Gene therapy for neurodegenerative disorders: advances, insights and prospects

Gene therapy is rapidly emerging as a powerful therapeutic strategy for a wide range of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). Some early clinical trials have failed to achieve satisfactory therapeutic effects. Efforts to enhance effectiveness are now concentrating on three major fields: identification of new vectors, novel therapeutic targets, and reliable of delivery routes for transgenes. These approaches are being assessed closely in preclinical and clinical trials, which may ultimately provide powerful treatments for patients. Here, we discuss advances and challenges of gene therapy for neurodegenerative disorders, highlighting promising technologies, targets, and future prospects.

Bioactive natural compounds against human coronaviruses: a review and perspective

Coronaviruses (CoVs), a family of enveloped positive-sense RNA viruses, are characterized by club-like spikes that project from their surface, unusually large RNA genome, and unique replication capability. CoVs are known to cause various potentially lethal human respiratory infectious diseases, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and the very recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak. Unfortunately, neither drug nor vaccine has yet been approved to date to prevent and treat these diseases caused by CoVs. Therefore, effective prevention and treatment medications against human coronavirus are in urgent need. In the past decades, many natural compounds have been reported to possess multiple biological activities, including antiviral properties. In this article, we provided a comprehensive review on the natural compounds that interfere with the life cycles of SARS and MERS, and discussed their potential use for the treatment of COVID-19.

Innate Immune Receptors, Key Actors in Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death in the industrialized world. Most CVDs are associated with increased inflammation that arises mainly from innate immune system activation related to cardiac damage. Sustained activation of the innate immune system frequently results in maladaptive inflammatory responses that promote cardiovascular dysfunction and remodeling. Much research has focused on determining whether some mediators of the innate immune system are potential targets for CVD therapy. The innate immune system has specific receptors-termed pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)-that not only recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns, but also sense danger-associated molecular signals. Activation of PRRs triggers the inflammatory response in different physiological systems, including the cardiovascular system. The classic PRRs, toll-like receptors (TLRs), and the more recently discovered nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLRs), have been recently proposed as key partners in the progression of several CVDs (e.g., atherosclerosis and heart failure). The present review discusses the key findings related to the involvement of TLRs and NLRs in the progression of several vascular and cardiac diseases, with a focus on whether some NLR subtypes (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing receptor 3 and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1) can be candidates for the development of new therapeutic strategies for several CVDs.

Combined alcoholic and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

While metabolic syndrome and alcohol consumption are the two main causes of chronic liver disease, one of the two conditions is often predominant, with the other acting as a cofactor of morbimortality. It has been shown that obesity and alcohol act synergistically to increase the risk of fibrosis progression, hepatic carcinogenesis and mortality, while genetic polymorphisms can strongly influence disease progression. Based on common pathogenic pathways, there are several potential targets that could be used to treat both diseases; based on the prevalence and incidence of these diseases, new therapies and clinical trials are needed urgently.

COVID-19 for the Cardiologist: Basic Virology, Epidemiology, Cardiac Manifestations, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), a contagious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has reached pandemic status. As it spreads across the world, it has overwhelmed health care systems, strangled the global economy, and led to a devastating loss of life. Widespread efforts from regulators, clinicians, and scientists are driving a rapid expansion of knowledge of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and COVID-19. The authors review the most current data, with a focus on the basic understanding of the mechanism(s) of disease and translation to the clinical syndrome and potential therapeutics. The authors discuss the basic virology, epidemiology, clinical manifestation, multiorgan consequences, and outcomes. With a focus on cardiovascular complications, they propose several mechanisms of injury. The virology and potential mechanism of injury form the basis for a discussion of potential disease-modifying therapies.

Inhibition of NADPH oxidase alleviates germ cell apoptosis and ER stress during testicular ischemia reperfusion injury

Testicular torsion and detorsion (TTD) is a serious urological condition affecting young males that is underlined by an ischemia reperfusion injury (tIRI) to the testis as the pathophysiological mechanism. During tIRI, uncontrolled production of oxygen reactive species (ROS) causes DNA damage leading to germ cell apoptosis (GCA). The aim of the study is to explore whether inhibition of NADPH oxidase (NOX), a major source of intracellular ROS, will prevent tIRI-induced GCA and its association with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 36) were divided into three groups: sham, tIRI only and tIRI treated with apocynin (a NOX inhibitor). Rats undergoing tIRI endured an ischemic injury for 1 h followed by 4 h of reperfusion. Spermatogenic damage was evaluated histologically, while cellular damages were assessed using real time PCR, immunofluorescence staining, Western blot and biochemical assays. Disrupted spermatogenesis was associated with increased lipid and protein peroxidation and decreased antioxidant activity of the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) as a result of tIRI. In addition, increased DNA double strand breaks and formation of 8-OHdG adducts associated with increased phosphorylation of the DNA damage response (DDR) protein H2AX. The ASK1/JNK apoptosis signaling pathway was also activated in response to tIRI. Finally, increased immuno-expression of the unfolded protein response (UPR) downstream targets: GRP78, eIF2-α1, CHOP and caspase 12 supported the presence of ER stress. Inhibition of NOX by apocynin protected against tIRI-induced GCA and ER stress. In conclusion, NOX inhibition minimized tIRI-induced intracellular oxidative damages leading to GCA and ER stress.

Direct trafficking pathways from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane

In eukaryotic cells, protein sorting is a highly regulated mechanism important for many physiological events. After synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum and trafficking to the Golgi apparatus, proteins sort to many different cellular destinations including the endolysosomal system and the extracellular space. Secreted proteins need to be delivered directly to the cell surface. Sorting of secreted proteins from the Golgi apparatus has been a topic of interest for over thirty years, yet there is still no clear understanding of the machinery that forms the post-Golgi carriers. Most evidence points to these post-Golgi carriers being tubular pleomorphic structures that bud from the trans-face of the Golgi. In this review, we present the background studies and highlight the key components of this pathway, we then discuss the machinery implicated in the formation of these carriers, their translocation across the cytosol, and their fusion at the plasma membrane.

PERK Inhibition Mitigates Restenosis and Thrombosis: A Potential Low-Thrombogenic Antirestenotic Paradigm

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Drug-eluting stents impede neointimal smooth muscle cell hyperplasia but exacerbate endothelial cell dysfunction and thrombogenicity. It has been a challenge to identify a common target to inhibit both. Findings in this study suggest PERK as such a target.

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A PERK inhibitor administered either via an endovascular (in biomimetic nanocarriers) or perivascular (in hydrogel) route effectively mitigated neointimal hyperplasia in rats.

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Oral gavage of the PERK inhibitor partially preserved the normal blood flow in a mouse model of induced thrombosis.

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Dampening PERK activity inhibited STAT3 while activating SRF in smooth muscle cells, and also reduced prothrombogenic tissue factor and growth impairment of endothelial cells.

Developing endothelial-protective, nonthrombogenic antirestenotic treatments has been a challenge. A major hurdle to this has been the identification of a common molecular target in both smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells, inhibition of which blocks dysfunction of both cell types. The authors’ findings suggest that the PERK kinase could be such a target. Importantly, PERK inhibition mitigated both restenosis and thrombosis in preclinical models, implicating a low-thrombogenic antirestenotic paradigm.

Comparison of two reducing agents dithiothreitol and tris(3-hydroxypropyl)phosphine for in vitro kinetic assay of vitamin K epoxide reductase

Vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) is a target enzyme for anticoagulants, such as warfarin, that are used as medicines or rodenticides. Assessing VKOR activity is required to ensure the proper usage of these drugs. Dithiothreitol (DTT) is a typical disulfide reductant that is used as a substrate for in vitro VKOR assays. However, DTT is considered problematic because of its side effects. Tris(3-hydroxypropyl)phosphine (THP) has been found to be a reliable alternative to DTT, as shown by kinetic analyses of the VKOR with them. THP showed significantly lower V_max and K_m values than those of DTT; however, there was no significant difference in their V_max/K_m and IC₅₀ for warfarin.

