Evaluation Tool Development for Food Literacy Programs

Cooking readiness in stressful times: Navigating food choices for a healthier future

Food choice is a complex function of preferences and combines a myriad of food-related factors, such as biological, economic, physical, social, and psychological determinants. People's food choices directly affect their health and can have both positive and negative outcomes. For instance, the pandemic may have presented an opportunity to cook more at home, eventually resulting in dietary benefits, health improvements, and reduced stress. Conversely, adverse behavioral, psychological, and physical outcomes, such as overeating, have also been associated with stressful situations. Therefore, the aim of this study is twofold: first, to propose "cooking readiness" as a higher-order construct, in which 'food literacy' and 'cooking skills' correspond to the capability, 'cooking attitudes' reflect the motivation, and the variable 'COVID-19 restrictions' represent the opportunity for consumers to cook and consume healthier food at home. Furthermore, as the pandemic scenario was imposed and caused changes in mental health and emotional mood, the second objective is to explore the relationship between cooking readiness and stress levels in consumers' choices for nutritionally recommended (or non-recommended) food. Cross-country data (Brazil, Denmark) from 1074 consumers was analyzed using structural equation modeling. This study confirms cooking readiness as a higher-order construct, integrating food literacy, cooking skills, and cooking attitudes with pandemic-induced opportunities. Cooking readiness is crucial in promoting healthier eating habits, particularly in Brazil. The stronger tradition of healthier eating in Denmark may mitigate the impact of cooking readiness on reducing non-recommended food consumption. The varying effects of stress on food choices between the two countries underscore the need for tailored public health strategies that consider cultural differences and existing dietary habits. Promoting cooking skills and food literacy, particularly in times of crisis, can be instrumental in supporting healthier food choices and improving public health.

Development, validity, and reliability assessment of the Canadian Food Literacy Measure

Food literacy is a growing area of interest given its potential to support healthy and sustainable diets. Most existing food literacy measures focus on nutrition and food skills but fail to address food systems and socio-environmental aspects of food literacy. Further, measures developed and tested in the Canadian context are lacking. The objective of this project was to develop and test the validity and reliability of a brief self-administered measure, in French and English, designed to assess multiple dimensions of food literacy among adults living in Canada. The 23-item Canadian Food Literacy Measure was developed through an iterative process that included assessment of face and content validity through expert review (n = 20) and cognitive interviews (n = 20) and construct validity and reliability, i.e., internal consistency through an online survey (n = 154). The results indicate that the measure is well understood by both English- and French-speaking adults. The measure's construct validity is demonstrated by the observed differences in total scores in hypothesized directions by gender (p = 0.003), age (p = 0.007), education level (p = 0.002), health literacy (p < 0.001) and smoking status (p = 0.001), and the significant positive correlation (r = 0.29; p = 0.002) between total scores and fruit and vegetable intake. The measure also has high internal consistency with a Cronbach's coefficient alpha of 0.80. This measure can be used in surveillance studies to provide insight into the food literacy of adults living in Canada and in epidemiologic research that aims to explore how food literacy is associated with a variety of health outcomes.

Analysing the behaviour change techniques in an effective food literacy program to inform future program design

AIM

Food literacy programs aim to improve food related skills and knowledge and are selected Governments as a strategy to address dietary intakes at a community level. The purpose of this research is to identify behaviour change techniques in a food literacy program, which were assessed by the achievement of participant goals related to food literacy and dietary behaviour changes.

METHODS

Consensus methods were applied to map behaviour change techniques to an adult food literacy program. A second phase investigation applied content analysis of participant process evaluation data (collected between 2016 and June 2021) to align target behaviours and behaviour change techniques. Chi-square and ANCOVA were used to assess the statistically significant demographic characteristics, food literacy, and dietary behaviour scores for participants who set goals and recorded changes.

RESULTS

A total of 4697 program participants provided evaluation data from the 4-week food literacy program. Participants who set goals and made changes were statistically more likely to have higher food literacy factor scores (p < 0.001) and fruit serves (p = 0.004). Statistical analysis showed that participants were more likely to have set goals and recorded changes if they were female (p < 0.001), older (p < 0.001), higher education level (p < 0.001), had a higher socioeconomic status (p = 0.049), lived with children (p = 0.014), were born in Australia (p = 0.019), or did not identify as Indigenous (p < 0.001). The behaviour change technique mapping process identified nine techniques used weekly and a total of 22 techniques used over the entire 4 week program curriculum.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first Australian study to link the contribution of behaviour change techniques to food literacy and dietary behaviour change in an established effective food literacy program. Knowing the behaviour change techniques associated with effective programs will facilitate replication of effective interventions.

A Scoping Review of Food Literacy Interventions

INTRODUCTION

Food literacy (FL) is a rapidly emerging area of research that provides a framework to explain the interplay of food-related skills, beliefs, knowledge and practises that contribute to nutritional health and wellbeing. This review is the first to scope the current literature for FL interventions, assess their characteristics against the components provided in the most widely cited definition of FL. and describe their characteristics to identify gaps in the literature.

METHODS

This review scopes original articles describing FL interventions in the Medline, CINAHL, ProQuest Education, Web of Science and AMED databases up to August 2023.

RESULTS

Despite the heterogeneity between all seven included studies, they all demonstrated some improvements in their FL outcome measures alongside dietary intake (DI), with the greatest improvements seen in studies that employed a FL theoretical framework in intervention design. Populations at high risk of food insecurity, such as university students and people living in disadvantaged areas, were the main targets of FL interventions.

CONCLUSION

The minimal inclusion of FL theory amongst interventions led to an overall poor coverage of essential FL components, indicating researchers should aim to design future FL interventions with a FL theoretical framework.

Examining the effectiveness of food literacy interventions in improving food literacy behavior and healthy eating among adults belonging to different socioeconomic groups- a systematic scoping review

BACKGROUND

In high-income countries, significant diet-related health inequalities exist between people of different socioeconomic backgrounds. Individuals who face socioeconomic challenges are less likely to meet dietary guidelines, leading to increased incidence and prevalence of morbidity and mortality associated with dietary risk factors. To promote healthy eating, strategies may focus on individual-level factors (e.g., knowledge, skills, and behavior) along with broader societal factors (e.g., social determinants of health). The concept of food literacy is considered an individual-level factor and has been framed as a skill set that individuals must possess to effectively navigate the complexities of the modern food system. Food literacy interventions can be a complementary but effective tool for encouraging healthy eating behavior among diverse populations, including those facing socioeconomic disadvantage. However, there is limited evidence to guide the design of food literacy intervention for vulnerable population groups. In the process of developing an ideal portfolio of solutions and strategies to promote food literacy and healthy eating for people experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage, this systematic scoping review aims to comprehensively examine the effects of food literacy interventions on promoting food literacy behavior and healthy eating in adults (18 years and above) from various socioeconomic groups (SEGs) in high-income countries.

