environmental risk of all of them due to data limitations; in addition, new PPCPs are continually being produced. Prioritization approaches, based either on exposure, hazard, or risk, provide a possible means by which those PPCPs that are likely to pose the greatest risk to the environment are identified, thereby enabling more effective allocation of resources in environmental monitoring programs in specific geographical locations and ecotoxicological investigations. In the present review, the importance and current knowledge concerning PPCP occurrence and risk are discussed and priorities for future research are proposed, in terms of PPCP exposure (e.g., optimization of exposure modeling in freshwater ecosystems and more monitoring of PPCPs in the marine environment) or hazard (e.g., differential risk of PPCPs to lower vs. higher trophic level species and risks to human health). Recommended research questions for the next 10 years are also provided, which can be answered by future studies on prioritization of PPCPs. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:488-501. © 2022 SETAC.

Predicting the Accumulation of Ionizable Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms

The extent to which chemicals bioaccumulate in aquatic and terrestrial organisms represents a fundamental consideration for chemicals management efforts intended to protect public health and the environment from pollution and waste. Many chemicals, including most pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), are ionizable across environmentally relevant pH gradients, which can affect their fate in aquatic and terrestrial systems. Existing mathematical models describe the accumulation of neutral organic chemicals and weak acids and bases in both fish and plants. Further model development is hampered, however, by a lack of mechanistic insights for PPCPs that are predominantly or permanently ionized. Targeted experiments across environmentally realistic conditions are needed to address the following questions: (1) What are the partitioning and sorption behaviors of strongly ionizing chemicals among species? (2) How does membrane permeability of ions influence bioaccumulation of PPCPs? (3) To what extent are salts and associated complexes with PPCPs influencing bioaccumulation? (4) How do biotransformation and other elimination processes vary within and among species? (5) Are bioaccumulation modeling efforts currently focused on chemicals and species with key data gaps and risk profiles? Answering these questions promises to address key sources of uncertainty for bioaccumulation modeling of ionizable PPCPs and related contaminants. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:502-512. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Do Pharmaceuticals in the Environment Pose a Risk to Wildlife?

The vast majority of knowledge related to the question "To what extent do pharmaceuticals in the environment pose a risk to wildlife?" stems from the Asian vulture crisis (>99% decline of some species of Old World vultures on the Indian subcontinent related to the veterinary use of the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug [NSAID] diclofenac). The hazard of diclofenac and other NSAIDs (carprofen, flunixin, ketoprofen, nimesulide, phenylbutazone) to vultures and other avian species has since been demonstrated; indeed, only meloxicam and tolfenamic acid have been found to be vulture-safe. Since diclofenac was approved for veterinary use in Spain and Italy in 2013 (home to ~95% of vultures in Europe), the risk of NSAIDs to vultures in these countries has become one of the principal concerns related to pharmaceuticals and wildlife. Many of the other bodies of work on pharmaceutical exposure, hazard and risk to wildlife also relate to adverse effects in birds (e.g., poisoning of scavenging birds in North America and Europe from animal carcasses containing pentobarbital, secondary and even tertiary poisoning of birds exposed to pesticides used in veterinary medicine as cattle dips, migratory birds as a vector for the transfer of antimicrobial and antifungal resistance). Although there is some research related to endocrine disruption in reptiles and potential exposure of aerial insectivores, there remain numerous knowledge gaps for risk posed by pharmaceuticals to amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Developing noninvasive sampling techniques and new approach methodologies (e.g., genomic, in vitro, in silico, in ovo) is important if we are to bridge the current knowledge gaps without extensive vertebrate testing. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:595-610. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.

