Genomic analysis of early-stage lung cancer reveals a role for TP53 mutations in distant metastasis

Patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) who have distant metastases have a poor prognosis. To determine which genomic factors of the primary tumor are associated with metastasis, we analyzed data from 759 patients originally diagnosed with stage I-III NSCLC as part of the AACR Project GENIE Biopharma Collaborative consortium. We found that TP53 mutations were significantly associated with the development of new distant metastases. TP53 mutations were also more prevalent in patients with a history of smoking, suggesting that these patients may be at increased risk for distant metastasis. Our results suggest that additional investigation of the optimal management of patients with early-stage NSCLC harboring TP53 mutations at diagnosis is warranted in light of their higher likelihood of developing new distant metastases.

Linked Entity Attribute Pair (LEAP): A Harmonization Framework for Data Pooling

PURPOSE

As data-sharing projects become increasingly frequent, so does the need to map data elements between multiple classification systems. A generic, robust, shareable architecture will result in increased efficiency and transparency of the mapping process, while upholding the integrity of the data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The American Association for Cancer Research’s Genomics Evidence Neoplasia Information Exchange (GENIE) collects clinical and genomic data for precision cancer medicine. As part of its commitment to open science, GENIE has partnered with the National Cancer Institute’s Genomic Data Commons (GDC) as a secondary repository. After initial efforts to submit data from GENIE to GDC failed, we realized the need for a solution to allow for the iterative mapping of data elements between dynamic classification systems. We developed the Linked Entity Attribute Pair (LEAP) database framework to store and manage the term mappings used to submit data from GENIE to GDC.

RESULTS

After creating and populating the LEAP framework, we identified 195 mappings from GENIE to GDC requiring remediation and observed a 28% reduction in effort to resolve these issues, as well as a reduction in inadvertent errors. These results led to a decrease in the time to map between OncoTree, the cancer type ontology used by GENIE, and International Classification of Disease for Oncology, 3rd Edition, used by GDC, from several months to less than 1 week.

CONCLUSION

The LEAP framework provides a streamlined mapping process among various classification systems and allows for reusability so that efforts to create or adjust mappings are straightforward. The ability of the framework to track changes over time streamlines the process to map data elements across various dynamic classification systems.

A community challenge to evaluate RNA-seq, fusion detection, and isoform quantification methods for cancer discovery

The accurate identification and quantitation of RNA isoforms present in the cancer transcriptome is key for analyses ranging from the inference of the impacts of somatic variants to pathway analysis to biomarker development and subtype discovery. The ICGC-TCGA DREAM Somatic Mutation Calling in RNA (SMC-RNA) challenge was a crowd-sourced effort to benchmark methods for RNA isoform quantification and fusion detection from bulk cancer RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data. It concluded in 2018 with a comparison of 77 fusion detection entries and 65 isoform quantification entries on 51 synthetic tumors and 32 cell lines with spiked-in fusion constructs. We report the entries used to build this benchmark, the leaderboard results, and the experimental features associated with the accurate prediction of RNA species. This challenge required submissions to be in the form of containerized workflows, meaning each of the entries described is easily reusable through CWL and Docker containers at https://github.com/SMC-RNA-challenge. A record of this paper's transparent peer review process is included in the supplemental information.

Crowdsourced mapping of unexplored target space of kinase inhibitors

Despite decades of intensive search for compounds that modulate the activity of particular protein targets, a large proportion of the human kinome remains as yet undrugged. Effective approaches are therefore required to map the massive space of unexplored compound-kinase interactions for novel and potent activities. Here, we carry out a crowdsourced benchmarking of predictive algorithms for kinase inhibitor potencies across multiple kinase families tested on unpublished bioactivity data. We find the top-performing predictions are based on various models, including kernel learning, gradient boosting and deep learning, and their ensemble leads to a predictive accuracy exceeding that of single-dose kinase activity assays. We design experiments based on the model predictions and identify unexpected activities even for under-studied kinases, thereby accelerating experimental mapping efforts. The open-source prediction algorithms together with the bioactivities between 95 compounds and 295 kinases provide a resource for benchmarking prediction algorithms and for extending the druggable kinome.

CRI iAtlas: an interactive portal for immuno-oncology research

The Cancer Research Institute (CRI) iAtlas is an interactive web platform for data exploration and discovery in the context of tumors and their interactions with the immune microenvironment. iAtlas allows researchers to study immune response characterizations and patterns for individual tumor types, tumor subtypes, and immune subtypes. iAtlas supports computation and visualization of correlations and statistics among features related to the tumor microenvironment, cell composition, immune expression signatures, tumor mutation burden, cancer driver mutations, adaptive cell clonality, patient survival, expression of key immunomodulators, and tumor infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) spatial maps. iAtlas was launched to accompany the release of the TCGA PanCancer Atlas and has since been expanded to include new capabilities such as (1) user-defined loading of sample cohorts, (2) a tool for classifying expression data into immune subtypes, and (3) integration of TIL mapping from digital pathology images. We expect that the CRI iAtlas will accelerate discovery and improve patient outcomes by providing researchers access to standardized immunogenomics data to better understand the tumor immune microenvironment and its impact on patient responses to immunotherapy.

Progression-free survival estimates in non-small cell lung cancer when RECIST is unavailable: Project GENIE’s integration of genomic, therapeutic and phenomic data

9622

Background: Molecular tumor profiling has become an integral component of oncology practice but linked genomic-phenomic data remain scarce. Recurrence, treatment response and progression are not structured consistently in medical records and this deficit has been a roadblock to discovery of biomarkers that are associated with favorable outcomes. Methods: The Genomics Evidence Neoplasia Information Exchange (GENIE) consortium is an AACR sponsored project to link and share genomic and phenomic data to promote discovery in precision medicine. 3 cancer centers that routinely perform somatic tumor profiling for advanced cancers agreed to curate anti-neoplastic treatment exposures and outcomes including recurrence, progression, response and survival using a standard method. 6 cancer types (lung, colorectal, breast, prostate, pancreas and bladder) were selected and a REDCAP database captures anti-neoplastic treatments, and specific elements from pathology, radiology and oncology reports. Curators abstract data using data fields that rely on the PRISSMM standard. “Real world” progression free survival (PFS) was identified based on curation of: 1) the text of radiologists’ reports for CT, PET/CT, PET and MRI scans (PFSI) and 2) medical oncologists’ notes (PFSM). PFSI and PFSM were estimated from the start of 1st line anti-neoplastic systemic therapy until progression or death for all patients with molecularly characterized non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Results: Genomic sequencing was performed between 2015 and 2017 for 748 patients with NSCLC treated at three major cancer centers. Median age at diagnosis was 66 years (interquartile range 58, 73) and 43% were male. As shown in the table, when RECIST assessments are unavailable, estimates of PFS vary based on whether they are derived from radiologists’ or oncologists’ interpretations. Conclusions: Radiologists’ reports and oncologists’ reports provide different PFS estimates. Cohort studies should specify the method used to define “real world” endpoints. Project GENIE will have 1800 NSCLC patients with curated endpoints by the ASCO meeting. [Table: see text]

Abstract 2451: Physical, genomic, and proteomic characterization of a cancer cell line panel in an integrated dataset

Introduction: Recent work has linked cancer phenotype (e.g., metastatic ability) to physical properties (e.g., nuclear deformability), as well as genetic alterations (e.g., mutations in lamin genes affecting nuclear stiffness). However, while the genomics of immortalized human cell lines - important models for studying cancer disease pathogenesis and progression - have been relatively well studied, an integrative analysis of physical cell phenotypes with genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomics assays, spanning tissues of origins and culture environments (CE), has been lacking. The Physical Sciences in Oncology Network (PS-ON), a trans-disciplinary project established by the NCI, has generated a curated open dataset that is accessible to researchers via various database interfaces to address this need.