TMEM16A Ca2+-activated Cl- channel inhibition ameliorates acute pancreatitis via the IP3R/Ca2+/NFκB/IL-6 signaling pathway

TMEM16A Ca²⁺-activated Cl^- channels are expressed in pancreatic acinar cells and participate in inflammation-associated diseases. Whether TMEM16A contributes to the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis (AP) remains unknown. Here, we found that increased TMEM16A expression in the pancreatic tissue was correlated with the interleukin-6 (IL-6) level in the pancreatic tissue and in the serum of a cerulein-induced AP mouse model. IL-6 treatment promoted TMEM16A expression in AR42J pancreatic acinar cells via the IL-6 receptor (IL-6R)/signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. In addition, TMEM16A was co-immunoprecipitated with the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R) and was activated by IP₃R-mediated Ca²⁺ release. TMEM16A inhibition reduced the IP₃R-mediated Ca²⁺ release induced by cerulein. Furthermore, TMEM16A overexpression activated nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) and increased IL-6 release by increasing intracellular Ca²⁺. TMEM16A knockdown by shRNAs reduced the cerulein-induced NFκB activation by Ca²⁺. TMEM16A inhibitors inhibited NFκB activation by decreasing channel activity and reducing TMEM16A protein levels in AR42J cells, and it ameliorated pancreatic damage in cerulein-induced AP mice. This study identifies a novel mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of AP by which IL-6 promotes TMEM16A expression via IL-6R/STAT3 signaling activation, and TMEM16A overexpression increases IL-6 secretion via IP₃R/Ca²⁺/NFκB signaling activation in pancreatic acinar cells. TMEM16A inhibition may be a new potential strategy for treating AP.

Solute carrier transporters: the metabolic gatekeepers of immune cells

Solute carrier (SLC) transporters meditate many essential physiological functions, including nutrient uptake, ion influx/efflux, and waste disposal. In its protective role against tumors and infections, the mammalian immune system coordinates complex signals to support the proliferation, differentiation, and effector function of individual cell subsets. Recent research in this area has yielded surprising findings on the roles of solute carrier transporters, which were discovered to regulate lymphocyte signaling and control their differentiation, function, and fate by modulating diverse metabolic pathways and balanced levels of different metabolites. In this review, we present current information mainly on glucose transporters, amino-acid transporters, and metal ion transporters, which are critically important for mediating immune cell homeostasis in many different pathological conditions.

Novel radioligands for imaging sigma-1 receptor in brain using positron emission tomography (PET)

The sigma-1 receptor (σ₁R) is a unique intracellular protein. σ₁R plays a major role in various pathological conditions in the central nervous system (CNS), implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Imaging of σ₁R in the brain using positron emission tomography (PET) could serve as a noninvasively tool for enhancing the understanding of the disease's pathophysiology. Moreover, σ₁R PET tracers can be used for target validation and quantification in diagnosis. Herein, we describe the radiosynthesis, in vivo PET/CT imaging of novel σ₁R ¹¹C-labeled radioligands based on 6-hydroxypyridazinone, [¹¹C]HCC0923 and [¹¹C]HCC0929. Two radioligands have high affinities to σ₁R, with good selectivity. In mice PET/CT imaging, both radioligands showed appropriate kinetics and distributions. Additionally, the specific interactions of two radioligands were reduced by compounds 13 and 15 (self-blocking). Of the two, [¹¹C]HCC0929 was further investigated in positive ligands blocking studies, using classic σ₁R agonist SA 4503 and σ₁R antagonist PD 144418. Both σ₁R ligands could extensively decreased the uptake of [¹¹C]HCC0929 in mice brain. Besides, the biodistribution of major brain regions and organs of mice were determined in vivo. These studies demonstrated that two radioligands, especially [¹¹C]HCC0929, possessed ideal imaging properties and might be valuable tools for non-invasive quantification of σ₁R in brain.

Cardioprotective Effects of VCP Modulator KUS121 in Murine and Porcine Models of Myocardial Infarction

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KUS121 was developed to selectively inhibit the adenosine triphosphatase activity of valosin-containing protein without affecting other cellular functions of valosin-containing protein.

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KUS121 preserved adenosine triphosphate levels, reduced endoplasmic reticulum stress, and suppressed cell death in H9C2 rat cardiomyoblast cells, treated with tunicamycin or hydrogen peroxide, or cultured in glucose-free medium.

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In murine ischemia and reperfusion injury models, KUS121 treatment after reperfusion attenuated the infarcted size and preserves cardiac function by maintaining adenosine triphosphate levels and reducing ER stress.

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In porcine ischemia and reperfusion injury models, intracoronary administration of KUS121 also attenuated the infarcted area in a dose-dependent manner.

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These results indicated that KUS121 is a promising novel therapeutic agent for myocardial infarction.

No effective treatment is yet available to reduce infarct size and improve clinical outcomes after acute myocardial infarction by enhancing early reperfusion therapy using primary percutaneous coronary intervention. The study showed that Kyoto University Substance 121 (KUS121) reduced endoplasmic reticulum stress, maintained adenosine triphosphate levels, and ameliorated the infarct size in a murine cardiac ischemia and reperfusion injury model. The study confirmed the cardioprotective effect of KUS121 in a porcine ischemia and reperfusion injury model. These findings confirmed that KUS121 is a promising novel therapeutic agent for myocardial infarction in conjunction with primary percutaneous coronary intervention.

Resveratrol derivatives increase cytosolic calcium by inhibiting plasma membrane ATPase and inducing calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum in prostate cancer cells

Resveratrol (RES) is a putative chemotherapeutic naturally found in grapes, peanuts, and Japanese knotweed. Previous studies demonstrate that RES modulates calcium signaling as part of its chemotherapeutic activity. In this study, we determined the chemotherapeutic activity of three RES esters that have been modified at the 4' hydroxyl by the addition of pivalate, butyrate, and isobutyrate. All of the RES derivatives disrupted the calcium signaling in prostate cancer cells more than the parent compound, RES. Further, we demonstrate that the RES derivatives may disrupt the calcium homeostasis by activating calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum and inhibiting plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPase. The pivalated and butyrated RES derivatives decreased cell viability significantly more than RES. Because pivalated and butyrated RES are more effective than RES at targeting calcium signaling pathways, pivalated and butyrated RES may serve as more effective chemotherapeutics.

Off the wall: The rhyme and reason of Neurospora crassa hyphal morphogenesis

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Chitin and β-1,3-glucan synthases are transported separately in chitosomes and macrovesicles.

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Chitin synthases occupy the core of the SPK; β-1,3-glucan synthases the outer layer.

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CHS-4 arrival to the SPK and septa is CSE-7 dependent.

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Rabs YPT-1 and YPT-31 localization at the SPK mimics that of chitosomes and macrovesicles.

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The exocyst acts as a tether between the SPK outer layer vesicles and the apical PM.

The fungal cell wall building processes are the ultimate determinants of hyphal shape. In Neurospora crassa the main cell wall components, β-1,3-glucan and chitin, are synthesized by enzymes conveyed by specialized vesicles to the hyphal tip. These vesicles follow different secretory routes, which are delicately coordinated by cargo-specific Rab GTPases until their accumulation at the Spitzenkörper. From there, the exocyst mediates the docking of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane, where they ultimately get fused. Although significant progress has been done on the cellular mechanisms that carry cell wall synthesizing enzymes from the endoplasmic reticulum to hyphal tips, a lot of information is still missing. Here, the current knowledge on N. crassa cell wall composition and biosynthesis is presented with an emphasis on the underlying molecular and cellular secretory processes.