METHODS

The review includes both qualitative and quantitative papers obtained from academic databases, including MEDLINE (via EBSCOhost), Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. In addition to the electronic search, manual forward and backward citation searching will be conducted to identify additional relevant papers. Food literacy interventions will be evaluated across four domains: planning and management, selection, preparation, and consumption. Papers included in the review will be analyzed for process, impact, and outcome evaluation. The main outcome of a food literacy intervention is the modification in eating behavior, while the mechanism for this action will be through impact measure of food literacy behaviors. Implementation factors will be extracted for process evaluation. This review will also include a range of dietary behavior measures, such as diet quality index and dietary intake indicator. The screening process for all citations, full-text articles, and abstract data will be carried out by two reviewers independently. In case of any potential conflicts, they will be resolved through discussion. The quality of quantitative studies will be reviewed using the JBI critical appraisal checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies. The "Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Studies (COREQ)" will be used to report on the quality of qualitative papers.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/TPNKU.

Effectiveness of a food literacy and positive feeding practices program for parents of 0 to 5 years olds in Western Australia

ISSUE ADDRESSED

Lifelong eating behaviours are established in childhood. Improving parents' food literacy skills is essential, as parents play a fundamental role in establishing their children's healthy eating behaviours and preferences for nutritious food. This paper describes the development and evaluation of an innovative program that combines food literacy with positive parent feeding practices, targeting parents in disadvantaged areas of Western Australia.

METHODS

The Food Sensations® for Parents five-week program was delivered to participants from community-based parenting organisations during 2020 and 2021. Formative research and a pre-post evaluation design were adopted.

RESULTS

Pre- and post-evaluation data were collected from 224 participants (96% female). There was a statistically significant improvement in the mean score for 13 food literacy behaviours, 10 positive parenting feeding practices and a mean increase in parents' daily vegetable intake of 1/3 serve. Participants reported significantly greater net improvements in food literacy behaviours than feeding practices, the largest being the Use a nutrition information panel to make food choices (33.1%). Multivariate logistic regression analyses found English as a first language, being older than 35, and from a higher Socio-Economic Index for Areas resulted in a higher likelihood of positive changes in behaviours and practices.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that the program is effective in improving the frequency of use of food literacy behaviours, positive parenting feeding practices and increasing vegetable consumption. SO WHAT?: Analysing improvements in food literacy behaviours and feeding practices provides clarity on what change can be expected with a five-week parent program.

The Relationship of Food Literacy and Sustainable Consumption Behaviors with Anthropometric Measurements during the Covid-19 Pandemic Period: A Sample from Turkey

AIM

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of food literacy and sustainable consumption behaviors on nutritional status during the pandemic in Turkey.

METHODS

The study was conducted between May and July 2021 with a questionnaire delivered in a digital environment (social media, Twitter/Facebook/Instagram) to 200 volunteer adults aged 20-65. With this questionnaire form, sociodemographic characteristics, general information, and consumer behaviors of the individuals were obtained. Anthropometric measurements (height, body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, hip circumference, waist/hip ratio, and waist/height ratio) of the individuals were recorded online as self-report. The Self Perceived Food Literacy (SPFL) Scale was administered to measure nutritional literacy levels. To measure the sustainable consumption behaviors of the individuals, the Sustainable Consumption Behavior (SCB) Scale was administered.

RESULTS

We found that 87.2% of women and 40% of men had heard of sustainable nutrition before (p < 0.001). The mean total score of SCB was statistically significantly higher in women than in men (3.1 ± 0.48 in women, 2.9 ± 0.69 in men, p < 0.05). The mean score of SPFL was 3.31 ± 0.275 in women, while it was 3.05 ± 0.395 in men. There was a statistically significant relationship between SPFL mean scores and gender (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

There was a statistically significant negative relationship between SPFL score and BMI, body weight, and waist/hip ratio. There was a statistically significant negative relationship between the SCB and waist/hip ratio. Food literacy and sustainable consumption behaviors are associated with anthropometric measurements. Sustainable nutrition, sustainable consumption behaviors, and food literacy should be considered as a whole. Trainings should be increased to raise awareness of individuals about food literacy.

Household Food Waste Intervention Is Feasible, Acceptable, and Effective

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of this study was to assess the feasibility and acceptability of Weeknight Supper Savers, a family-based intervention designed to promote meal preparation and food waste reduction.

METHODS

The 4-week program was piloted using a single-arm, prepost design. Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, the intervention included a chef-led online cooking class, a food waste toolkit, and 4 text messages/wk. Postintervention surveys were used to assess the feasibility and acceptability of the interventions.

RESULTS

Eighteen families (95%) attended their scheduled cooking class. All parents who completed the survey (17 mothers and 12 fathers) reported being satisfied with the overall program, the cooking class, and the toolkit. Approximately 73% of the children (n = 21) reported being satisfied with the overall program, and 77% reported being satisfied with the cooking class and the toolkit.

CONCLUSIONS

The intervention was feasible and well-received by families. Results could help inform future public health programs focused on reducing household food waste.

Development of the Canadian Eating Practices Screener to assess eating practices based on 2019 Canada's Food Guide recommendations

In 2019, Health Canada released a new iteration of Canada's Food Guide (2019-CFG), which, for the first time, highlighted recommendations regarding eating practices, i.e., guidance on where, when, why, and how to eat. The objective of this study was to develop a brief self-administered screener to assess eating practices recommended in the 2019-CFG among adults aged 18-65 years. Development of the screener items was informed by a review of existing tools and mapping of items onto 2019-CFG recommendations. Face and content validity were assessed with experts in public health nutrition and/or dietary assessment (n = 16) and individuals from Government of Canada (n = 14). Cognitive interviews were conducted with English-speaking (n = 16) and French-speaking (n = 16) adults living in Canada to assess face validity and understanding of the screener items. While some modifications were identified to improve relevance or clarity, overall, the screener items were found to be relevant, well-constructed, and clearly worded. This comprehensive process resulted in the Canadian Eating Practices Screener/Questionnaire court canadien sur les pratiques alimentaires, which includes 21 items that assess eating practices recommended in the 2019-CFG. This screener can facilitate monitoring and surveillance efforts of the 2019-CFG eating practices as well as research exploring how these practices are associated with various health outcomes.

The contribution of Australian fathers in getting food on the table among families with young children

OBJECTIVE

To explore how fathers with young children contributed to healthy home food provisioning and the factors enabling or inhibiting their involvement in family food tasks.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study using purpose-designed online survey. The survey assessed the level of responsibilities and practices in family food tasks, food agency (Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale), and use of resources to support involvement in family food tasks. Data collection took place over 3 weeks in November-December 2020 when various COVID-19-related restrictions were in place. Descriptive and regression analyses were used to assess psychosocial factors influencing responsibilities in family food tasks and food agency.

SETTING

Online survey.

PARTICIPANTS

Included in the analysis were 435 Australian fathers with children aged under 5 years.