Methods: A panel of 39 cancerous and non-malignant cell lines frequently used in cancer research were selected to cover a set of nine tissues: breast, lung, pancreas, brain, prostate, colon, ovary, blood, and skin. Thirty of these cell lines (from all tissues except blood) were assayed by traction and atomic force microscopy and imaging to measure their cell morphology, proliferation, motility, and nuclear volume. Measurements were performed in seven CE of varying physical properties (e.g., stiffness) to recapitulate a range of realistic tissue conditions and frequently used reagents. All 39 cell lines were assayed via whole exome sequencing, mRNA-seq, and miRNA-seq (in a single CE), while nine cell lines were subjected to proteomic analysis (across seven CEs).

Results: All raw measurements and summary metrics from the study were incorporated into a data model compatible with established data stores (e.g., GDC, miRBase) and integrated in an open-access relational database (RDB). We performed several integrative analyses using the RDB. A broad set of interactions emerged between cell line CE characteristics (e.g., integrin ligands), the phenotypes of cells (e.g., motility) and gene expression, with effect-size varying by cell-line tissue of origin and cancer diagnosis. For instance, motility was significantly (FDR < 5%) correlated with expression of a small set of genes across tissues (e.g., BNP1 and PFKP in both skin and prostate cancers).

Conclusion: This PS-ON cell line characterization allows correlative analyses across CE, cells’ morphological and proliferation properties, and omics data. The integrated RDB facilitates these analyses via a unified interface and data model for the large collection of files comprising the resource. We demonstrated the utility of the RDB by using it to infer the relationship between differential gene expression, CE and resulting phenotypes, with potentially important downstream effects on hallmarks of cancer malignancy.

Citation Format: Milen Nikolov, Brian White, Adrian Pegoraro, Debra Hope, Mariam Eljanne, James Eddy, Paul Janmey, Parag Mallick, Kristen Dang. Physical, genomic, and proteomic characterization of a cancer cell line panel in an integrated dataset [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 2451.

Combining accurate tumor genome simulation with crowdsourcing to benchmark somatic structural variant detection

BACKGROUND

The phenotypes of cancer cells are driven in part by somatic structural variants. Structural variants can initiate tumors, enhance their aggressiveness, and provide unique therapeutic opportunities. Whole-genome sequencing of tumors can allow exhaustive identification of the specific structural variants present in an individual cancer, facilitating both clinical diagnostics and the discovery of novel mutagenic mechanisms. A plethora of somatic structural variant detection algorithms have been created to enable these discoveries; however, there are no systematic benchmarks of them. Rigorous performance evaluation of somatic structural variant detection methods has been challenged by the lack of gold standards, extensive resource requirements, and difficulties arising from the need to share personal genomic information.

RESULTS

To facilitate structural variant detection algorithm evaluations, we create a robust simulation framework for somatic structural variants by extending the BAMSurgeon algorithm. We then organize and enable a crowdsourced benchmarking within the ICGC-TCGA DREAM Somatic Mutation Calling Challenge (SMC-DNA). We report here the results of structural variant benchmarking on three different tumors, comprising 204 submissions from 15 teams. In addition to ranking methods, we identify characteristic error profiles of individual algorithms and general trends across them. Surprisingly, we find that ensembles of analysis pipelines do not always outperform the best individual method, indicating a need for new ways to aggregate somatic structural variant detection approaches.

CONCLUSIONS

The synthetic tumors and somatic structural variant detection leaderboards remain available as a community benchmarking resource, and BAMSurgeon is available at https://github.com/adamewing/bamsurgeon .

Practical Guidelines for High-Resolution Epigenomic Profiling of Nucleosomal Histones in Postmortem Human Brain Tissue

BACKGROUND

The nervous system may include more than 100 residue-specific posttranslational modifications of histones forming the nucleosome core that are often regulated in cell-type-specific manner. On a genome-wide scale, some of the histone posttranslational modification landscapes show significant overlap with the genetic risk architecture for several psychiatric disorders, fueling PsychENCODE and other large-scale efforts to comprehensively map neuronal and nonneuronal epigenomes in hundreds of specimens. However, practical guidelines for efficient generation of histone chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing (ChIP-seq) datasets from postmortem brains are needed.

METHODS

Protocols and quality controls are given for the following: 1) extraction, purification, and NeuN neuronal marker immunotagging of nuclei from adult human cerebral cortex; 2) fluorescence-activated nuclei sorting; 3) preparation of chromatin by micrococcal nuclease digest; 4) ChIP for open chromatin-associated histone methylation and acetylation; and 5) generation and sequencing of ChIP-seq libraries.

RESULTS

We present a ChIP-seq pipeline for epigenome mapping in the neuronal and nonneuronal nuclei from the postmortem brain. This includes a stepwise system of quality controls and user-friendly data presentation platforms.

CONCLUSIONS

Our practical guidelines will be useful for projects aimed at histone posttranslational modification mapping in chromatin extracted from hundreds of postmortem brain samples in cell-type-specific manner.

Modular transcriptional repertoire analyses of adults with systemic lupus erythematosus reveal distinct type I and type II interferon signatures

OBJECTIVE

The role of interferon-α (IFNα) in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is strongly supported by gene expression studies. The aim of this study was to improve characterization of the blood IFN signature in adult SLE patients.

METHODS

Consecutive patients were enrolled and followed up prospectively. Microarray data were generated using Illumina BeadChips. A modular transcriptional repertoire was used as a framework for the analysis.

RESULTS

Our repertoire of 260 modules, which consisted of coclustered gene sets, included 3 IFN-annotated modules (M1.2, M3.4, and M5.12) that were strongly up-regulated in SLE patients. A modular IFN signature was observed in 54 of 62 patients (87%) or 131 of all 157 samples (83%). The IFN signature was more complex than expected, with each module displaying a distinct activation threshold (M1.2 < M3.4 < M5.12), thus providing a modular score by which to stratify SLE patients based on the presence of 0, 1, 2, or 3 active IFN modules. A similar gradient in modular IFN signature was observed within patients with clinically quiescent disease, for whom moderate/strong modular scores (2 or 3 active IFN modules) were associated with higher anti-double-stranded DNA titers and lower lymphocyte counts than those in patients with absent/mild modular scores (0 or 1 active IFN modules). Longitudinal analyses revealed both stable (M1.2) and variable (M3.4 and M5.12) components of modular IFN signature over time in single patients. Interestingly, mining of other data sets suggested that M3.4 and M5.12 could also be driven by IFNβ and IFNγ.