Identification of the evolutionarily conserved nuclear envelope proteins Lem2 and MicLem2 in Tetrahymena thermophila

Lem2 family proteins, i.e. the LAP2-Emerin-MAN1 (LEM) domain-containing nuclear envelope proteins, are well-conserved from yeasts to humans, both of which belong to the Opisthokonta supergroup. However, whether their homologs are present in other eukaryotic phylogenies remains unclear. In this study, we identified two Lem2 homolog proteins, which we named as Lem2 and MicLem2, in a ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila belonging to the SAR supergroup. Lem2 was localized to the nuclear envelope of the macronucleus (MAC) and micronucleus (MIC), while MicLem2 was exclusively localized to the nuclear envelope of the MIC. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that Lem2 in T. thermophila was localized to both the inner and outer nuclear envelopes of the MAC and MIC, while MicLem2 was mostly localized to the nuclear pores of the MIC. Molecular domain analysis using GFP-fused protein showed that the N-terminal and luminal domains, including the transmembrane segments, are responsible for nuclear envelope localization. During sexual reproduction, enrichment of Lem2 occurred in the nuclear envelopes of the MAC and MIC to be degraded, while MicLem2 was enriched in the nuclear envelope of the MIC that escaped degradation. These findings suggest the unique characteristics of Tetrahymena Lem2 proteins. Our findings provide insight into the evolutionary divergence of nuclear envelope proteins.

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Conserved nuclear envelope proteins Lem2 and MicLem2 are identified in Tetrahymena.

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Lem2 is localized to the nuclear envelope of the macronucleus and the micronucleus.

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MicLem2 is localized to the nuclear pore complex of the micronucleus.

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In sexual reproduction, Lem2 is enriched to the nuclei assigned to degradation.

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MicLem2 is enriched to the micronuclei that are escaped from degradation.

Effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on ER stress-related genes and glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid and glycine transporter genes in mouse brain

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an emerging therapy for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. However, the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of rTMS are still unclear, limiting its optimisation. Lasting effects suggest changes in disease-related genes, so we conducted gene chip and qRT-PCR analyses of genes associated with psychiatric diseases in the mouse brain at various times following 1, 20, 30 or 40 days of rTMS. Many genes were differentially expressed in the rTMS-treated mouse brain compared to sham controls, including genes encoding neurotransmitter transporters (upregulation of EAAT4, GLAST, GLT-1, GAT2, GAT4, GLYT1 and GLYT2), and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress proteins (downregulation of IRE1α, IRE1β, and XBP1, upregulation of ATF6 and GRP78/Bip). Expression changes in many of these genes were also observed 10 days after the last rTMS treatment. In PC12 cells, rTMS upregulated GRP78/Bip mRNA and enhanced resistance against H₂O₂ stress. These results suggest that rTMS differentially modulates multiple genes associated with psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Sustained changes in the expression of these genes may underlie the therapeutic efficacy of chronic rTMS.

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Gene expression changes in mouse brain were examined following rTMS.

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rTMS altered expression of ER-stress and neurotransmitter transporter genes.

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rTMS also induced ER-stress genes in PC12 cells and protected against H₂O₂ toxicity.

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These expression changes may underlie the therapeutic benefits of rTMS.

Experimental Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis and Liver Fibrosis Are Ameliorated by Pharmacologic Activation of Nrf2 (NF-E2 p45-Related Factor 2)

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is associated with oxidative stress. We surmised that pharmacologic activation of NF-E2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2) using the acetylenic tricyclic bis(cyano enone) TBE-31 would suppress NASH because Nrf2 is a transcriptional master regulator of intracellular redox homeostasis.

METHODS

Nrf2+/+ and Nrf2-/- C57BL/6 mice were fed a high-fat plus fructose (HFFr) or regular chow diet for 16 weeks or 30 weeks, and then treated for the final 6 weeks, while still being fed the same HFFr or regular chow diets, with either TBE-31 or dimethyl sulfoxide vehicle control. Measures of whole-body glucose homeostasis, histologic assessment of liver, and biochemical and molecular measurements of steatosis, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, inflammation, apoptosis, fibrosis, and oxidative stress were performed in livers from these animals.

RESULTS

TBE-31 treatment reversed insulin resistance in HFFr-fed wild-type mice, but not in HFFr-fed Nrf2-null mice. TBE-31 treatment of HFFr-fed wild-type mice substantially decreased liver steatosis and expression of lipid synthesis genes, while increasing hepatic expression of fatty acid oxidation and lipoprotein assembly genes. Also, TBE-31 treatment decreased ER stress, expression of inflammation genes, and markers of apoptosis, fibrosis, and oxidative stress in the livers of HFFr-fed wild-type mice. By comparison, TBE-31 did not decrease steatosis, ER stress, lipogenesis, inflammation, fibrosis, or oxidative stress in livers of HFFr-fed Nrf2-null mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacologic activation of Nrf2 in mice that had already been rendered obese and insulin resistant reversed insulin resistance, suppressed hepatic steatosis, and mitigated against NASH and liver fibrosis, effects that we principally attribute to inhibition of ER, inflammatory, and oxidative stress.

Ethanol Induced Disordering of Pancreatic Acinar Cell Endoplasmic Reticulum: An ER Stress/Defective Unfolded Protein Response Model

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Heavy alcohol drinking is associated with pancreatitis, whereas moderate intake lowers the risk. Mice fed ethanol long term show no pancreas damage unless adaptive/protective responses mediating proteostasis are disrupted. Pancreatic acini synthesize digestive enzymes (largely serine hydrolases) in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where perturbations (eg, alcohol consumption) activate adaptive unfolded protein responses orchestrated by spliced X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1). Here, we examined ethanol-induced early structural changes in pancreatic ER proteins.

METHODS

Wild-type and Xbp1+/- mice were fed control and ethanol diets, then tissues were homogenized and fractionated. ER proteins were labeled with a cysteine-reactive probe, isotope-coded affinity tag to obtain a novel pancreatic redox ER proteome. Specific labeling of active serine hydrolases in ER with fluorophosphonate desthiobiotin also was characterized proteomically. Protein structural perturbation by redox changes was evaluated further in molecular dynamic simulations.

RESULTS

Ethanol feeding and Xbp1 genetic inhibition altered ER redox balance and destabilized key proteins. Proteomic data and molecular dynamic simulations of Carboxyl ester lipase (Cel), a unique serine hydrolase active within ER, showed an uncoupled disulfide bond involving Cel Cys266, Cel dimerization, ER retention, and complex formation in ethanol-fed, XBP1-deficient mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Results documented in ethanol-fed mice lacking sufficient spliced XBP1 illustrate consequences of ER stress extended by preventing unfolded protein response from fully restoring pancreatic acinar cell proteostasis during ethanol-induced redox challenge. In this model, orderly protein folding and transport to the secretory pathway were disrupted, and abundant molecules including Cel with perturbed structures were retained in ER, promoting ER stress-related pancreas pathology.

Pancreatic HIF2α Stabilization Leads to Chronic Pancreatitis and Predisposes to Mucinous Cystic Neoplasm

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Tissue hypoxia controls cell differentiation in the embryonic pancreas, and promotes tumor growth in pancreatic cancer. The cellular response to hypoxia is controlled by the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) proteins, including HIF2α. Previous studies of HIF action in the pancreas have relied on loss-of-function mouse models, and the effects of HIF2α expression in the pancreas have remained undefined.