RESULTS

Between 75 and 77 % of fathers in this study reported having at least half of the responsibilities in meal planning, shopping, and cooking. Health was frequently considered when deciding what to eat, but few used nutrition or food labels when shopping, tried new recipes or modified recipes to make them healthier. Involvement in family food tasks was promoted by a higher food agency, but time spent in employment was a significant barrier to reported food agency and greater involvement in food tasks. There was a high interest in resources to support healthy home food provisioning.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest the need to consider father-specific strategies to overcome time barriers and opportunities to enhance their capabilities for healthy home food provisioning.

A scoping review of food and nutrition literacy programs

The impact of food literacy (FL) and nutrition literacy (NL) programs on lifestyles and health is recognized in the literature, yet few studies systematize it. This study aims to deepen the understanding of FL/NL from the characterization of programs in terms of (i) theoretical foundations, conceptualization and measuring instruments; (ii) characterization of the FL/NL programs and results and (iii) limitations and future directions declared. A scoping review of original articles addressing FL/NL programs from the Web of Science, Scopus and PubMed databases published between 2015 and 2023. There was a somewhat restricted view of the construct and the absence of a clear boundary between FL and NL. Half of the studies reported theoretical foundations. The most used model was Social Cognitive Learning Theory. More significant development of programs was observed in Australia, using quasi-experimental designs. Most of the studies informed positive results. Limitations of the studies related to the sampling process, absence of a control group and lack of follow-up. It is suggested that long-term interventions consider economic, social and cultural factors. Despite that theoretical and empirical aspects should be revised, FL/NL programs are a suitable strategy to mitigate the social and health effects of inadequate nutrition.

The level of food literacy and its association with food intake and obesity status among Seoul citizens: results from Seoul Food Survey 2021

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Food literacy (FL) is a crucial skill for selecting sustainable and healthy food options, necessitating the identification of vulnerable groups in the community using valid measurement tools. Identifying weak domains in FL is essential for enhancing the overall FL. This study examined the FL levels of Seoul citizens based on their sociodemographic characteristics and assessed the relationship between FL, food intake, and weight status.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This study utilized the data from the Seoul Food Survey, a cross-sectional study employing representative samples of Seoul citizens. Data collection occurred from September to October 2021, with 4,039 citizens aged 18 yrs and above participating in face-to-face surveys. Thirty-three FL items were assessed, comprising 14 items in the nutrition and safety (NS) domain, eight items in the cultural and relational (CR) domain, and 11 items in the socio-ecological (SE) domain. In addition, data on food intake sufficiency and obesity status were collected. The descriptive statistics, t-tests, analysis of variance, and logistic regression analysis were used for analysis.

RESULTS

Men, students, young adults, older citizens, and people experiencing food insecurity had the lowest scores for all the FL domains. The highest quartile group of NS scores had a higher probability of consuming adequate servings of vegetables and fruits, with significant linear trends observed (P for trend < 0.05). In all three FL domains, the odds ratio for obesity was significantly lower in the groups with high FL scores (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

A close relationship was observed between low FL, obesity, and food intake, even after controlling for other covariates. Vulnerable groups with low FL were also identified. Therefore, it is essential to develop programs to improve FL and the health and well-being of these groups.

Determining the Effectiveness of an Adult Food Literacy Program Using a Matched Control Group

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of Food Sensations for Adults on food literacy behaviors and selected dietary behaviors.

METHODS

A quasi-experimental design using preprogram and postprogram questionnaires over 4 weeks with a control group (n = 75) matched for sex, age group, and socioeconomic disadvantage to program participants (n = 867). General linear mixed models assessed change in food literacy behavior frequency in 3 self-reported domains (plan and manage, selection, and preparation) and fruit and vegetable servings.

RESULTS

Postprogram, Food Sensations for Adults participants reported modest yet statistically significant score improvements in 2 of the 3 domains of food literacy behaviors in the plan and manage (12.4%) and preparation (9.8%) domains, as well as servings of vegetables (22.6% or 0.5 servings).

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Quasi-experimental designs indicate food literacy programs can produce modest short-term changes across a range of food literacy and dietary behaviors.

Context matters-the phased development of an adaptable food literacy intervention: Up for Cooking

Adapting interventions to the context increases the impact and sustainability of interventions. Literature acknowledges the need to adapt existing interventions and that these adaptations should be clearly reported. However, little is known about how to incorporate adaptation from the beginning. This paper argues that interventions should be developed and adaptations should be made using an ongoing non-linear approach. An action-oriented research approach with feedback loops is proposed. We illustrate this with the development of a food literacy intervention 'Up for Cooking' (Dutch: Zin in Koken) and present lessons learned in developing, implementing and studying such adaptable interventions. Interventions should clearly define and differentiate the intervention function and form. Implementers, in turn, should be encouraged to tailor interventions within a form that fits with a specific context. Sufficient time, continuous adaptation based on co-creation, feedback loops and interdisciplinary collaboration are important prerequisites for the development of adaptable interventions.

Assessing Foods and Nutrition Competencies in Youth

OBJECTIVE

To develop a comprehensive assessment of foods and nutrition competencies with robust psychometric properties for the 4-H Foods and Nutrition Project.

DESIGN

The Assessment of Foods and Nutrition Competencies in Adolescents was developed through a systematic measurement development process by a group of researchers, practitioners, and program alumni familiar with the theory of change and implementation procedures of the 4-H Foods and Nutrition Project.

SETTING

Recruitment was conducted through the 4-H Online membership management program for 4-H members throughout Texas to complete online survey questions.

PARTICIPANTS

Four hundred twenty-four Texas 4-H members in grades 6-12.

VARIABLES MEASURED

Survey items addressing 6 specific foods and nutrition competencies dimensions.

ANALYSIS

A series of reliability and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to assess the psychometric qualities of Assessment of Foods and Nutrition Competencies in Adolescents.

RESULTS

Assessment of Foods and Nutrition Competencies in Adolescents was found to possess good factor structure, reliability, validity, and measurement invariance. Program participants showed an advantage over nonparticipants in most core foods and nutrition competencies concerning positive behavioral changes.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Assessment of Foods and Nutrition Competencies in Adolescents comprehensively captures the core competencies promoted by the 4-H Foods and Nutrition Project and possesses the psychometric qualities critical for program evaluation. A more diversity-focused outreach effort is needed for inclusive youth programs like the 4-H Foods and Nutrition Project to benefit the general youth population.

Perceived challenges and strategies to achieve Canada's Food Guide recommendation to "Cook more often": Findings from parents of young children

Unhealthy diets are detrimental to health, but home meal preparation is associated with better diet quality. Among a sample of parents of children aged 2-12, this study aimed to 1) explore perceived challenges and strategies to meeting the 2019 Canada's Food Guide recommendation of "Cook more often". From October 2019 to January 2020, 8 focus groups were conducted with 40 parents (73% mothers; 78% white) from Southwestern Ontario, Canada. Sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. A hybrid thematic approach with inductive and deductive data analysis was used. Reported challenges included time constraints, picky eating, lacking cooking skills, high price of some fresh ingredients, school restrictions on meals at school, and the influence of children's peers on food choices, mainly unhealthy snacks. Reported strategies to mitigate some challenges included planning and preparing meals ahead of time, using technology or services to make meal planning and grocery shopping more convenient, using devices and kitchen instruments, such as Crockpot®, to make cooking faster, receiving help from spouse or child(ren), and acknowledging that foods perceived as less healthful in moderation can be included in meal preparation. These findings can help inform interventions and educational campaigns to support cooking among families with young children.