CONCLUSION

Modular repertoire analysis reveals complex IFN signatures in SLE, which are not restricted to the previous IFNα signature, but which also involve IFNβ and IFNγ.

The transcription factor STAT5 is critical in dendritic cells for the development of TH2 but not TH1 responses

Dendritic cells (DCs) are critical in immune responses, linking innate and adaptive immunity. We found here that DC-specific deletion of the transcription factor STAT5 was not critical for development but was required for T helper type 2 (TH2), but not TH1, allergic responses in both the skin and lungs. Loss of STAT5 in DCs led to the inability to respond to thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP). STAT5 was required for TSLP-dependent DC activation, including upregulation of the expression of costimulatory molecules and chemokine production. Furthermore, TH2 responses in mice with DC-specific loss of STAT5 resembled those seen in mice deficient in the receptor for TSLP. Our results show that the TSLP-STAT5 axis in DCs is a critical component for the promotion of type 2 immunity at barrier surfaces.

Improvement of attention span and reaction time with hyperbaric oxygen treatment in patients with toxic injury due to mold exposure

It is, by now, well established that mold toxins (mycotoxins) can cause significant adverse health effects. In this study, 15 subjects who developed an attention deficit disorder (ADD) and slowing of reaction time at the time of exposure to mold toxins were identified. Deficits in attention span and reaction time were documented not only by taking a careful history, but also by performing a Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA). The TOVA test provides an objective measure of these two variables. It was found that mold-exposed subjects show statistically significant decreases in attention span and significant increases in reaction time to stimuli compared to controls. After ten sessions of hyperbaric oxygen treatment (HBOT), a statistically significant improvement was seen in both measures. This preliminary study suggests promising outcomes in treating mold-exposed patients with hyperbaric oxygen.

Gastric ulcers evoke hyperexcitability and enhance P2X receptor function in rat gastric sensory neurons

Tissue inflammation contributes to the development of hyperalgesia, which is at least in part due to altered properties of primary afferent neurons. We hypothesized that gastric ulcers enhance the excitability of gastric sensory neurons and increase their response to purinergic agonists. The rat stomach was surgically exposed, and a retrograde tracer [1.1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3,'3-tetramethylindocarbocyanine methanesulfonate (DiI)] was injected into the wall of the distal stomach. Kissing ulcers (KUs) were produced by a single injection of acetic acid (0.1 ml for 45 s; 60%) into the clamped gastric lumen. Saline injection served as control. Gastric nodose ganglion (NG) or dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells were harvested 7 days later and acutely dissociated for whole cell recordings. Based on whole cell capacitance, gastric DRG neurons exhibited larger cell size than NG neurons. Significantly more control gastric DRG neurons compared with NG counterparts had TTX-resistant action potentials. Almost all control NG neurons (90%) compared with significantly less DRG neurons (< or =38%) responded to ATP or alpha,beta-metATP. Whereas none of the control cells exhibited spontaneous activity, about 20% of the neurons from KU animals generated spontaneous action potentials. KUs enhanced excitability as shown by a decrease in threshold for action potential generation, which was in part due to an increased input resistance. This was associated with an increase in the fraction of neurons with TTX-resistant action potentials and cells responding to capsaicin and purinergic agonists. KU doubled the current density evoked by the P2X receptor agonist alpha,beta-metATP and slowed decay of the slowly desensitizing component of the current without affecting the concentration dependence of the response. These data show that KU sensitizes vagal and spinal gastric afferents by affecting both voltage- and ligand-gated channels, thereby potentially contributing to the development of dyspeptic symptoms.

Interaction of γ-aminobutyric acid receptor type B receptors and calcium channels in nociceptive transmission studied in the mouse hemisected spinal cord in vitro: withdrawal symptoms related to baclofen treatment

An in vitro mouse hemisected spinal cord was used to characterize the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor type B (GABA(B)) modulation of the ventral root potential (VRP) in response to electrical stimulation of the dorsal root (DR). Low-intensity (LI) and high-intensity (HI) stimulation induced VRPs with progressively higher amplitude and duration. Repetitive HI-stimulation of the DR (1-10 Hz) produced windup. The selective GABA(B) receptor agonist, CGP35024, inhibited the VRPs in a dose-dependent manner. The inhibitory action of CGP35024 was blocked by CGP52432, a potent GABA(B) receptor antagonist. Following washout of the GABA(B) receptor agonist, VRPs and windup were significantly enhanced. The rebound increase of the VRP following removal of CGP35024 was also blocked by the GABA(B) receptor antagonist, CGP52432. This phenomenon is not linked to receptor desensitization, but rather due to GABA(B) receptor-induced hyperactivity of N-, P/Q-type Ca(2+) channels, as omega-CgTx GVIA and MVIIC abolished/prevented the increase. The 'rebound' enhancement of the spinal transmission after exposure to GABA(B) agonists sheds light on the possible mechanism of the severe withdrawal effects after abrupt termination of baclofen treatment in patients suffering from multiple sclerosis.

Gastric ulcers reduce A-type potassium currents in rat gastric sensory ganglion neurons

Voltage-dependent potassium currents are important contributors to neuron excitability and thus also to hypersensitivity after tissue insult. We hypothesized that gastric ulcers would alter K(+) current properties in primary sensory neurons. The rat stomach was surgically exposed, and a retrograde tracer (1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3,3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine methanesulfonate) was injected into multiple sites in the stomach wall. Inflammation and ulcers were produced by 10 injections of 20% acetic acid (HAc) in the gastric wall. Saline (Sal) injections served as control. Nodose or T9-10 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) cells were harvested and cultured 7 days later to record whole cell K(+) currents. Gastric sensory neurons expressed transient and sustained outward currents. Gastric inflammation significantly decreased the A-type K(+) current density in DRG and nodose neurons (Sal vs. HAc-DRG: 82.9 +/- 7.9 vs. 46.5 +/- 6.1 pA/pF; nodose: 149.2 +/- 10.9 vs. 71.4 +/- 11.8 pA/pF), whereas the sustained current was not altered. In addition, there was a significant shift in the steady-state inactivation to more hyperpolarized potentials in nodose neurons (Sal vs. HAc: -76.3 +/- 1.0 vs. -83.6 +/- 2.2 mV) associated with an acceleration of inactivation kinetics. These data suggest that a reduction in K(+) currents contributes, in part, to increased neuron excitability that may lead to development of dyspeptic symptoms.