Molecular interactions of paraben family of pollutants with embryonic neuronal proteins of Danio rerio: A step ahead in computational toxicity towards adverse outcome pathway

The paraben family of endocrine disruptors exhibit persistent behaviours in aquatic matrices, having bio-accumulative effects and necessitating toxicity analysis and safe use, as well as prevention of food web penetration. In this study, the toxicity effects of 9 different parabens (Methyl, Ethyl, Propyl, Butyl, Heptyl, Isopropyl, Isobutyl, benzyl parabens and p-hydroxybenzoic acid) were studied against 17 neuronal proteins (Neurog1, Ascl1a, DLA, Syn2a, Ntn1a, Pitx2, and SoxB1, Her/Hes, Zic family) expressed during the early embryonic developmental stage of Danio rerio. The neuronal genes were selected as a biomarker to study the inhibitory effects on the cascade of genes expressed in the early developmental stage. The study uses trRossetta software to predict protein structures of neuronal genes, followed by structural refinement, energy minimisation, and active site prediction, evaluated using energy value, RC plot and ERRAT scores of PROCHECK and ERRAT programs. Compared to raw structures, highly confident predicted structures and quality scores were observed for refined protein with few exceptions. Based on the polarity and charge of the aminoacids, the probable pockets were identified using active site prediction, which were then used for molecular docking analysis. Further, the ADMET analysis, ligand likeliness and toxicological test revealed the paraben family of compounds as one of the most susceptible toxic and mutagenic compounds. The molecular docking results showed an interesting pattern of increasing binding affinity with increase in the carbon chains of paraben molecules. Benzyl Paraben showed higher binding affinities across all 17 neuronal proteins. Finally, gene co-occurrence/co-expression and protein-protein interaction studies using the STRING database depict that all proteins are functionally related and play essential roles in standard biological processes or pathways, conserved and expressed in diverse organisms. The interaction between paraben compounds and neuronal genes indicates high risks of inhibiting reactions in embryonic stages, emphasising the need for effective treatment measures and strict regulations.

Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: No Answers Yet to the Major Questions

The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment, especially the aquatic environment, has received a lot of attention in the last 20 plus years. Despite that attention, the two most important questions regarding pharmaceuticals in the environment still cannot be answered. It is not possible to put the threat posed by pharmaceuticals into perspective with the many other threats (stressors) facing aquatic organisms, such as low flows due to over-abstraction of water, inhibited passage of migratory species due to dams and weirs, diseases, algal blooms causing low oxygen levels and releasing toxins, eutrophication, climate change, and so on. Nor is it possible to identify which pharmaceuticals are of concern and which are not. Not only can these key questions not be answered presently, they have received extremely little attention, despite being identified 10 years ago as the two most important questions to answer. That situation must change if resources and expertise are to be effectively used to protect the environment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:589-594. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Regulatory Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Current Practice and Future Priorities

How can data on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environment and the quality of ecosystems exposed to PPCPs be used to determine whether current regulatory risk assessment schemes are effective? This is one of 20 "big questions" concerning PPCPs in the environment posed in a landmark review paper in 2012. Ten years later, we review the developments around this question, focusing on the first P in PPCPs, that is, pharmaceuticals, or more specifically the active ingredients included in them (active pharmaceutical ingredients, APIs). We illustrate how extensive data on both the occurrence of APIs and the ecotoxicological sensitivity of aquatic species to them can be used in a retrospective risk assessment. In the Netherlands, current regulatory risk assessment schemes offer insufficient protection against direct ecotoxicological effects from APIs: the toxic pressure exerted by the 39 APIs included in our study exceeds the policy-related protective threshold of 0.05 (the "95%-protection level") in at least 13% of sampled surface waters. In general, anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic products (e.g., diclofenac, ibuprofen) contributed most to the overall toxic pressure, followed by sex hormones and modulators of the genital system (e.g., ethinylestradiol) and psychoanaleptics (e.g., caffeine). We formulated three open questions for future research. The first relates to improving the availability and accessibility of good-quality ecotoxicity data on pharmaceuticals for the global scientific, regulatory, and general public. The second relates to the adaptation of regulatory risk assessment frameworks for developing regions of the world. The third relates to the integration of effect-based and ecological approaches into regulatory risk assessment practice. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:611-622. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.