Assessing the effectiveness of a 4-week online intervention on food literacy and fruit and vegetable consumption in Australian adults: The online MedDiet challenge

Australians fail to meet the daily recommended two and five serves of fruit and vegetable respectively, which increases mortality risk for non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of an online intervention delivered through social media on food literacy and fruit and vegetable consumption in Australian adults. In a pre-post single group experimental study, 29 participants completed the "online MedDiet challenge", a four-week intervention delivered via Facebook. Infographics, recipes and informational videos aligned with food literacy concepts related to the Mediterranean Diet were shared with participants. Outcome measures included a validated food literacy questionnaire with two questions from the National Nutrition Survey to record fruit and vegetable consumption. The mean age of participants was 52 years (range: 25-67 years). Post intervention, food literacy improved between 21%-45% across each survey component. Participants also reported an increase in fruit and vegetable consumption by 0.6 and 1.3 serves per day (p < 0.05) respectively. Social media holds potential for increasing fruit and vegetable consumption in adults through food literacy. Future research should focus on longer studies and larger cohorts to confirm that food literacy plays a key component to maintain sustainability of such interventions.

Food Literacy Evaluation Questionnaire (Chinese version, FLEQ-Ch): a validity and cross-cultural adaptation

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a Food Literacy Evaluation Questionnaire Chinese Version (FLEQ-Ch) through a cross-cultural validation of the original questionnaire.

DESIGN

This was an observational, cross-sectional study undertaken in two phases: (1) translation and cross-culture adaptation, and (2) psychometric evaluation.

SAMPLE

A total of 509 residents in Yangzhou City, China were enrolled in this study.

METHODS

A translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the FLEQ in Chinese was developed. The psychometric characteristics of FLEQ-Ch were analyzed for internal consistency, content validity, construct validity and discriminant validity.

RESULTS

The KMO value of the questionnaire was 0.901 and the approximate chi-square value of Bartlett's sphericity test was 8132.538. The ranges of the Cronbach's α coefficient and the test-retest coefficient of the total questionnaire and three dimensions were 0.869-0.955 and 0.941-0.952, respectively. The value of content validity index of the total questionnaire was 0.945. Construct validity: (1) Aggregation coefficient was between 0.828 and 0.955; (2) Discrimination coefficient was between 0.004 and 0.227; (3) Correlation coefficient between each factor was between 0.046 and 0.188; the correlation coefficient between each factor and the total questionnaire ranged from 0.419 to 0.788. Discriminant validity: the standardized factor loadings of all items on the corresponding factors were 0.75-0.96. The results of the model-fit indices showed RMSEA was 0.08 and GFI was 0.91.

CONCLUSIONS

The FLEQ-Ch can effectively evaluate the food literacy of the general public in terms of foods planning and management, foods selection, and foods-making attitudes. It covers the four areas of food literacy, and shows good practicability and operability.

Development, validation and item reduction of a food literacy questionnaire (IFLQ-19) with Australian adults

Background

Food literacy is theorised to improve diet quality, nutrition behaviours, social connectedness and food security. The definition and conceptualisation by Vidgen & Gallegos, consisting of 11 theoretical components within the four domains of planning and managing, selecting, preparing and eating, is currently the most highly cited framework. However, a valid and reliable questionnaire is needed to comprehensively measure this conceptualisation. Therefore, this study draws on existing item pools to develop a comprehensive food literacy questionnaire using item response theory.

Methods

Five hundred Australian adults were recruited in Study 1 to refine a food literacy item pool using principal component analysis (PCA) and item response theory (IRT) which involved detailed item analysis on targeting, responsiveness, validity and reliability. Another 500 participants were recruited in Study 2 to replicate item analysis on validity and reliability on the refined item pool, and 250 of these participants re-completed the food literacy questionnaire to determine its test–retest reliability.

Results

The PCA saw the 171-item pool reduced to 100-items across 19 statistical components of food literacy. After the thresholds of 26 items were combined, responses to the food literacy questionnaire had ordered thresholds (targeting), acceptable item locations (< -0.01 to + 1.53) and appropriateness of the measurement model (n = 92% expected responses) (responsiveness), met outfit mean-squares MSQ (0.48—1.42) (validity) and had high person, item separation (> 0.99) and test–retest (ICC 2,1 0.55–0.88) scores (reliability).

Conclusions

We developed a 100-item food literacy questionnaire, the IFLQ-19 to comprehensively address the Vidgen & Gallegos theoretical domains and components with good targeting, responsiveness, reliability and validity in a diverse sample of Australian adults.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12966-022-01351-8.

Development of a conceptual framework of food and nutrition literacy in children

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to develop a conceptual framework to better understand food and nutrition literacy and its dimensions and components among Iranian children.

METHODS

The study included three sub-studies. First, two qualitative studies were conducted to explore experts' and students' perspectives and experiences regarding the topic. A comprehensive qualitative literature review was then conducted to identify food/nutrition literacy definitions and its components in the relevant literature. The data of the above three sub-studies were compiled as text data and were analyzed utilizing MAXQDA₂₀₁₀ software.

RESULTS

Two main domains, including cognitive and skill domains, emerged from the data analysis. The cognitive domain consisted of food- and nutrition-related knowledge included four subcategories "nutrition knowledge", "lifestyle knowledge", "food safety knowledge", and "knowledge of food and its preparation") as well as "food and nutrition understanding". The skill domain consisted of three dimensions: "functional", "interactive", and "critical" food and nutrition literacy.

CONCLUSIONS

The developed framework highlights the importance of integrated application of all dimensions of food and nutrition literacy among this population group. It can assist policymakers and curriculum developers in assessing education curricula and developing effective strategies for teaching and learning to increase students' food and nutrition literacy.

Impact of COVID-19 on food waste behaviour of families: Results from household waste composition audits

OBJECTIVE

The COVID-19 pandemic changed consumers' purchasing and cooking behaviours, which may have resulted in changes in food waste. This study aimed to assess the impact of COVID-19 on household food waste, as well as on purchasing, cooking, and food waste-related perceptions and behaviours among 19 households in Guelph, ON, Canada.