Interaction of group I mGlu and NMDA receptor agonists within the dorsal horn of the spinal cord of the juvenile rat

1. The modulatory effects of mGlu receptors on NMDA-induced potential changes in spinal motoneurones were studied in vitro. 2. Selective activation of mGlu5 receptors by 10 microM (RS)-2-Chloro-5-hydroxyphenylglycine (CHPG; EC(50)=280 +/- 24 microM) did not produce any change in the ventral root potential. However, the same concentration of CHPG (10 min perfusion) significantly attenuated the NMDA-induced ventral root depolarization (VRD). The effect persisted for 10 min after washout. NMDA-induced responses returned to control in 30 min. Brief co-application of CHPG and NMDA did not alter the NMDA-induced response indicating lack of direct receptor interaction. 3. The attenuating effect of CHPG on the NMDA-induced VRD was inhibited by the mGluR5 receptor antagonist, 2-methyl-6-phenyl-ethynylpyridine (MPEP). 4. In the presence of CGP56433A, a GABA(B) receptor antagonist, the NMDA-induced VRD was unchanged. However, NMDA-induced responses were potentiated after 10 min co-application of CHPG and CGP56433A. 5. (2R,4R)-4-aminopyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylate ((2R,4R)-APDC), a group II mGlu receptor agonist did not attenuate the NMDA-induced response. 6. Under normal physiological conditions group I mGlu receptor agonists activate at least two populations of neurones: (1) GABA-ergic cells, which could release GABA and inhibit dorsal horn neurones, and (2) deep dorsal horn neurones/motoneurones which express NMDA receptors. Therefore, activation of mGlu5 receptors located on GABA-ergic interneurones could influence any direct potentiating interaction between mGlu5 and NMDA receptors in spinal cord and result in depression of the VRD. In the presence of a GABA(B) receptor antagonist, the direct synergistic interaction is unmasked. These data suggest that group I mGlu receptors provide a complex modulation of spinal synaptic processes.

Induction of potent Th1-type immune responses from a novel DNA vaccine for West Nile virus New York isolate (WNV-NY1999)

West Nile virus (WNV) is a vectorborne pathogen that induces brain inflammation and death. Recently, confirmed cases of infection and deaths have occurred in the United States Mid-Atlantic region. In this study, a DNA vaccine encoding the WNV capsid protein was constructed, and the in vivo immune responses generated were investigated in DNA vaccine-immunized mice. Antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses were observed, including a potent induction of antigen-specific Th1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses. Strong induction of Th1-type immune responses included high levels of antigen-specific elaboration of the Th1-type cytokines interferon-gamma and interleukin-2 and beta-chemokines RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T cell-expressed and secreted) and macrophage inflammatory protein-1beta. Dramatic infiltration of CD4 and CD8 T cells and macrophages also was observed at the muscle injection site. These results support the potential utility of this method as a tool for developing immunization strategies for WNV and other emerging pathogens.

Induction of immune responses and safety profiles in rhesus macaques immunized with a DNA vaccine expressing human prostate specific antigen

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a widely used marker for prostate cancer, which is secreted by normal prostate cells at low levels, but is produced more substantially by cancer cells. We have previously reported on the use of a DNA vaccine construct that encodes for human PSA gene to elicit host immune responses against cells producing PSA. DNA immunization strategy delivers DNA constructs encoding for a specific immunogen into the host, who becomes the in vivo protein source for the production of antigen. This antigen then is the focus of the resulting immune response. In this study, we examine the induction of immune responses and safety profiles in rhesus macaques immunized with DNA-based PSA vaccine. We observed induction of PSA-specific humoral response as well as positive PSA-specific lymphoproliferative (LPA) response in the vaccinated macaques. We also observed that the stimulated T cells from the PSA-immunized rhesus macaques produced higher levels of Th1 type cytokine IFN-gamma than the control vector immunized animals. On the other hand, DNA immunization did not result in any adverse effects in the immunized macaques, as indicated by complete blood counts, leukocyte differentials and hepatic and renal chemistries. The macaques appeared healthy, without any physical signs of toxicity throughout the observation period. In addition, we did not observe any adverse effect on the vaccination site. The apparent safety and immunogenecity of DNA immunization in this study suggest that further evaluation of this vaccination strategy is warranted.

Engineering enhancement of immune responses to DNA-based vaccines in a prostate cancer model in rhesus macaques through the use of cytokine gene adjuvants

DNA immunization is an important vaccination technique that is being explored as an immunotherapeutic strategy against a variety of infectious diseases as well as cancer. We have been investigating the utility of DNA-based vaccine strategy against prostate cancer. We have developed a DNA vaccine construct that encodes for the human prostate specific antigen (PSA) gene. PSA expression is limited to prostate cells, and the level of PSA expression is substantially increased in prostate cancer cells. This tissue specificity makes PSA a potential target for the development of immunotherapies against prostate cancer. A DNA-based PSA vaccine was used to elicit PSA-specific host immune responses in rodent and nonhuman primate models. In an effort to enhance the clinical utility of the DNA-based PSA vaccine, we also examined the use of cytokine gene adjuvants to modulate vaccine-induced immune responses in these animal models. We observed that pCPSA vaccine-induced humoral and cellular immune responses can be modulated through the coimmunization with cytokine genes in mice, and these enhancement effects on the PSA-specific cellular responses were extended in macaques. More specifically, coimmunization with interleukin (IL)-2 cDNA construct resulted in a significant enhancement of PSA-specific antibody responses in both mice and macaque models. In contrast, coinjection of IL-12 resulted in reduction of antibody responses in both models. In mice, the groups coimmunized with IL-2, IL-12, or IL-18 showed a dramatic increase in T helper cell proliferation over the results with pCPSA alone. These results support that further evaluation of this vaccination strategy to treat prostate cancer is warranted.

Involvement of G protein-coupled receptor kinase-6 in desensitization of CGRP receptors

This investigation was undertaken to study the mechanisms of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-mediated desensitization using recombinant porcine CGRP receptors stably expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cells. Pretreatment of these cells with human alphaCGRP resulted in an approximately 60% decrease in CGRP-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity and an approximately 10-fold rightward shift in the dose-response curve of CGRP. This effect was rapid (t(1/2) approximately 5 min) and was accompanied by a significant decrease in [125I]CGRP binding to membrane preparations from CGRP-pretreated cells. In contrast, CGRP pretreatment had no effect on isoproterenol- or forskolin-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity in these cells. The potential involvement of protein kinase A or protein kinase C in CGRP-mediated desensitization was studied using selective inhibitors or activators of these kinases. Pretreatment of the cells with forskolin (adenylyl cyclase activator) or phorbol dibutyrate (protein kinase C activator) had no effect on CGRP-mediated adenylyl cyclase activity and did not influence CGRP-mediated desensitization. However, pretreatment of the cells with 2-(8-[(dimethylamino)methyl]-6,7,8, 9-tetrahydropyrido[1,2-a]indol-3-yl]-3-(1-methylindol-3-yl)m aleimide hydrochloride (Ro 32-0432) (a potent inhibitor of protein kinase C) resulted in significant attenuation of CGRP-mediated desensitization with an IC(50) approximately 3 microM. To establish whether this effect might be due to inhibition of other protein kinases by Ro 32-0432, its effect was tested against several G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs). Ro 32-0432 was found to inhibit GRK2, GRK5, and GRK6 with IC(50) values of 29, 3.6, and 16 microM, respectively, suggesting that its effect on CGRP-mediated desensitization might be a result of GRK inhibition. To further test this hypothesis, as well as the potential GRK specificity, the cells were treated with antisense oligonucleotides to GRK2, GRK5, and GRK6. While GRK2 and GRK5 antisense nucleotides had no effect on CGRP-mediated desensitization, the GRK6 antisense nucleotide treatment significantly reversed CGRP-mediated desensitization. These results suggest the involvement of GRK6 in CGRP-mediated desensitization in HEK-293 cells.