METHODS

We developed several transgenic mouse models based on the expression of an oxygen-stable form of HIF2α, or indirect stabilization of HIF proteins though deletion of von Hippel-Lindau, thus preventing HIF degradation. Furthermore, we crossed both sets of animals into mice expressing oncogenic KrasG12D in the pancreas.

RESULTS

We show that HIF2α is not expressed in the normal human pancreas, however, it is up-regulated in human chronic pancreatitis. Deletion of von Hippel-Lindau or stabilization of HIF2α in mouse pancreata led to the development of chronic pancreatitis. Importantly, pancreatic HIF1α stabilization did not disrupt the pancreatic parenchyma, indicating that the chronic pancreatitis phenotype is specific to HIF2α. In the presence of oncogenic Kras, HIF2α stabilization drove the formation of cysts resembling mucinous cystic neoplasm (MCN) in humans. Mechanistically, we show that the pancreatitis phenotype is linked to expression of multiple inflammatory cytokines and activation of the unfolded protein response. Conversely, MCN formation is linked to activation of Wnt signaling, a feature of human MCN.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that pancreatic HIF2α stabilization disrupts pancreatic homeostasis, leading to chronic pancreatitis, and, in the context of oncogenic Kras, MCN formation. These findings provide new mouse models of both chronic pancreatitis and MCN, as well as illustrate the importance of hypoxia signaling in the pancreas.

Reduction of calcium flux from the extracellular region and endoplasmic reticulum by amorphous nano-silica particles owing to carboxy group addition on their surface

Several studies have reported that amorphous nano-silica particles (nano-SPs) modulate calcium flux, although the mechanism remains incompletely understood. We thus analyzed the relationship between calcium flux and particle surface properties and determined the calcium flux route. Treatment of Balb/c 3T3 fibroblasts with nano-SPs with a diameter of 70 nm (nSP70) increased cytosolic calcium concentration, but that with SPs with a diameter of 300 or 1000 nm did not. Surface modification of nSP70 with a carboxy group also did not modulate calcium flux. Pretreatment with a general calcium entry blocker almost completely suppressed calcium flux by nSP70. Preconditioning by emptying the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium stores slightly suppressed calcium flux by nSP70. These results indicate that nSP70 mainly modulates calcium flux across plasma membrane calcium channels, with subsequent activation of the ER calcium pump, and that the potential of calcium flux by nano-SPs is determined by the particle surface charge.

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Nano-silica particles increased cytosolic calcium flux in fibroblasts.

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Calcium flux by nano-SPs was suppressed by SKF96365 and thapsigargin.

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Calcium flux modulation by nano-SPs was determined by their surface structure.

Pentylenetetrazol modulates redox system by inducing addicsin translocation from endoplasmic reticulum to plasma membrane in NG108-15 cells

Addicsin (Arl6ip5) is a multifunctional physiological and pathophysiological regulator that exerts its effects by readily forming homo- and hetero-complexes with various functional factors. In particular, addicsin acts as a negative modulator of neural glutamate transporter excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1) and participates in the regulation of intracellular glutathione (GSH) content by negatively modulating EAAC1-mediated cysteine and glutamate uptake. Addicsin is considered to play a crucial role in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases including epilepsy. However, the molecular dynamics of addicsin remains largely unknown. Here, we report the dynamics of addicsin in NG108-15 cells upon exposure to pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), a representative epileptogenic agent acting on the gamma-Aminobutyric acid A (GABA_A) receptor. Fluorescent immunostaining analysis demonstrated that addicsin drastically changed its localization from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the plasma membrane within 1 h of PTZ exposure in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, addicsin was co-localized with the plasma membrane markers EAAC1 and Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase alpha-3 upon PTZ stimulation. This translocation was significantly inhibited by a non-competitive GABA_A receptor antagonist, picrotoxin, but not by a competitive GABA_A receptor antagonist, bicuculline. Furthermore, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging assay showed that PTZ-induced addicsin translocation was accompanied by a decrease of radical-scavenging activity and an increase of cytotoxicity in a PTZ dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that PTZ induces the translocation of addicsin from the ER to the plasma membrane and modulates the redox system by regulating EAAC1-mediated GSH synthesis, which leads to the activation of cell death signaling.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress and eIF2α phosphorylation: The Achilles heel of pancreatic β cells

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic β cell dysfunction and death are central in the pathogenesis of most if not all forms of diabetes. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying β cell failure is important to develop β cell protective approaches.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

Here we review the role of endoplasmic reticulum stress and dysregulated endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling in β cell failure in monogenic and polygenic forms of diabetes. There is substantial evidence for the presence of endoplasmic reticulum stress in β cells in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Direct evidence for the importance of this stress response is provided by an increasing number of monogenic forms of diabetes. In particular, mutations in the PERK branch of the unfolded protein response provide insight into its importance for human β cell function and survival. The knowledge gained from different rodent models is reviewed. More disease- and patient-relevant models, using human induced pluripotent stem cells differentiated into β cells, will further advance our understanding of pathogenic mechanisms. Finally, we review the therapeutic modulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress and signaling in β cells.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

Pancreatic β cells are sensitive to excessive endoplasmic reticulum stress and dysregulated eIF2α phosphorylation, as indicated by transcriptome data, monogenic forms of diabetes and pharmacological studies. This should be taken into consideration when devising new therapeutic approaches for diabetes.

The Munich MIDY Pig Biobank - A unique resource for studying organ crosstalk in diabetes

OBJECTIVE

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus and associated complications is steadily increasing. As a resource for studying systemic consequences of chronic insulin insufficiency and hyperglycemia, we established a comprehensive biobank of long-term diabetic INSC94Y transgenic pigs, a model of mutant INS gene-induced diabetes of youth (MIDY), and of wild-type (WT) littermates.

METHODS

Female MIDY pigs (n = 4) were maintained with suboptimal insulin treatment for 2 years, together with female WT littermates (n = 5). Plasma insulin, C-peptide and glucagon levels were regularly determined using specific immunoassays. In addition, clinical chemical, targeted metabolomics, and lipidomics analyses were performed. At age 2 years, all pigs were euthanized, necropsied, and a broad spectrum of tissues was taken by systematic uniform random sampling procedures. Total beta cell volume was determined by stereological methods. A pilot proteome analysis of pancreas, liver, and kidney cortex was performed by label free proteomics.

RESULTS

MIDY pigs had elevated fasting plasma glucose and fructosamine concentrations, C-peptide levels that decreased with age and were undetectable at 2 years, and an 82% reduced total beta cell volume compared to WT. Plasma glucagon and beta hydroxybutyrate levels of MIDY pigs were chronically elevated, reflecting hallmarks of poorly controlled diabetes in humans. In total, ∼1900 samples of different body fluids (blood, serum, plasma, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and synovial fluid) as well as ∼17,000 samples from ∼50 different tissues and organs were preserved to facilitate a plethora of morphological and molecular analyses. Principal component analyses of plasma targeted metabolomics and lipidomics data and of proteome profiles from pancreas, liver, and kidney cortex clearly separated MIDY and WT samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The broad spectrum of well-defined biosamples in the Munich MIDY Pig Biobank that will be available to the scientific community provides a unique resource for systematic studies of organ crosstalk in diabetes in a multi-organ, multi-omics dimension.

Ca2+-associated triphasic pH changes in mitochondria during brown adipocyte activation

Objective

Brown adipocytes (BAs) are endowed with a high metabolic capacity for energy expenditure due to their high mitochondria content. While mitochondrial pH is dynamically regulated in response to stimulation and, in return, affects various metabolic processes, how mitochondrial pH is regulated during adrenergic stimulation-induced thermogenesis is unknown. We aimed to reveal the spatial and temporal dynamics of mitochondrial pH in stimulated BAs and the mechanisms behind the dynamic pH changes.