METHODS

Four-week food waste audits and online surveys were conducted in February-March 2020 (pre-COVID-19) and in July-August 2020 (post-COVID-19). Qualitative interviews were also conducted post-COVID-19 to explore participants' perceptions of household food changes due to COVID-19. Food waste results were analyzed using paired t-test, while survey results pre- and post-COVID-19 were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

RESULTS

While per capita food waste did not significantly change (mean^pre = 1.076 kg per week, mean^post = 1.080 kg per week), total per capita unavoidable food waste (mean^pre = 0.388 kg per week, mean^post = 0.614 kg per week) and pre capita unavoidable fruit and vegetable (mean^pre = 0.289 kg per week, mean^post = 0.427 kg per week) waste significantly increased (p < 0.01) at post-COVID-19. Total per capita avoidable other waste decreased (mean^pre = 0.385 kg per week, mean^post = 0.179 kg per week, p < 0.05). The increase in unavoidable food waste may relate to households cooking more often at home, as reported in interviews, or shopping less frequently and buying more per trip, as identified in the surveys. The decrease in avoidable food waste could be related to the increase in serving of leftovers (p < 0.01), as identified in the surveys, or an increase in meal planning and inventory management, as reported in interviews.

CONCLUSION

Future studies should investigate whether food waste-related changes in behaviour remain after the pandemic as well as any factors associated with maintaining of these behaviours. Interventions may be an opportunity to help households maintain these changes.

Food Promotion and Children's Health: Considering Best Practices for Teaching and Evaluating Media Literacy on Food Marketing

Food marketing to children is ubiquitous and persuasive. It primarily promotes foods of poor nutritional quality, influences children's food preferences and habits, and is a factor in childhood obesity. Given that food marketing relentlessly targets children in traditional/digital media and the built environment, children need critical media literacy skills that build their understanding of food marketing's persuasive effects. However, little research connects media literacy with food marketing and health, including effective strategies for teaching and evaluating such programming for children. This perspective presents the outcomes of a stakeholder meeting on best practices in teaching and evaluation on media literacy and food marketing to children. Strategies for promoting critical thinking (teaching content, teaching practices, teaching supports, and parent/caregiver involvement), and strategies for measuring critical thinking (program effectiveness and broader long-term impacts) were identified. These include, among other things, the need to capture the range of marketing formats and current food promotion trends, to include inquiry-based and co-creation activities, and to support ongoing media literacy development. Overall, these strategies suggest useful criteria for media literacy programming related to food marketing, and highlight the importance of media literacy for giving children the skills to navigate a complex food environment.

"Corona Cooking": The interrelation between emotional response to the first lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic and cooking attitudes and behaviour in Denmark

For this study, the authors measured attitudes toward shopping for food and cooking, before and during the first lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic, among a sample of 526 Danish consumers, using an online survey. To analyse changes due to the lockdown, they applied a latent class Markov model, which revealed four states: middle of the road, love cooking (and like shopping), like shopping and cooking, and do not like shopping or cooking. In estimating transition probabilities, the findings reveal that most respondents remained in the same state before and during the lockdown, but those that changed were more likely to exhibit relatively higher liking of shopping and cooking. These states also reflect variations in people's food literacy and self-reported food consumption. Finally, respondents with stronger negative emotional reactions to the lockdown were more likely to change their states.

A Mixed-Method Approach to Develop and Validate an Integrated Food Literacy Tool for Personalized Food Literacy Guidance

Background

Food literacy refers to all practicalities associated with healthy eating. Current food literacy tools are limited in practical use in clinical practice. Therefore, an integrated food literacy tool (IFLT) to assess food literacy and to personalize food literacy guidance was developed and validated.

Methods

Following an iterative process, a food literacy framework was developed and food literacy goals were defined. A corresponding food literacy screener (FLS) to assess food literacy was developed along with an algorithm to provide personalized food literacy guidance based on the food literacy assessment. Content validation of the FLS was assessed by a panel of experts, measuring item and scale content validity index (I/S-CVI) and by the target population in semi structured interviews with 15 adults of reproductive age. Subsequently, an online cross-sectional survey was conducted among 114 adults of reproductive age to evaluate the validity of the FLS. Construct validity was examined against both the validated healthy eating and weight self-efficacy scale and against a food frequency questionnaire assessing healthy eating self-efficacy (HESE) and diet quality, respectively. Reliability was assessed with a two-week test-retest. Pearson correlation tests were conducted.

Results

An IFLT consisting of a FLS and corresponding algorithm to personalize food literacy guidance by prioritizing food literacy goals was developed. The IFLT includes 24 food literacy goals, addressed by 17 FLS items. Every item received a weighting factor based on theory and expert opinion to prioritize food literacy goals according to personal needs. Content validity revealed that the FLS was rated relevant by experts (S-CVI = 0.93) and well-understood by the target population. The FLS has a good construct validity as it was positively correlated with diet quality (r = 0.536, p &lt; 0.001) and with HESE (r = 0.685, p &lt; 0.001). It also showed a good test-retest reliability (r = 0.721, p &lt; 0.001).

Conclusion

The newly developed IFLT is a practically applicable, context specific theory-and expert-based dual purpose tool to assess food literacy and to personalize food literacy guidance by prioritizing individuals' food literacy goals to their needs.

The Validation and Improvement of a Food Literacy Behavior Checklist for Food Literacy Programs

Food literacy is a multidimensional construct required to achieve diet quality. The Food Sensations^® for Adults (FSA) program aims to improve the food literacy of low to middle-income adults living in Western Australia and is funded by the Western Australian Department of Health. The original published behavior checklist used to measure change in food literacy has been revised based on experience of the facilitators and the iterative development of the program. This research sought to assess the validity and reliability of the improved food literacy behavior checklist. A total of 1,359 participants completed the checklist over an 18-month period. Content, face, and construct validity were considered in the re-development of the checklist. An exploratory factor analysis of the checklist identified three factors: (1) Plan and Manage, (2) Selection, and (3) Preparation. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.883, 0.760, and 0.868 were found for each of the three factors respectively. These coefficients indicated good internal consistency and were higher than those found in the original checklist analysis. An external validation was undertaken with the original food literacy behavior checklist, and a strong positive relationship between the two tools was found. In addition to being used to evaluate FSA, this revised and extensively validated tool could provide guidance to others evaluating similar food literacy programs and contribute to international measurement research.

What Factors Predict the Use of Coercive Food Parenting Practices among Mothers of Young Children? An Examination of Food Literacy, Disordered Eating and Parent Demographics

Parents have the most significant influence on the development of young children’s eating patterns. Understanding what parental factors best predict specific negative feeding practices is important for designing preventive interventions. We examined the relationship between parents’ use of coercive food parenting practices (pressure to eat and restriction) and parents’ disordered eating, food literacy, Body Mass Index (BMI) and socio-economic status (SES). Adult mothers, with a mean age of 33 years, at least one child aged between 6 months and 5 years and living in Australia (n = 819) completed an online questionnaire. Regression models were used to examine predictors of pressure to eat and restriction, respectively. Although the amount of variance accounted for by the models was small, maternal eating disorder symptoms were found to be the most important predictor of coercive food parenting practices. This finding has implications for early nutrition education, which has traditionally focused heavily on nutrition literacy. Parental disordered eating may be a more important preventive target and thus including behavioral strategies for positive feeding practices may better assist mothers in promoting positive eating habits with their children, rather than traditional approaches that aim to increase nutrition literacy.