LFA-3 plasmid DNA enhances Ag-specific humoral- and cellular-mediated protective immunity against herpes simplex virus-2 in vivo: involvement of CD4+ T cells in protection

Adhesion molecules are important for cell trafficking and delivery of secondary signals for stimulation of T cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in a variety of immune and inflammatory responses. Adhesion molecules lymphocyte function-associated antigen (LFA)-1 and CD2 on T cells recognize intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and LFA-3 on APCs, respectively. Recent studies have suggested that these molecules might play a regulatory role in antigen-specific immune responses. To investigate specific roles of adhesion molecules in immune induction we coimmunized LFA-3 and ICAM-1 cDNAs with a gD plasmid vaccine and then analyzed immune modulatory effects and protection against lethal herpes simplex virus (HSV)-2 challenge. We observed that gD-specific IgG production was enhanced by LFA-3 coinjection. However, little change in IgG production was observed by ICAM-1 coinjection. Furthermore, both Th1 and Th2 IgG isotype production was driven by LFA-3. LFA-3 also enhanced Th cell proliferative responses and production of interleukin (IL)-2, interferon-gamma, IL-4, and IL-10 from splenocytes. In contrast, ICAM-1 showed slightly increasing effects on T-cell proliferation responses and cytokine production. beta-Chemokine production (RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MCP-1) was also influenced by LFA-3 or ICAM-1. When animals were challenged with a lethal dose of HSV-2, LFA-3-coimmunized animals exhibited an enhanced survival rate, as compared to animals given ICAM-1 or gD DNA vaccine alone. This enhanced protection appears to be mediated by CD4+ T cells, as determined by in vitro and in vivo T-cell subset deletion. These studies demonstrate that adhesion molecule LFA-3 can play an important role in generating protective antigen-specific immunity in the HSV model system through increased induction of CD4+ Th1 T-cell subset.

Patients with an ultrasonographic cervical length < or =15 mm have nearly a 50% risk of early spontaneous preterm delivery

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the value in the prediction of spontaneous preterm delivery of ultrasonographically measured cervical length measured between 14 and 24 weeks' gestation.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study examined cervical length by means of a two-stage procedure, transabdominal ultrasonography followed by transvaginal ultrasonography if cervical length was <30 mm.

RESULTS

A total of 6877 patients met inclusion criteria. Mean cervical length was 37.5 mm. Odds ratios for early preterm delivery (< or =32 weeks' gestation) for patients with cervical lengths < or =10, < or =15, < or = 20, < or =25, and < or =30 mm were, respectively, 29.3 (95% confidence interval, 11.3-75.8), 24.3 (95% confidence interval, 12. 9-45.9), 18.3 (95% confidence interval, 10.8-31.0), 13.4 (95% confidence interval, 8.8-20.6), and 3.2 (95% confidence interval, 2. 4-4.4). For early preterm delivery a cervical length of < or =15 mm had a positive predictive value of 47.6%, a negative predictive value of 96.7%, a sensitivity of 8.2%, and a specificity of 99.7%.

CONCLUSIONS

A short cervix seen on a second-trimester sonogram was a powerful predictor of early spontaneous preterm delivery (< or =32 weeks' gestation). Nearly 50% of patients with a cervical length < or =15 mm had an early spontaneous preterm delivery, which suggests that clinical trials of interventions (eg, cerclage) in this population are urgently needed.

Chemokine gene adjuvants can modulate immune responses induced by DNA vaccines

Nucleic acid immunization has been shown to induce both antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses in vivo. Moreover, immune responses induced by DNA immunization can be enhanced by the use of molecular adjuvants. For example, coadministration of costimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86), proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1alpha [IL-1alpha], tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-alpha, and TNF-beta), Th1 cytokines (interleukin-2 [IL-2], IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18), Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10), and granulocytes-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) with DNA vaccine constructs leads to modulation of the magnitude and direction (humoral or cellular) of the immune responses. To further engineer the immune response in vivo, we compared the induction and regulation of immune responses from the codelivery of chemokine (IL-8, interferon-gamma-inducible protein-10 [gammaIP-10], macrophage inhibitory protein-1alpha [MIP-1alpha], and RANTES) genes with codelivery of cytokine genes. We found that as in cytokine gene codelivery, coimmunization with chemokine genes along with DNA immunogen constructs can modulate the direction and magnitude of induced immune responses. We observed that coimmunization with IL-8, gammaIP-10, and MIP-1alpha genes increased the antibody response. We also found that coinjection with IL-8, gammaIP-10, and RANTES resulted in a dramatic enhancement of T helper (Th) proliferation response. Furthermore, among all coinjection combinations, we found that RANTES coinjection caused a high level of cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL) enhancement. This enhancement of CTL responses observed from the coinjection with RANTES was CD8+ T cell dependent. Together with earlier reports on the utility of coimmunizing immunologically important molecules with DNA immunogens, we demonstrate the potential of this strategy as an important tool for the development of more rationally designed vaccines.

Factors associated with fetal macrosomia in offspring of gestational diabetic women

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether there is a relationship between birthweight and interval between 1-h and 3-h glucose tolerance test (GTT) as well as other factors.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis of our computerized diabetes database for the years 1992-1997. Ninety-four women with gestational diabetes fulfilled the inclusion criteria (i.e., singleton gestation, term delivery, absence of medical conditions, and known interval between 1-h and 3-h GTT). They were evaluated based on prepregnancy body mass index (BMI), mean glucose values, interval between diagnostic testing, and gestational age of 3-h GTT.

RESULTS

Subjects with GDM had a mean glucose value of 96.8 mg/dl and average prepregnancy BMI of 29.3 kg/m2. When GDM subjects with and without macrosomic infants were compared, mean glucose values (97.4 vs. 96.6 mg/dl) and mean interval (18.1 vs. 17.0 days) between diagnostic testing did not significantly differ. However, maternal prepregnancy BMI was higher in the group of women who gave birth to macrosomic infants (32.2 vs. 28.22 kg/m2, P = 0.008). Using stepwise multiple regression, maternal prepregnancy BMI was the only variable found to be predictive of macrosomia.

CONCLUSION

We were unable to show a statistical relationship between interval of diagnostic testing and rate of macrosomia. However, we demonstrated a clear relationship between maternal BMI and infant birthweight.

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor can modulate immune responses and attract dendritic cells in vivo

Studies have indicated that professional APCs in the periphery, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, play an important role in initiating DNA vaccine-specific immune responses. To engineer the immune response induced by DNA vaccines in vivo we investigated the modulatory effects of codelivering growth factor genes for the hematopoietic APCs along with DNA vaccines. Specifically, we examined the effects on the antigen-specific immune responses following the codelivery of the gene expression cassettes for M-CSF, G-CSF, and GM-CSF along with HIV-1 DNA immunogen constructs. We observed that coimmunization with GM-CSF increased the antibody response and resulted in a significant enhancement of lymphoproliferative response. Furthermore, among all coinjection combinations, we found that M-CSF coinjections resulted in a high level of CTL enhancement. This enhancement of CTL responses observed from the coinjection with M-CSF was CD8+ T cell dependent and was associated with the presence of CD11c+ cells at the site of injection and with the antigen-specific induction of the beta-chemokine MIP-1beta, suggesting a role for this chemokine in CTL induction. These results suggest that hematopoietic growth factors should be further studied as potential adjuvants for in vivo modulators of immune responses.