Methods

A mitochondrial targeted pH-sensitive protein, mito-pHluorin, was constructed and transfected to BAs. Transfected BAs were stimulated by an adrenergic agonist, isoproterenol. The pH changes in mitochondria were characterized by dual-color imaging with indicators that monitor mitochondrial membrane potential and heat production. The mechanisms of pH changes were studied by examining the involvement of electron transport chain (ETC) activity and Ca²⁺ profiles in mitochondria and the intracellular Ca²⁺ store, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

Results

A triphasic mitochondrial pH change in BAs upon adrenergic stimulation was revealed. In comparison to a thermosensitive dye, we reveal that phases 1 and 2 of the pH increase precede thermogenesis, while phase 3, characterized by a pH decrease, occurs during thermogenesis. The mechanism of pH increase is partially related to ETC. In addition, the pH increase occurs concurrently with an increase in mitochondrial Ca²⁺. This Ca²⁺ increase is contributed to by an influx from the ER, and it is further involved in mitochondrial pH regulation.

Conclusions

We demonstrate that an increase in mitochondrial pH is implicated as an early event in adrenergically stimulated BAs. We further suggest that this pH increase may play a role in the potentiation of thermogenesis.

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A triphasic mitochondrial pH changes in adrenergically stimulated BAs was revealed.

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Phases 1 and 2 of the pH increase precede thermogenesis.

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The pH increase is partially related to electron transport chain activity.

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Ca²⁺ was transmitted from endoplasmic reticulum to mitochondria during phase 1.

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The transmitted Ca²⁺ regulates pH increase in mitochondria.

Amyloid formation disrupts the balance between interleukin-1β and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in human islets

Objectives

β-cell dysfunction and apoptosis associated with islet inflammation play a key role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Growing evidence suggests that islet amyloid, formed by aggregation of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP), contributes to islet inflammation and β-cell death in T2D. We recently showed the role of interleukin-1β (IL-1β)/Fas/caspase-8 apoptotic pathway in amyloid-induced β-cell death. In this study, we used human islets in culture as an ex vivo model of amyloid formation to: (1) investigate the effects of amyloid on islet levels of the natural IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra); (2) examine if modulating the IL-1β/IL-1Ra balance can prevent amyloid-induced β-cell Fas upregulation and apoptosis.

Methods

Isolated human islets (n = 10 donors) were cultured in elevated glucose (to form amyloid) with or without a neutralizing human IL-1β antibody for up to 7 days. Parallel studies were performed with human islets in which amyloid formation was prevented by adeno-siRNA-mediated suppression of hIAPP expression (as control). β-cell levels of IL-1Ra, Fas, apoptosis as well as islet function, insulin- and amyloid-positive areas, and IL-1Ra release were assessed.

Results

Progressive amyloid formation in human islets during culture was associated with alterations in IL-1Ra. Islet IL-1Ra levels were higher at early stages but were markedly reduced at later stages of amyloid formation. Furthermore, IL-1Ra release from human islets was reduced during 7-day culture in a time-dependent manner. These changes in IL-1Ra production and release from human islets during amyloid formation adversely correlated with islet IL-1β levels, β-cell Fas expression and apoptosis. Treatment with IL-1β neutralizing antibody markedly reduced amyloid-induced β-cell Fas expression and apoptosis, thereby improving islet β-cell survival and function during culture.

Conclusions

These data suggest that amyloid formation impairs the balance between IL-1β and IL-1Ra in islets by increasing IL-1β production and reducing IL-1Ra levels thereby promoting β-cell dysfunction and death. Restoring the IL-1β/IL-1Ra ratio may provide an effective strategy to protect islet β-cells from amyloid toxicity in T2D.

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Endogenous amyloid formation alters IL-1Ra levels in human islet β-cells.

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Amyloid impairs islet IL-1β/IL-1Ra balance by promoting IL-1β and reducing IL-1Ra.

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Restoring IL-1β/IL-1Ra ratio by blocking IL-1β protects human islets against amyloid.

Expression of prosaposin and its receptors in the rat cerebellum after kainic acid injection

Prosaposin (PSAP), a highly conserved glycoprotein, is a precursor of saposins A–D. Accumulating evidence suggests that PSAP is a neurotrophic factor that induces differentiation and prevents death in a variety of neuronal cells through the active region within the saposin C domain both in vivo and in vitro. Recently, GPR37 and GPR37L1 were recognized as PSAP receptors. In this study, we examined the alteration in expression of PSAP and its receptors in the cerebellum using rats injected with kainic acid (KA). The results show that PSAP was strongly expressed in the cytoplasm of Purkinje cells and interneurons in the molecular layer, and that PSAP expression in both types of neurons was markedly enhanced following KA treatment. Immunoblotting revealed that the expression of GPR37 was diminished significantly three days after KA injection compared with control rats; however, no changes were observed through immunostaining. No discernable changes were found in GPR37L1. These findings may help us to understand the role of PSAP and the GPR37 and GPR37L1 receptors in alleviating the neural damage caused by KA.

How to unleash mitochondrial apoptotic blockades to kill cancers?

Apoptosis, especially the intrinsic mitochondrial cell death pathway, is regulated by the BCL-2 family of proteins. Defects in apoptotic machinery are one of the main mechanisms that cells employ to evade cell death and become cancerous. Targeting the apoptotic defects, either by direct inhibition of BCL-2 family proteins or through modulation of regulatory pathways, can restore cell sensitivity to cell death. This review will focus on the aspects of BCL-2 family proteins, their interactions with kinase pathways, and how novel targeted agents can help overcome the apoptotic blockades. Furthermore, functional assays, such as BH3 profiling, may help in predicting responses to chemotherapies and aid in the selection of combination therapies by determining the mitochondrial threshold for initiating cell death.

Blocking iNOS and endoplasmic reticulum stress synergistically improves insulin resistance in mice

OBJECTIVE

Recent data show that iNOS has an essential role in ER stress in obesity. However, whether iNOS is sufficient to account for obesity-induced ER stress and Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) has not yet been investigated. In the present study, we used iNOS knockout mice to investigate whether high-fat diet (HFD) can still induce residual ER stress-associated insulin resistance.

METHODS

For this purpose, we used the intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (GTT), euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp, western blotting and qPCR in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue of iNOS KO and control mice on HFD.

RESULTS

The results of the present study demonstrated that, in HFD fed mice, iNOS-induced alteration in insulin signaling is an essential mechanism of insulin resistance in muscle, suggesting that iNOS may represent an important target that could be blocked in order to improve insulin sensitivity in this tissue. However, in liver and adipose tissue, the insulin resistance induced by HFD was only partially dependent on iNOS, and, even in the presence of genetic or pharmacological blockade of iNOS, a clear ER stress associated with altered insulin signaling remained evident in these tissues. When this ER stress was blocked pharmacologically, insulin signaling was improved, and a complete recovery of glucose tolerance was achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these results reinforce the tissue-specific regulation of insulin signaling in obesity, with iNOS being sufficient to account for insulin resistance in muscle, but in liver and adipose tissue ER stress and insulin resistance can be induced by both iNOS-dependent and iNOS-independent mechanisms.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Regulates Hepatic Bile Acid Metabolism in Mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Cholestasis promotes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the liver, however, the effect of ER stress on hepatic bile acid metabolism is unknown. We aim to determine the effect of ER stress on hepatic bile acid synthesis and transport in mice.

METHODS

ER stress was induced pharmacologically in C57BL/6J mice and human hepatoma (HepG2) cells. The hepatic expression of genes controlling bile acid synthesis and transport was determined. To measure the activity of the primary bile acid synthetic pathway, the concentration of 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-1 was measured in plasma.