Effectiveness of Foodbank Western Australia's Food Sensations® for Adults Food Literacy Program in Regional Australia

Background: Food Sensations for Adults, funded by the Western Australian Department of Health, is a four-week nutrition education program focused on food literacy, with demonstrated success amongst Western Australians. In the last two years, 25% of programs have been in regional and remote areas and therefore the aim of this research is to explore the impact of the program in regional areas. Methods: Participants answered validated pre- and post-questionnaires to assess change in food literacy behaviours (2016–2018). Results: Regional participants (n = 451) were more likely to live in low income areas, have lower education levels, and identify as Aboriginal, than metropolitan participants (n = 1398). Regional participants had statistically significantly higher food literacy behaviours in the plan and manage and preparation domains, and lower selection behaviours at baseline than metropolitan participants. Post program, regional participants showed matched improvements with metropolitan participants in the plan and manage, and preparation domains. Food selection behaviour results increased in both groups but were significantly higher in regional participants. Conclusions: The program demonstrates effective behaviour change in all participants; however, the increased disadvantage experienced by people residing outside of major cities highlights the need for additional government support in addressing regional specific barriers, such as higher food costs, to ensure participants gain maximum benefit from future food literacy programs.

Health Literacy and Food Literacy for K-12 Schools in the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

Food literacy, a sub-area of health literacy, is achieving attention in schools, academia, research, health care, businesses, and governments worldwide. Against the current COVID-19 pandemic backdrop, the relevance of food literacy's interconnected attributes such as nutritional knowledge, food skills, and food environment is gaining traction. Enhancing health and food literacy in the K-12 school environment are important empowerment tools with the potential to reduce health inequalities as vulnerable people are at risk of limited health literacy.

METHODS

We aim to clarify the meaning of food literacy and its relationship to health literacy and other factors influencing eating behavior.

RESULTS

We offer a proposed conceptual model depicting connections between relevant theories and constructs in the field of health and nutrition. Concrete actions are offered that contemporary schools can take guided by the utility of the model.

CONCLUSIONS

This visual can help guide schools' multidimensional health and food literacy efforts while considering the realities of the current COVID-19 pandemic context and beyond. This model will provide an overarching reference for schools to consider key constructs to support practice, research, policy, and intervention efforts to advance their health and food literacy agendas.

Are We Closer to International Consensus on the Term 'Food Literacy'? A Systematic Scoping Review of Its Use in the Academic Literature (1998-2019)

(1) Background: The term ‘food literacy’ has gained momentum globally; however, a lack of clarity around its definition has resulted in inconsistencies in use of the term. Therefore, the objective was to conduct a systematic scoping review to describe the use, reach, application and definitions of the term ‘food literacy’ over time. (2) Methods: A search was conducted using the PRISMA-ScR guidelines in seven research databases without any date limitations up to 31 December 2019, searching simply for use of the term ‘food literacy’. (3) Results: Five hundred and forty-nine studies were included. The term ‘food literacy’ was used once in 243 articles (44%) and mentioned by researchers working in 41 countries. Original research was the most common article type (n = 429, 78%). Food literacy was published across 72 In Cites disciplines, with 456 (83%) articles from the last 5 years. In articles about food literacy (n = 82, 15%), review articles were twice as prevalent compared to the total number of articles (n = 10, 12% vs. n = 32, 6%). Fifty-one different definitions of food literacy were cited. (4) Conclusions: ‘Food literacy’ has been used frequently and broadly across differing article types and disciplines in academic literature internationally. However, agreement on a standardised definition of food literacy endorsed by a peak international agency is needed in order to progress the field.

Exploring Food Literacy Domains in an Adult Samoan Population

Samoan food systems have undergone a dramatic nutrition transition, with dietary patterns changing concurrently with increased rates of obesity and non-communicable disease. Whilst policy action and environmental interventions play an important role in improving access to and consumption of healthy food, the success of these relies on a greater understanding of individuals’ food knowledge and behaviours. This study aimed to explore these behaviours using the construct of food literacy in an adult Samoan population. A cross-sectional interviewer-administered questionnaire of a convenience sample of 150 adult Samoans (≥20 years) assessed the four domains of food literacy: plan/manage, select, prepare, and eat. Participants generally plan to include healthy food (87%) and budget money for food (87%). The majority know where to find nutrition labels (68%), of which 43% always use them to inform their food choices. Participants were mostly confident with cooking skills, although food storage practices require further investigation. Over 90% agreed or strongly agreed that food impacts health, although understanding of the Pacific Guidelines for Healthy Living was lacking. Understanding the ability of Samoans to plan/manage, select, prepare, and eat food is an important consideration for future interventions aiming to assist this population in navigating the modern-day food system.

An Evaluation of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Perceived Social Distancing Policies in Relation to Planning, Selecting, and Preparing Healthy Meals: An Observational Study in 38 Countries Worldwide

Objectives

To examine changes in planning, selecting, and preparing healthy foods in relation to personal factors (time, money, stress) and social distancing policies during the COVID-19 crisis.

Methods

Using cross-sectional online surveys collected in 38 countries worldwide in April-June 2020 (N = 37,207, Mage 36.7 SD 14.43, 73.6% women), we compared changes in food literacy behaviors to changes in personal factors and social distancing policies, using hierarchical multiple regression analyses controlling for sociodemographic variables.

Results

Increases in planning (4.7 SD 1.2, 4.9 SD 1.3), selecting (3.8 SD 1.7, 3.8 SD 1.7), and preparing (4.6 SD 1.3, 4.7 SD 1.3) healthy foods were found for women and men, and positively related to perceived time availability among women and stay-at-home policies for planning and preparing in women. Psychological distress was a barrier for women, and an enabler for men. COVID-19 induced financial stress was a barrier depending on various sociodemographic variables (all p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Stay-at-home policies and feelings of having more time during COVID-19 seem to have improved food literacy among women. Stress and other social distancing policies relate to food literacy in more complex ways, highlighting the necessity of a health equity lens.

Measuring Food Literacy: Progressing the Development of an International Food Literacy Survey Using a Content Validity Study

Background: The term "food literacy" is increasingly used to describe the knowledge, skills and behaviours needed to meet food needs. The aim of this research was to determine content validity for an International Food Literacy Survey. Methods: The literature was searched for existing items to form an item pool to measure the eleven components of food literacy. Expert consensus was investigated through two related online surveys. Round 1 participants were researchers who had been involved in the development of a food literacy measure (n = 18). Round 2 participants were authors of papers who had used the term (n = 85). Level of agreement was determined quantitatively using the Content Validity Index and compared to open ended qualitative comments. Results: Consensus was achieved on 119 items. Components varied in the ease with which existing validated items could be found and the number of items achieving consensus. Items related to food prepared within the home were more likely to achieve consensus. Additional issues included limited shared understanding of the scope of the term, the validity of items varying according to context and a limited health focus. Conclusions: This study provides a valuable basis upon which to progress the development of a measure.