Comparative affinities of adrenomedullin (AM) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) for [125I] AM and [125I] CGRP specific binding sites in porcine tissues

We have investigated the binding characteristics of rat [125I] adrenomedullin (AM) and human [125I] calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) to membranes prepared from a number of porcine tissues including atrium, ventricle, lung, spleen, liver, renal cortex and medulla. These membranes displayed specific, high affinity binding for [125I] rat AM and [125I] human CGRP. Porcine lung displayed the highest density of binding sites for radiolabeled AM and CGRP followed by porcine renal cortex. Competition experiments performed with [125I] rat AM indicated that the rank order of potencies of various peptides for inhibiting [125I] rat AM binding to various tissues were rat AM > or = human AM > or = human AM(22-52) > h alpha CGRP > or = h alpha CGRP(8-37) >>>> sCT except spleen, atrium, renal cortex and renal medulla where rAM and hAM were 20-300 fold more potent than hAM (22-52). When the same experiments were performed using [125I] h alpha CGRP as the radioligand, the rank order potencies for various peptides were rAM = hAM > h alpha CGRP > h alpha CGRP(8-37) in most of the tissues except in spleen and liver where h alpha CGRP was the most potent ligand. In lung, h alpha CGRP was almost as potent as rAM and hAM in displacing [125I] h alpha CGRP binding. These data suggest the existence of distinct CGRP and AM specific binding sites in contrast to previous reports that showed that both peptides interact differently in rat tissues.

CD86 (B7-2) can function to drive MHC-restricted antigen-specific CTL responses in vivo

Activation of T cells requires both TCR-specific ligation by direct contact with peptide Ag-MHC complexes and coligation of the B7 family of ligands through CD28/CTLA-4 on the T cell surface. We recently reported that coadministration of CD86 cDNA along with DNA encoding HIV-1 Ags i.m. dramatically increased Ag-specific CTL responses. We investigated whether the bone marrow-derived professional APCs or muscle cells were responsible for the enhancement of CTL responses following CD86 coadministration. Accordingly, we analyzed CTL induction in bone marrow chimeras. These chimeras are capable of generating functional viral-specific CTLs against vaccinia virus and therefore represent a useful model system to study APC/T cell function in vivo. In vaccinated chimeras, we observed that only CD86 + Ag + MHC class I results in 1) detectable CTLs following in vitro restimulation, 2) detectable direct CTLs, 3) enhanced IFN-gamma production in an Ag-specific manner, and 4) dramatic tissue invasion of T cells. These results support that CD86 plays a central role in CTL induction in vivo, enabling non-bone marrow-derived cells to prime CTLs, a property previously associated solely with bone marrow-derived APCs.

Intracellular adhesion molecule-1 modulates beta-chemokines and directly costimulates T cells in vivo

The potential roles of adhesion molecules in the expansion of T cell-mediated immune responses in the periphery were examined using DNA immunogen constructs as model antigens. We coimmunized cDNA expression cassettes encoding the adhesion molecules intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), lymphocyte function associated-3 (LFA-3), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) along with DNA immunogens, and we analyzed the resulting antigen-specific immune responses. We observed that antigen-specific T-cell responses can be enhanced by the coexpression of DNA immunogen and adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and LFA-3. Coexpression of ICAM-1 or LFA-3 molecules along with DNA immunogens resulted in a significant enhancement of T-helper cell proliferative responses. In addition, coimmunization with pCICAM-1 (and more moderately with pCLFA-3) resulted in a dramatic enhancement of CD8-restricted cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses. Although VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 are similar in size, VCAM-1 coimmunization did not have any measurable effect on cell-mediated responses. These results suggest that ICAM-1 and LFA-3 provide direct T-cell costimulation. These observations are further supported by the finding that coinjection with ICAM-1 dramatically enhanced the level of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and beta-chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), MIP-1beta, and regulated on activation normal T-cell expression and secreted (RANTES) produced by stimulated T cells. Through comparative studies, we observed that ICAM-1/LFA-1 T-cell costimulatory pathways are independent of CD86/CD28 pathways and that they may synergistically expand T-cell responses in vivo.

Cytokine molecular adjuvants modulate immune responses induced by DNA vaccine constructs for HIV-1 and SIV

DNA or nucleic acid immunization has been shown to induce both antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses in vivo. Moreover, immune responses induced by DNA immunization can be enhanced and modulated by the use of molecular adjuvants. To further engineer the immune response in vivo, we investigated the induction and regulation of immune responses from the codelivery of Thl cytokines (interleukin-2 [IL-2] and IL-12), Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) genes along with a DNA vaccine construct encoding for simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) gag/pol proteins. We observed that coinjection with IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, and GM-CSF resulted in increased levels of antigen-specific antibodies. In addition, we found that coinjection with cytokine genes drove the immune responses toward a more Thl or Th2 phenotype. We also observed that coadministration of IL-2, IL-12, and GM-CSF genes resulted in a dramatic enhancement of Th proliferation responses. Moreover, coimmunization with IL-12 genes resulted in a dramatic enhancement of antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. These results support the potential utility of molecular adjuvants in DNA vaccine regimens.

Volume-length impact of lateral jaw resections on complication rates

OBJECTIVE

To study the relationship between soft tissue volume loss and bone resection length following lateral segmental mandibulectomy with plate reconstruction and complication rates.

DESIGN

Retrospective case review of 31 patients (1989-1996), with average follow-up of 37.2 months, who were treated by lateral composite resection for oral cavity and/or oropharyngeal malignancy with primary reconstruction by defect-bridging plates.

SETTING

Academic tertiary care referral center.

INTERVENTIONS

Thirty patients had stainless steel and 1 patient a vitallium reconstruction plate to restore mandibular continuity. Soft tissue defects were repaired with pectoralis myocutaneous flaps (n = 25), skin grafts (n = 4), a radial forearm free flap (n = 1), or primary closure (n = 1). All patients received preoperative (n = 6) or postoperative (n = 25) radiation therapy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Overall and hardware-related complications.

RESULTS

All 31 initial soft tissue repairs were successful. Subsequent complications occurred in 14 patients (45%), which included plate exposure (29%), loosened screws requiring hardware removal (29%), fistula (14%), local wound infection (14%), osteomyelitis (7%), and plate fracture (7%). Average time to complication was 7.7 months. Complication rates were 81% for bone defects greater than 5.0 cm, and 7% for those less than 5.0 cm. Bivariate analysis indicated bone resection lengths greater than 5.0 cm to be a significant predictor of both hardware-related (P = .02) and overall complications (P = .005), whereas soft tissue volume resections greater than 240 cm3 were found only to be marginally significant (P = .04) for overall complications.

CONCLUSION

Extirpative losses involving more than 5 cm of bone, or tissue volume greater than 240 cm3, are associated with unacceptably high complication rates when reconstructed with solid screw stainless steel plates and this warrants consideration of alternative techniques for long-term stability.