RESULTS

Induction of ER stress in mice and HepG2 cells rapidly suppressed the hepatic expression of the primary bile acid synthetic enzyme, cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase. Plasma levels of 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-1 were reduced in mice subjected to ER stress, indicating impaired bile acid synthesis. Induction of ER stress in mice and HepG2 cells increased expression of the bile salt export pump (adenosine triphosphate binding cassette [Abc]b11) and a bile salt efflux pump (Abcc3). The observed regulation of Cyp7a1, Abcb11, and Abcc3 occurred in the absence of hepatic inflammatory cytokine activation and was not dependent on activation of hepatic small heterodimer partner or intestinal fibroblast growth factor 15. Consistent with suppressed bile acid synthesis and enhanced bile acid export from hepatocytes, prolonged ER stress decreased the hepatic bile acid content in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Induction of ER stress in mice suppresses bile acid synthesis and enhances bile acid removal from hepatocytes independently of established bile acid regulatory pathways. These data show a novel function of the ER stress response in regulating bile acid metabolism.

Targeting the Enterohepatic Bile Acid Signaling Induces Hepatic Autophagy via a CYP7A1-AKT-mTOR Axis in Mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hepatic cholesterol accumulation and autophagy defects contribute to hepatocyte injury in fatty liver disease. Bile acid synthesis is a major pathway for cholesterol catabolism in the liver. This study aims to understand the molecular link between cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and hepatic autophagy activity.

METHODS

The effects of cholesterol and cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) expression on autophagy and lysosome function were studied in cell models. The effects and mechanism of disrupting enterohepatic bile acid circulation on hepatic autophagy were studied in mice.

RESULTS

The results first showed differential regulation of hepatic autophagy by free cholesterol and cholesterol ester, whereby a modest increase of cellular free cholesterol, but not cholesterol ester, impaired lysosome function and caused marked autolysosome accumulation. We found that CYP7A1 induction, either by cholestyramine feeding in mice or adenovirus-mediated CYP7A1 expression in hepatocytes, caused strong autophagy induction. Mechanistically, we showed that CYP7A1 expression markedly attenuated growth factor/AKT signaling activation of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), but not amino acid signaling to mTOR in vitro and in vivo. Metabolomics analysis further found that CYP7A1 induction not only decreased hepatic cholesterol but also altered phospholipid and sphingolipid compositions. Collectively, these results suggest that CYP7A1 induction interferes with growth factor activation of AKT/mTOR signaling possibly by altering membrane lipid composition. Finally, we showed that cholestyramine feeding restored impaired hepatic autophagy and improved metabolic homeostasis in Western diet-fed mice.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified a novel CYP7A1-AKT-mTOR signaling axis that selectively induces hepatic autophagy, which helps improve hepatocellular integrity and metabolic homeostasis.

Intestinal CREBH overexpression prevents high-cholesterol diet-induced hypercholesterolemia by reducing Npc1l1 expression

Objective

The transcription factor cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein H (CREBH, encoded by Creb3l3) is highly expressed in the liver and small intestine. Hepatic CREBH contributes to glucose and triglyceride metabolism by regulating fibroblast growth factor 21 (Fgf21) expression. However, the intestinal CREBH function remains unknown.

Methods

To investigate the influence of intestinal CREBH on cholesterol metabolism, we compared plasma, bile, fecal, and tissue cholesterol levels between wild-type (WT) mice and mice overexpressing active human CREBH mainly in the small intestine (CREBH Tg mice) under different dietary conditions.

Results

Plasma cholesterol, hepatic lipid, and cholesterol crystal formation in the gallbladder were lower in CREBH Tg mice fed a lithogenic diet (LD) than in LD-fed WTs, while fecal cholesterol output was higher in the former. These results suggest that intestinal CREBH overexpression suppresses cholesterol absorption, leading to reduced plasma cholesterol, limited hepatic supply, and greater excretion. The expression of Niemann–Pick C1-like 1 (Npc1l1), a rate-limiting transporter mediating intestinal cholesterol absorption, was reduced in the small intestine of CREBH Tg mice. Adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporter A1 (Abca1), Abcg5/8, and scavenger receptor class B, member 1 (Srb1) expression levels were also reduced in CREBH Tg mice. Promoter assays revealed that CREBH directly regulates Npc1l1 expression. Conversely, CREBH null mice exhibited higher intestinal Npc1l1 expression, elevated plasma and hepatic cholesterol, and lower fecal output.

Conclusion

Intestinal CREBH regulates dietary cholesterol flow from the small intestine by controlling the expression of multiple intestinal transporters. We propose that intestinal CREBH could be a therapeutic target for hypercholesterolemia.

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Plasma cholesterol, hepatic lipid, and gallstones were lower in CREBH Tg mice.

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Expression of intestinal Npc1l1 was reduced in CREBH Tg mice.

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CREBH directly down-regulates mouse Npc1l1 promoter activity.

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Intestinal CREBH regulates dietary cholesterol flow from the small intestine.

Acrolein Is a Pathogenic Mediator of Alcoholic Liver Disease and the Scavenger Hydralazine Is Protective in Mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality, with no Food and Drug Administration-approved therapy. Chronic alcohol consumption causes a pro-oxidant environment and increases hepatic lipid peroxidation, with acrolein being the most reactive/toxic by-product. This study investigated the pathogenic role of acrolein in hepatic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, steatosis, and injury in experimental ALD, and tested acrolein elimination/scavenging (using hydralazine) as a potential therapy in ALD.

METHODS

In vitro (rat hepatoma H4IIEC cells) and in vivo (chronic+binge alcohol feeding in C57Bl/6 mice) models were used to examine alcohol-induced acrolein accumulation and consequent hepatic ER stress, apoptosis, and injury. In addition, the potential protective effects of the acrolein scavenger, hydralazine, were examined both in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption/metabolism resulted in hepatic accumulation of acrolein-protein adducts, by up-regulation of cytochrome P4502E1 and alcohol dehydrogenase, and down-regulation of glutathione-s-transferase-P, which metabolizes/detoxifies acrolein. Alcohol-induced acrolein adduct accumulation led to hepatic ER stress, proapoptotic signaling, steatosis, apoptosis, and liver injury; however, ER-protective/adaptive responses were not induced. Notably, direct exposure to acrolein in vitro mimicked the in vivo effects of alcohol, indicating that acrolein mediates the adverse effects of alcohol. Importantly, hydralazine, a known acrolein scavenger, protected against alcohol-induced ER stress and liver injury, both in vitro and in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows the following: (1) alcohol consumption triggers pathologic ER stress without ER adaptation/protection; (2) alcohol-induced acrolein is a potential therapeutic target and pathogenic mediator of hepatic ER stress, cell death, and injury; and (3) removal/clearance of acrolein by scavengers may have therapeutic potential in ALD.

Resveratrol inhibits plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase inducing an increase in cytoplasmic calcium

Plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPase (PMCA) plays a vital role in maintaining cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). Given that many diseases have modified PMCA expression and activity, PMCA is an important potential target for therapeutic treatment. This study demonstrates that the non-toxic, naturally-occurring polyphenol resveratrol (RES) induces increases in [Ca²⁺]_i via PMCA inhibition in primary dermal fibroblasts and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Our results also illustrate that RES and the fluorescent intracellular calcium indicator Fura-2, are compatible for simultaneous use, in contrast to previous studies, which indicated that RES modulates the Fura-2 fluorescence independent of calcium concentration. Because RES has been identified as a PMCA inhibitor, further studies may be conducted to develop more specific PMCA inhibitors from RES derivatives for potential therapeutic use.

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Resveratrol induces a rise in [Ca²⁺]_i via plasma membrane Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibition.

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FURA-2 is compatible with resveratrol in measuring [Ca²⁺]_i.