The Nutrition and Health Status of Residents of the Northern Regions of Russia: Outlook of Vertical Agricultural Farms

This paper is dedicated to studying the nutrition, health status and food provision of the people living the northern regions of Russia. The authors developed a concept of comprehensive interdisciplinary research of traditional and innovative behavioral practices of actors in the northern regions of Russia in the field of food production and consumption in order to study the structure of nutrition of the population, its health status and the technologies that are used to provide the people with food products. The interdisciplinary comprehensive research applied the following methods: (a) statistical method; (b) sociological method of mass survey; (c) sociological method of expert interviews; (d) method of feasibility study; (e) method of mathematical modeling. According to the results of the analysis, the nutrition of the people living in the norther regions is characterized by insufficient consumption of fresh vegetables, meat and processed meat, fish and seafood, milk and dairy products, some vitamins and bio-elements (such as selenium, calcium) and excessive consumption of saturated fats and flour products. The following problems related to providing the population of the northern regions of Russia with food products were identified: the agriculture in almost all northern regions of Russia has negative profitability; imported food products and food ingredients are mostly used; there are drawbacks of logistics, transportation and storage of food products; the natural and climate conditions are unfavorable for traditional agriculture. The paper substantiates the economic, environmental, social, and political advantages of highly automated agro-industrial complex of vertical farming as an alternative method for providing food security of the inhabitants of the northern regions of Russia.

Psychometric Analyses of the Eating and Food Literacy Behaviors Questionnaire with University Students

OBJECTIVES

This study developed and validated a questionnaire to measure young adults' perceived food literacy and behaviors toward food and created an explanatory model.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

SETTING

Large southeastern US university.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1,896 students, aged 18-30 years, were recruited. Data from 1,813 were analyzed.

VARIABLES MEASURED

Health and nutrition, taste, food preparation, planning and decision-making, and convenience.

ANALYSIS

Exploratory factor analysis, test-retest reliability, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modeling were performed.

RESULTS

Exploratory factor analysis returned 5 factors with acceptable internal structure. Test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.63 to 0.92. Confirmatory factor analysis suggested that a 5-factor model was an appropriate fit for the data (χ² = 588.05; degrees of freedom = 142; root mean square error of approximation = 0.06; comparative fit index = 0.98; Tucker-Lewis Index = 0.97; standardized root mean square residual = 0.05). Structural equation modeling revealed relationships from health and nutrition to food preparation (0.25, P < 0.001), planning and/or decision-making (0.57, P < 0.001), taste (-0.14, P < 0.001), and convenience (-0.31, P < 0.001). The structural equation model demonstrated adequate fit (adjusted goodness of fit = 0.91; comparative fit index = 0.93; non-normed fit index = 0.91; root mean square error of approximation = 0.06; and standardized root mean square residual = 0.07) and a significant chi-square test (χ² = 628.92; degrees of freedom = 171, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Young adults consider food literacy-related factors and behavioral concerns when making food choices.

Can addressing food literacy across the life cycle improve the health of vulnerable populations? A case study approach

ISSUE ADDRESSED

Food literacy programs aim to improve an individual's knowledge and skills in the planning, management, selection, preparation and eating of healthy foods. Unhealthy dietary patterns across the life cycle are associated with an increased risk of chronic disease. Foodbank WA's Healthy Food for All^® (HFFA) team has made addressing health inequity a priority, by enhancing food literacy skills of vulnerable people across the lifespan.

METHODS

A case study approach was utilised to explore HFFA's suite of evidence-based food literacy programs: Food Sensations^® (FS) for Parents (of 0-5 year olds), FS for Schools (kindergarten to Year 12), Fuel Your Future (adolescents 12-18 years), and FS for Adults (FSA) (18 years and over). These programs are contextualised to meet the needs of vulnerable groups at all life stages.

RESULTS

In the last decade the HFFA team have delivered 5047 food literacy sessions to over 62 000 vulnerable Western Australians. Evaluation results demonstrate the FS programs are successful at improving vulnerable people's food literacy skills and dietary behaviours. For example, over 70% of participants make at least one positive food behaviour change after attending FSA.

CONCLUSIONS

By targeting vulnerable people of all ages, HFFA's food literacy programs provide multiple opportunities for intervention, to enhance health behaviours, and therefore reduce risk of chronic disease. SO WHAT?: Food literacy programs are one effective strategy that is complementary in helping to address the health inequities in Australia. Government and broader community investment in food literacy initiatives is vital to improving the health outcomes of vulnerable populations.

The Role of a Food Literacy Intervention in Promoting Food Security and Food Literacy-OzHarvest's NEST Program

Food literacy interventions are widely implemented to improve the food security and health of low-socioeconomic adults. The purpose of this study was to conduct an inquiry into the value of OzHarvest's six-week NEST (Nutrition Education and Skills Training) program in promoting food security and food literacy, and to identify the barriers and enablers that participants experienced in sustaining food security, and in utilising their food literacy skills beyond the program. A descriptive evaluation study with pre-post surveys (n = 21) and post-program interviews (n = 17) was conducted, with a convenience sample of NEST program participants living in Sydney, Newcastle, and Melbourne, Australia. Participants demonstrated improvements in food security status (p = 0.030), cooking confidence (p = 0.001), food preparation behaviours (p = 0.006), nutrition knowledge (p = 0.033), vegetable consumption (p = 0.043), and a reduction in intake of sugar-sweetened beverages (p = 0.017), and salty snack foods (p = 0.011). The interviews revealed that participants learned to stretch their food budgets and make meaningful changes to their food utilisation (a key dimension of food security). Interviews also identified enablers (e.g., social support) and barriers (e.g., health conditions) to achieving food security. Acknowledging the need for a multi-faceted approach that also addresses upstream determinants, interventions like NEST may play a role in promoting food security and food literacy.

Cook-EdTM: A Model for Planning, Implementing and Evaluating Cooking Programs to Improve Diet and Health

Domestic cooking education programs are typically designed to improve an individual’s food and cooking skills, although not necessarily diet quality. Currently, there are no comprehensive models to guide the planning, implementation and evaluation of domestic cooking education programs that focus on improving diet and health. Our aim was to address this through development of the Cooking Education (“Cook-Ed^TM”) model, using the PRECEDE-PROCEED model as the underlying Cook-Ed^TM framework. A review of the food and cooking skills education literature informed the content of the Cook-Ed^TM model. Cook-Ed^TM was critiqued by experts in consumer behaviour, cooking and nutrition education research and education until consensus on model content and format was reached. Cook-Ed^TM leads cooking program developers through eight distinct stages, engaging key stakeholders in a co-design process from the outset to tailor programs to address the need of individuals and inform the development of program content, program delivery, and evaluation. A Cook-Ed^TM scenario applied in practice is described. The proposed Cook-Ed^TM model has potential to be adapted for use in domestic cooking education programs delivered in clinical, community, school or research settings. Further research will establish Cook-Ed^TM’s utility in enhancing program development and in improving food and cooking skills, dietary patterns and health outcomes.