Molecular and immunological analysis of genetic prostate specific antigen (PSA) vaccine

Nucleic acid immunization has been investigated as immunotherapy for infectious diseases as well as for treating specific types of cancers. In this approach, nucleic acid expression cassettes are directly inoculated into the host, whose transfected cells become the production source of novel and possibly immunologically foreign protein. We have developed a DNA vaccine construct which encodes for PSA by cloning a cDNA for PSA into a mammalian expression vector under control of a CMV promoter. We investigated and characterized the immunogenicity of PSA DNA expression cassettes in mice. PSA-specific immune responses induced in vivo by immunization were characterized by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), T helper proliferation cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), and flow cytometry assays. We observed a strong and persistent antibody response against PSA for at least 180 days following immunization. In addition, a significant T helper cell proliferation was observed against PSA protein. Using synthetic peptides spanning the PSA open frame, we identified four dominant T helper epitopes of PSA. Furthermore, immunization with PSA plasmid induced MHC Class I CD8+ T cell-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte response against tumor cell targets expressing PSA. The prostate represents a very specific functional organ critical for reproduction but not for the health and survival of the individual. Understanding the immunogenicity of PSA DNA immunization cassettes offers insight into the possible use of this tumor-associated antigen as a target for immunotherapy. These results demonstrate the ability of the genetic PSA to serve as a specific immune target capable of generating both humoral and cellular immune responses in vivo.

CD8 positive T cells influence antigen-specific immune responses through the expression of chemokines

The potential roles of CD8(+) T-cell-induced chemokines in the expansion of immune responses were examined using DNA immunogen constructs as model antigens. We coimmunized cDNA expression cassettes encoding the alpha-chemokines IL-8 and SDF-1alpha and the beta-chemokines MIP-1alpha, RANTES, and MCP-1 along with DNA immunogens and analyzed the resulting antigen-specific immune responses. In a manner more similar to the traditional immune modulatory role of CD4(+) T cells via the expression of Th1 or Th2 cytokines, CD8(+) T cells appeared to play an important role in immune expansion and effector function by producing chemokines. For instance, IL-8 was a strong inducer of CD4(+) T cells, indicated by strong T helper proliferative responses as well as an enhancement of antibody responses. MIP-1alpha had a dramatic effect on antibody responses and modulated the shift of immune responses to a Th2-type response. RANTES coimmunization enhanced the levels of antigen-specific Th1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. Among the chemokines examined, MCP-1 was the most potent activator of CD8(+) CTL activity. The enhanced CTL results are supported by the increased expression of Th1 cytokines IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha and the reduction of IgG1/IgG2a ratio. Our results support that CD8(+) T cells may expand both humoral and cellular responses in vivo through the elaboration of specific chemokines at the peripheral site of infection during the effector stage of the immune response.

Modulation of amplitude and direction of in vivo immune responses by co-administration of cytokine gene expression cassettes with DNA immunogens

Immunization with nucleic acids has been shown to induce both antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses in vivo. We hypothesize that immunization with DNA could be enhanced by directing specific immune responses induced by the vaccine based on the differential correlates of protection known for a particular pathogen. Recently we and others reported that specific immune responses generated by DNA vaccine could be modulated by co-delivery of gene expression cassettes encoding for IL-12, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and the co-stimulatory molecule CD86. To further engineer the immune response in vivo, we investigated the induction and regulation of immune responses following the co-delivery of pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1 alpha, TNF-alpha, and TNF-beta), Th1 cytokine (IL-2, IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18), and Th2 cytokine (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10) genes. We observed enhancement of antigen-specific humoral response with the co-delivery of Th2 cytokine genes IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 as well as those of IL-2 and IL-18. A dramatic increase in antigen-specific T helper cell proliferation was seen with IL-2 and TNF-alpha gene co-injections. In addition, we observed a significant enhancement of the cytotoxic response with the co-administration of TNF-alpha and IL-15 genes with HIV-1 DNA immunogens. These increases in CTL response were both MHC class I restricted and CD8+ T cell dependent. Together with earlier reports on the utility of co-immunizing using immunologically important molecules together with DNA immunogens, we demonstrate the potential of this strategy as an important tool for the development of more rationally designed vaccines.

Modulation of amplitude and direction of in vivo immune responses by co-administration of cytokine gene expression cassettes with DNA immunogens

Immunization with nucleic acids has been shown to induce both antigen-specific cellular and humoral immune responses in vivo. We hypothesize that immunization with DNA could be enhanced by directing specific immune responses induced by the vaccine based on the differential correlates of protection known for a particular pathogen. Recently we and others reported that specific immune responses generated by DNA vaccine could be modulated by co-delivery of gene expression cassettes encoding for IL-12, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and the co-stimulatory molecule CD86. To further engineer the immune response in vivo, we investigated the induction and regulation of immune responses following the co-delivery of pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1 alpha, TNF-alpha, and TNF-beta), Th1 cytokine (IL-2, IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18), and Th2 cytokine (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10) genes. We observed enhancement of antigen-specific humoral response with the co-delivery of Th2 cytokine genes IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 as well as those of IL-2 and IL-18. A dramatic increase in antigen-specific T helper cell proliferation was seen with IL-2 and TNF-alpha gene co-injections. In addition, we observed a significant enhancement of the cytotoxic response with the co-administration of TNF-alpha and IL-15 genes with HIV-1 DNA immunogens. These increases in CTL response were both MHC class I restricted and CD8+ T cell dependent. Together with earlier reports on the utility of co-immunizing using immunologically important molecules together with DNA immunogens, we demonstrate the potential of this strategy as an important tool for the development of more rationally designed vaccines.

Interaction of adrenomedullin with calcitonin receptor in cultured human breast cancer cells, T 47D

Human adrenomedullin (hADM), human calcitonin gene-related peptide (hCGRP), and salmon calcitonin (sCT)-activated adenylyl cyclase with EC50 values of 132, 764, and 0.5 nM, respectively, in human breast cancer cell line, T 47D. Treatment of T 47D cell membranes with near maximal concentrations of sCT, hADM and hCGRP had no additive effect on adenylyl cyclase activity. Salmon calcitonin (8-32)[sCT (8-32)], selective antagonist of calcitonin receptor, inhibited the activation of adenylyl cyclase by these three peptides. On the other hand, the putative ADM receptor antagonist, ADM (22-52), and CGRP receptor antagonist, CGRP (8-37), failed to inhibit ADM-, CGRP- or sCT-activated adenylyl cyclase. These results suggest that in T47D cells, both ADM and CGRP activated adenylyl cyclase through sCT receptors.

Evidence for histamine involvement in the effect of histidine loads on food and water intake in rats

We examined the hypothesis that histidine is a regulator of short-term food and water intake in rats and that this control is through histidine's action as a precursor for histamine. The primary objectives were to measure food and water intake after histidine monohydrochloride monohydrate (His-HCl) given by intragastric (IG) and intraperitoneal (IP) routes of administration and to measure feeding and drinking responses to histidine when given after blockade of the histaminergic pathway by chlorpheniramine (CPA) and alpha-fluoromethylhistidine (FMH). Eight experiments were conducted using a back-to-back design. Rats were given treatment by IP or IG administration, and food and water intake was measured during time periods of 0-1, 1-2, 2-3 and 3-14 h. Histidine consistently reduced food intake with the sensitivity to IP much greater than to the IG route. The effect of histidine given by IP or IG on water intake was similar, generally causing an increase at least in the first hour. Histidine's action was not accounted for by its energy, pH or nitrogen content. Because FMH, which blocks the enzyme converting histidine to histamine, partially reversed the effect of histidine on food and water intake, these results support the hypothesis that histidine regulates food and water intake, at least in part, through its precursor control of histamine.