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PMCA inhibition is novel to resveratrol among naturally occurring polyphenols.

Cocaine-mediated microglial activation involves the ER stress-autophagy axis

Cocaine abuse leads to neuroinflammation, which, in turn, contributes to the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration associated with advanced HIV-1 infection. Autophagy plays important roles in both innate and adaptive immune responses. However, the possible functional link between cocaine and autophagy has not been explored before. Herein, we demonstrate that cocaine exposure induced autophagy in both BV-2 and primary rat microglial cells as demonstrated by a dose- and time-dependent induction of autophagy-signature proteins such as BECN1/Beclin 1, ATG5, and MAP1LC3B. These findings were validated wherein cocaine treatment of BV-2 cells resulted in increased formation of puncta in cells expressing either endogenous MAP1LC3B or overexpressing GFP-MAP1LC3B. Specificity of cocaine-induced autophagy was confirmed by treating cells with inhibitors of autophagy (3-MA and wortmannin). Intriguingly, cocaine-mediated induction of autophagy involved upstream activation of 2 ER stress pathways (EIF2AK3- and ERN1-dependent), as evidenced by the ability of the ER stress inhibitor salubrinal to ameliorate cocaine-induced autophagy. In vivo validation of these findings demonstrated increased expression of BECN1, ATG5, and MAP1LC3B-II proteins in cocaine-treated mouse brains compared to untreated animals. Increased autophagy contributes to cocaine-mediated activation of microglia since pretreatment of cells with wortmannin resulted in decreased expression and release of inflammatory factors (TNF, IL1B, IL6, and CCL2) in microglial cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that cocaine exposure results in induction of autophagy that is closely linked with neuroinflammation. Targeting autophagic proteins could thus be considered as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cocaine-related neuroinflammation diseases.

RIPK1 regulates survival of human melanoma cells upon endoplasmic reticulum stress through autophagy

Although RIPK1 (receptor [TNFRSF]-interacting protein kinase 1) is emerging as a critical determinant of cell fate in response to cellular stress resulting from activation of death receptors and DNA damage, its potential role in cell response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress remains undefined. Here we report that RIPK1 functions as an important prosurvival mechanism in melanoma cells undergoing pharmacological ER stress induced by tunicamycin (TM) or thapsigargin (TG) through activation of autophagy. While treatment with TM or TG upregulated RIPK1 and triggered autophagy in melanoma cells, knockdown of RIPK1 inhibited autophagy and rendered the cells sensitive to killing by TM or TG, recapitulating the effect of inhibition of autophagy. Consistently, overexpression of RIPK1 enhanced induction of autophagy and conferred resistance of melanoma cells to TM- or TG-induced cell death. Activation of MAPK8/JNK1 or MAPK9/JNK2, which phosphorylated BCL2L11/BIM leading to its dissociation from BECN1/Beclin 1, was involved in TM- or TG-induced, RIPK1-mediated activation of autophagy; whereas, activation of the transcription factor HSF1 (heat shock factor protein 1) downstream of the ERN1/IRE1-XBP1 axis of the unfolded protein response was responsible for the increase in RIPK1 in melanoma cells undergoing pharmacological ER stress. Collectively, these results identify upregulation of RIPK1 as an important resistance mechanism of melanoma cells to TM- or TG-induced ER stress by protecting against cell death through activation of autophagy, and suggest that targeting the autophagy-activating mechanism of RIPK1 may be a useful strategy to enhance sensitivity of melanoma cells to therapeutic agents that induce ER stress.

A plastic SQSTM1/p62-dependent autophagic reserve maintains proteostasis and determines proteasome inhibitor susceptibility in multiple myeloma cells

Multiple myeloma (MM) is the paradigmatic proteasome inhibitor (PI) responsive cancer, but many patients fail to respond. An attractive target to enhance sensitivity is (macro)autophagy, recently found essential to bone marrow plasma cells, the normal counterpart of MM. Here, integrating proteomics with hypothesis-driven strategies, we identified the autophagic cargo receptor and adapter protein, SQSTM1/p62 as an essential component of an autophagic reserve that not only synergizes with the proteasome to maintain proteostasis, but also mediates a plastic adaptive response to PIs, and faithfully reports on inherent PI sensitivity. Lentiviral engineering revealed that SQSTM1 is essential for MM cell survival and affords specific PI protection. Under basal conditions, SQSTM1-dependent autophagy alleviates the degradative burden on the proteasome by constitutively disposing of substantial amounts of ubiquitinated proteins. Indeed, its inhibition or stimulation greatly sensitized to, or protected from, PI-induced protein aggregation and cell death. Moreover, under proteasome stress, myeloma cells selectively enhanced SQSTM1 de novo expression and reset its vast endogenous interactome, diverting SQSTM1 from signaling partners to maximize its association with ubiquitinated proteins. Saturation of such autophagic reserve, as indicated by intracellular accumulation of undigested SQSTM1-positive aggregates, specifically discriminated patient-derived myelomas inherently susceptible to PIs from primarily resistant ones. These aggregates correlated with accumulation of the endoplasmic reticulum, which comparative proteomics identified as the main cell compartment targeted by autophagy in MM. Altogether, the data integrate autophagy into our previously established proteasome load-versus-capacity model, and reveal SQSTM1 aggregation as a faithful marker of defective proteostasis, defining a novel prognostic and therapeutic framework for MM.

ATG16L1: A multifunctional susceptibility factor in Crohn disease

Genetic variations in the autophagic pathway influence genetic predispositions to Crohn disease. Autophagy, the major lysosomal pathway for degrading and recycling cytoplasmic material, constitutes an important homeostatic cellular process. Of interest, single-nucleotide polymorphisms in ATG16L1 (autophagy-related 16-like 1 [S. cerevisiae]), a key component in the autophagic response to invading pathogens, have been associated with an increased risk of developing Crohn disease. The most common and well-studied genetic variant of ATG16L1 (rs2241880; leading to a T300A conversion) exhibits a strong association with risk for developing Crohn disease. The rs2241880 variant plays a crucial role in pathogen clearance, resulting in imbalanced cytokine production, and is linked to other biological processes, such as the endoplasmic reticulum stress/unfolded protein response. In this review, we focus on the importance of ATG16L1 and its genetic variant (T300A) within the elementary biological processes linked to Crohn disease.

Binding of the pathogen receptor HSP90AA1 to avibirnavirus VP2 induces autophagy by inactivating the AKT-MTOR pathway

Autophagy is an essential component of host innate and adaptive immunity. Viruses have developed diverse strategies for evading or utilizing autophagy for survival. The response of the autophagy pathways to virus invasion is poorly documented. Here, we report on the induction of autophagy initiated by the pathogen receptor HSP90AA1 (heat shock protein 90 kDa α [cytosolic], class A member 1) via the AKT-MTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin)-dependent pathway. Transmission electron microscopy and confocal microscopy revealed that intracellular autolysosomes packaged avibirnavirus particles. Autophagy detection showed that early avibirnavirus infection not only increased the amount of light chain 3 (LC3)-II, but also upregulated AKT-MTOR dephosphorylation. HSP90AA1-AKT-MTOR knockdown by RNA interference resulted in inhibition of autophagy during avibirnavirus infection. Virus titer assays further verified that autophagy inhibition, but not induction, enhanced avibirnavirus replication. Subsequently, we found that HSP90AA1 binding to the viral protein VP2 resulted in induction of autophagy and AKT-MTOR pathway inactivation. Collectively, our findings suggest that the cell surface protein HSP90AA1, an avibirnavirus-binding receptor, induces autophagy through the HSP90AA1-AKT-MTOR pathway in early infection. We reveal that upon viral recognition, a direct connection between HSP90AA1 and the AKT-MTOR pathway trigger autophagy, a critical step for controlling infection.