Identifying Who Improves or Maintains Their Food Literacy Behaviours after Completing an Adult Program

Food Sensations for Adults is a free four-week nutrition and cooking program that teaches low- to middle-income individuals food literacy. This research aimed to compare demographic characteristics of participants who completed the program’s follow-up questionnaire three months after program completion and assess whether food literacy and dietary behaviour changes were improved or maintained. Statistical analysis methods used factor scores of the plan and manage, selection, and preparation domains to examine mean self-reported changes in food literacy. Tertile stratification methods calculated changes in participants who had low, middle, and high end-of-program food literacy scores, and multivariable regression analysis explored the associations. The follow-up results (n = 621) demonstrated a statistically significant factor score increase in plan and manage (3%) and selection (7.2%) domain scores, and a decrease in the preparation score (3.1%), and serves of consumed vegetables (7.9%), but were still significantly higher than at the start of the program. At follow-up, participants with low food literacy at the program end significantly improved their follow-up domain scores for plan and manage (60%) and selection (73.3%), and participants with moderate or high food literacy at the program end maintained their follow-up scores. A food literacy program can support adults to improve and maintain their food literacy behaviours and maintain dietary behaviour change; therefore, strategies to support this continued change must be considered.

FOODLIT-PRO: conceptual and empirical development of the food literacy wheel

Pursuing food systems' sustainability is crucial. Given the risk constituted by unhealthy diets, scarce research on food-related adjacent fields, and inconsistency across food literacy conceptualizations, this study aims to explore the constructs' definition and develop a conceptual and empirical framework of food literacy. A quantitative approach was taken on previously obtained qualitative outcomes from 30 interviews with experts from food-related fields. Food literacy was defined by a four-dimension model: Cooking Skills, Preserve and Analyse, Choice and Acquisition, Search and Plan. The framework Food Literacy Wheel integrates the construct definition, food literacy determinants (Internal, External) and influential factors (Nutritional, Psychological, Health, Learning Contexts, Policy, Industry, Sustainability, Social and Cultural). Allowing a broader perspective of food literacy within major food systems, this study contributes with new insights for future instruments and interventions, paving the way to develop/implement food literacy-related multi-sectorial and multilevel actions.

Identifying Participants Who Would Benefit the Most from an Adult Food-literacy Program

Food literacy programs aim to improve behaviours required to achieve a quality diet. The objectives of this study were to assess the demographic, food literacy related and dietary behaviour of participants enrolling in Food Sensations® for Adults, a free four-week food literacy program and identify the subgroup of participants who benefit most. Cross-sectional pre-program questionnaire data (n = 1626) from participants enrolling in the program was used to stratify into low, middle and high food-literacy tertiles. Factor scores from a reliability analysis of food literacy behaviours were then used to produce a composite score). Participants were 80.2% female, 56% aged 26 to 45 years and 73.3% from low to middle socio-economic areas. Demographic characteristics were not a significant predictor of the lowest composite food-literacy group. Those with the lowest composite food-literacy tertile score were more likely to have lower self-rated cooking skills, a negative attitude to the cost of healthy foods, lower intakes of fruits and vegetables and a higher frequency of consuming takeaway food and sugary drinks. Food literacy programs must focus on recruiting those who have low self-rated cooking skills, who consider healthy foods expensive and have poor dietary intakes and will most likely to benefit from such programs.

A Scoping Review of the Validity, Reliability and Conceptual Alignment of Food Literacy Measures for Adults

The measurement of food literacy has recently gained momentum globally. The aim of this paper is to review the literature in order to describe and analyse the measurement of adult food literacy. The objectives are to i) identify tools that explicitly measure food literacy in adults; ii) summarise their psychometric properties; and iii) critique tool items against the four domains and 11 components of food literacy, as conceptualised by Vidgen and Gallegos. Using the PRISMA guidelines, a search of seven databases (PubMed, Embase, ScienceDirect, Scopus, EBSCOhost, A+ Education, and ProQuest) was undertaken. 12 studies met the inclusion criteria. Papers reported on either the development of a tool to explicitly measure food literacy or a part thereof (n = 5); food literacy strategy indicators (n = 1); tools developed to evaluate a food literacy intervention (n = 3); or tools to measure food literacy as a characteristic within a broader study (n = 3). Six tools captured all four domains. None measured all components. Items measuring the same component varied considerably. Most tools referenced a theoretical framework, were validated and reliable. This review will assist practitioners select and develop tools for the measurement of food literacy in their context.

Effectiveness of an Adult Food Literacy Program

Nutrition education programs aim to improve food literacy domains covering the planning and management, selection, preparation and cooking and eating of healthy food. Reviews indicate programs are effective but acknowledge challenges with evaluation of community focused delivery. Food Sensations^® for Adults (FSA) is a free four-week nutrition and cooking program targeted at low-to-middle income Western Australians who would like to improve their food literacy. The aim of this research was assess how effective FSA is in changing food literacy and selected dietary behaviours. Statistical analysis identified a significant increase in postprogram scores for domains of planning and management, selection and preparation using factor scores (n = 1092). The proportion of the score increase in the postprogram scores compared to the preprogram scores was 10–25%. There was also a significant increase in self-reported fruit and vegetable serve intake, equating to an average increase of ¼ serve/day of fruit and ½ serve/day of vegetables. Of those classified as low food literacy, 61–74% improved postprogram scores in the three domains. FSA is effective in improving food literacy and dietary behaviours and the results add to the evidence base as to how effective these programs can be and for whom they should be targeted for future success.

Examining the Association between Food Literacy and Food Insecurity

Poor food literacy behaviours may contribute to food insecurity in developed countries. The aim of this research was to describe the apparent prevalence of food insecurity in adults at enrolment in a food literacy program and to examine the relationship between food insecurity and a range of independent variables. Individuals attending the Food Sensations^® for Adults program in Western Australia from May 2016 to April 2018 completed a pre-program questionnaire (n = 1433) indicating if they had run out of money for food in the past month (food insecurity indicator), frequency of food literacy behaviours, selected dietary behaviours, and demographic characteristics. The level of food insecurity reported by participants (n = 1379) was 40.5%. Results from multiple logistic regression demonstrated that behaviours related to planning and management, shopping, preparation, and cooking were all statistically independently associated with food insecurity, in addition to soft/soda drink consumption, education, employment status, and being born in Australia. The results are salient as they indicate an association between food literacy and food insecurity. The implications are that food insecure participants may respond differently to food literacy programs. It may be necessary to screen people enrolling in programs, tailor program content, and include comprehensive measures in evaluation to determine effect on the impact of food literacy programs on different subgroups.