Engineering of in vivo immune responses to DNA immunization via codelivery of costimulatory molecule genes

Nucleic acid immunization is a novel vaccination technique to induce antigen-specific immune responses. We have developed expression cassettes for cell surface markers CD80 and CD86, two functionally related costimulatory molecules that play an important role in the induction of T cell-mediated immune responses. Coimmunization of these expression plasmids, along with plasmid DNA encoding for HIV-1 antigens, did not result in any significant change in the humoral response; however, we observed a dramatic increase in cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) induction as well as T-helper cell proliferation after the coadministration of CD86 genes. In contrast, coimmunization with a CD80 expression cassette resulted in a minor, but positive increase in T-helper cell or CTL responses. This strategy may be of value for the generation of rationally designed vaccines and immune therapeutics.

Mucosal immunization with a DNA vaccine induces immune responses against HIV-1 at a mucosal site

Mucosal immunity is the first defense system in protection against mucosal infection by sexually transmitted diseases and subsequent systemic dissemination of infection. Development of vaccines which can induce protective mucosal immunity would have great promise for preventing sexually transmitted diseases including AIDS. DNA vaccines have recently shown certain advantages over other types of vaccines in safety and elicitation of specific immune responses. We have hypothesized that direct delivery of a DNA plasmid coding the HIV-1 envelope (pcMN160) via mucosal routes will stimulate mucosal immunity against HIV-1. The expression of DNA plasmid inoculated intravaginally was detected in various tissues. Intravaginal inoculation of pcMN160 elicits production of vaginal immunoglobulins which specifically bind to the HIV-1 envelope and neutralize HIV-1 infectivity in vitro. These results indicate the feasibility of inducing mucosal immunity following mucosal inoculation of DNA vaccines. When coupled with systemic inoculation of appropriate DNA constructs, effective mucosal and systemic immunity may be generated.

Safety and immunogenicity of intramuscular and intravaginal delivery of HIV-1 DNA constructs to infant chimpanzees

Any global strategy for controlling the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic is likely to rely heavily on immunization of infants and children. Given the well-documented differences in children's responses to traditional vaccines, we initiated this study to extend our findings on DNA vaccination of adult chimpanzees to immunologically immature infant chimpanzees. Our findings were consistent with our previous work in adults as we observed that the DNA vaccines used here were both well tolerated and immunogenic within weeks of the initial vaccination.

In vivo engineering of a cellular immune response by coadministration of IL-12 expression vector with a DNA immunogen

Recent studies support the importance of investigating a DNA vaccination approach for the immunologic control of HIV-1. In this regard, it may be important to specifically engineer immune responses in order to improve on first generation vaccine attempts. Especially for HIV, induction of cell-mediated immunity may be an important feature for any candidate vaccine. In an attempt to engineer in vivo the enhancement of cellular immune response and to direct Ag-dependent immune response from Th2 to Th1 type, we investigated the role of codelivery of genes for IL-12 and granulocyte-macrophage-CSF along with DNA vaccine formulations for HIV-1 Ag. We found that codelivery of IL-12 expression cassettes with DNA vaccines for HIV-1 in mice resulted in splenomegaly as well as a shift in the specific immune responses induced. The codelivery of IL-12 genes resulted in the reduction of specific Ab response, while the coinjection of granulocyte-macrophage-CSF genes resulted in the enhancement of specific Ab response. In addition, we observed a significant Ag-specific stimulation of T cells with codelivery of both cytokines. Most importantly, we observed a dramatic increase in specific CTL response from the group coimmunized with the HIV-1 DNA vaccine and IL-12 genes. This work demonstrates the power of DNA delivery in vivo for both the production of a new generation of more effective and targeted vaccines or immunotherapies as well as an analytic tool for the molecular dissection of the mechanisms of immune function.

In vivo engineering of a cellular immune response by coadministration of IL-12 expression vector with a DNA immunogen

Recent studies support the importance of investigating a DNA vaccination approach for the immunologic control of HIV-1. In this regard, it may be important to specifically engineer immune responses in order to improve on first generation vaccine attempts. Especially for HIV, induction of cell-mediated immunity may be an important feature for any candidate vaccine. In an attempt to engineer in vivo the enhancement of cellular immune response and to direct Ag-dependent immune response from Th2 to Th1 type, we investigated the role of codelivery of genes for IL-12 and granulocyte-macrophage-CSF along with DNA vaccine formulations for HIV-1 Ag. We found that codelivery of IL-12 expression cassettes with DNA vaccines for HIV-1 in mice resulted in splenomegaly as well as a shift in the specific immune responses induced. The codelivery of IL-12 genes resulted in the reduction of specific Ab response, while the coinjection of granulocyte-macrophage-CSF genes resulted in the enhancement of specific Ab response. In addition, we observed a significant Ag-specific stimulation of T cells with codelivery of both cytokines. Most importantly, we observed a dramatic increase in specific CTL response from the group coimmunized with the HIV-1 DNA vaccine and IL-12 genes. This work demonstrates the power of DNA delivery in vivo for both the production of a new generation of more effective and targeted vaccines or immunotherapies as well as an analytic tool for the molecular dissection of the mechanisms of immune function.

In vivo protective anti-HIV immune responses in non-human primates through DNA immunization

An effective immune response involves the specific recognition of and elimination of an infectious organism at multiple levels. In this context DNA immunization can present functional antigenic proteins to the host for recognition by all arms of the immune system, yet provides the opportunity to delete any genes of the infectious organism which code for antigens or pieces of antigens that may have deleterious effects. Our group has developed the use of nucleic acid immunization as a possible method of vaccination against Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) [1,2,3,10,11,12]. Sera from non-human primates immunized with DNA vectors that express the envelope proteins from HIV-1 contain antibodies specific to the HIV-1 envelope. These sera also neutralize HIV-1 infection in vitro and inhibit cell to cell infection in tissue culture. Analysis of cellular responses is equally encouraging. T cell proliferation as well as cytotoxic T cell lysis of relevant env expressing target cells were observed. In addition, evidence that DNA vaccines are capable of inducing a protective response against live virus was demonstrated using a chimeric SIV/HIV (SHIV) challenge in vaccinated cynomologous macaques. We found that nucleic acid vaccination induced protection from challenge in one out of four immunized cynomolgus macaques and viral load was lower in the vaccinated group of animals versus the control group of animals. These data encouraged us to analyze this vaccination technique in chimpanzees, the most closely related animal species to man. We observed the induction of both cellular and humoral immune responses with a DNA vaccine in chimpanzees. These studies demonstrate the utility of this technology to induce relevant immune responses in primates which may ultimately lead to effective vaccines.