Ultrastructural relationship of the phagophore with surrounding organelles

Phagophore nucleates from a subdomain of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) termed the omegasome and also makes contact with other organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi complex, plasma membrane and recycling endosomes during its formation. We have used serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SB-EM) and electron tomography (ET) to image phagophore biogenesis in 3 dimensions and to determine the relationship between the phagophore and surrounding organelles at high resolution. ET was performed to confirm whether membrane contact sites (MCSs) are evident between the phagophore and those surrounding organelles. In addition to the known contacts with the ER, we identified MCSs between the phagophore and membranes from putative ER exit sites, late endosomes or lysosomes, the Golgi complex and mitochondria. We also show that one phagophore can have simultaneous MCSs with more than one organelle. Future membrane flux experiments are needed to determine whether membrane contacts also signify lipid translocation.

Lithocholic bile acid accumulated in yeast mitochondria orchestrates a development of an anti-aging cellular pattern by causing age-related changes in cellular proteome

We have previously revealed that exogenously added lithocholic bile acid (LCA) extends the chronological lifespan of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, accumulates in mitochondria and alters mitochondrial membrane lipidome. Here, we use quantitative mass spectrometry to show that LCA alters the age-related dynamics of changes in levels of many mitochondrial proteins, as well as numerous proteins in cellular locations outside of mitochondria. These proteins belong to 2 regulons, each modulated by a different mitochondrial dysfunction; we call them a partial mitochondrial dysfunction regulon and an oxidative stress regulon. We found that proteins constituting these regulons (1) can be divided into several "clusters", each of which denotes a distinct type of partial mitochondrial dysfunction that elicits a different signaling pathway mediated by a discrete set of transcription factors; (2) exhibit 3 different patterns of the age-related dynamics of changes in their cellular levels; and (3) are encoded by genes whose expression is regulated by the transcription factors Rtg1p/Rtg2p/Rtg3p, Sfp1p, Aft1p, Yap1p, Msn2p/Msn4p, Skn7p and Hog1p, each of which is essential for longevity extension by LCA. Our findings suggest that LCA-driven changes in mitochondrial lipidome alter mitochondrial proteome and functionality, thereby enabling mitochondria to operate as signaling organelles that orchestrate an establishment of an anti-aging transcriptional program for many longevity-defining nuclear genes. Based on these findings, we propose a model for how such LCA-driven changes early and late in life of chronologically aging yeast cause a stepwise development of an anti-aging cellular pattern and its maintenance throughout lifespan.

Human UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases: Effects of altered expression in breast and pancreatic cancer cell lines

Increased aerobic glycolysis and de novo lipid biosynthesis are common characteristics of invasive cancers. UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) are phase II drug metabolizing enzymes that in normal cells possess the ability to glucuronidate these lipids and speed their excretion; however, de-regulation of these enzymes in cancer cells can lead to an accumulation of bioactive lipids, which further fuels cancer progression. We hypothesize that UGT2B isoform expression is down-regulated in cancer cells and that exogenous re-introduction of these enzymes will reduce lipid content, change the cellular phenotype, and inhibit cancer cell proliferation. In this study, steady-state mRNA levels of UGT isoforms from the 2B family were measured using qPCR in 4 breast cancer and 5 pancreatic cancer cell lines. Expression plasmids for UGT2B isoforms known to glucuronidate cellular lipids, UGT2B4, 2B7, and 2B15 were transfected into MCF-7 and Panc-1 cells, and the cytotoxic effects of these enzymes were analyzed using trypan blue exclusion, annexin V/PI staining, TUNEL assays, and caspase-3 immunohistochemistry. There was a significant decrease in cell proliferation and a significant increase in the number of dead cells after transfection with each of the 3 UGT isoforms in both cell lines. Cellular lipids were also found to be significantly decreased after transfection. The results presented here support our hypothesis and emphasize the important role UGTs can play in cellular proliferation and lipid homeostasis. Evaluating the effect of UGT expression on the lipid levels in cancer cell lines can be relevant to understanding the complex regulation of cancer cells, identifying the roles of UGTs as "lipid-controllers" in cellular homeostasis, and illustrating their suitability as targets for future clinical therapy development.

Differential regulation of autophagy and cell viability by ceramide species

The present studies sought to determine whether the anti-folate pemetrexed (Alimta) and the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulator FTY720 (Fingolimod, Gilenya) interacted to kill tumor cells. FTY720 and pemetrexed interacted in a greater than additive fashion to kill breast, brain and colorectal cancer cells. Loss of p53 function weakly enhanced the toxicity of FTY720 whereas deletion of activated RAS strongly or expression of catalytically inactive AKT facilitated killing. Combined drug exposure reduced the activity of AKT, p70 S6K and mTOR and activated JNK and p38 MAPK. Expression of activated forms of AKT, p70 S6K and mTOR or inhibition of JNK and p38 MAPK suppressed the interaction between FTY720 and pemetrexed. Treatment of cells with FTY720 and pemetrexed increased the numbers of early autophagosomes but not autolysosomes, which correlated with increased LC3II processing and increased p62 levels, suggestive of stalled autophagic flux. Knock down of ATG5 or Beclin1 suppressed autophagosome formation and cell killing. Knock down of ceramide synthase 6 suppressed autophagosome production and cell killing whereas knock down of ceramide synthase 2 enhanced vesicle formation and facilitated death. Collectively our findings argue that pemetrexed and FTY720 could be a novel adjunct modality for breast cancer treatment.

The GST-BHMT assay reveals a distinct mechanism underlying proteasome inhibition-induced macroautophagy in mammalian cells

By monitoring the fragmentation of a GST-BHMT (a protein fusion of glutathionine S-transferase N-terminal to betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase) reporter in lysosomes, the GST-BHMT assay has previously been established as an endpoint, cargo-based assay for starvation-induced autophagy that is largely nonselective. Here, we demonstrate that under nutrient-rich conditions, proteasome inhibition by either pharmaceutical or genetic manipulations induces similar autophagy-dependent GST-BHMT processing. However, mechanistically this proteasome inhibition-induced autophagy is different from that induced by starvation as it does not rely on regulation by MTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin [serine/threonine kinase]) and PRKAA/AMPK (protein kinase, AMP-activated, α catalytic subunit), the upstream central sensors of cellular nutrition and energy status, but requires the presence of the cargo receptors SQSTM1/p62 (sequestosome 1) and NBR1 (neighbor of BRCA1 gene 1) that are normally involved in the selective autophagy pathway. Further, it depends on ER (endoplasmic reticulum) stress signaling, in particular ERN1/IRE1 (endoplasmic reticulum to nucleus signaling 1) and its main downstream effector MAPK8/JNK1 (mitogen-activated protein kinase 8), but not XBP1 (X-box binding protein 1), by regulating the phosphorylation-dependent disassociation of BCL2 (B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2) from BECN1 (Beclin 1, autophagy related). Moreover, the multimerization domain of GST-BHMT is required for its processing in response to proteasome inhibition, in contrast to its dispensable role in starvation-induced processing. Together, these findings support a model in which under nutrient-rich conditions, proteasome inactivation induces autophagy-dependent processing of the GST-BHMT reporter through a distinct mechanism that bears notable similarity with the yeast Cvt (cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting) pathway, and suggest the GST-BHMT reporter might be employed as a convenient assay to study selective macroautophagy in mammalian cells.

The role of STAT3 in autophagy

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved process in eukaryotes that eliminates harmful components and maintains cellular homeostasis in response to a series of extracellular insults. However, these insults may trigger the downstream signaling of another prominent stress responsive pathway, the STAT3 signaling pathway, which has been implicated in multiple aspects of the autophagic process. Recent reports further indicate that different subcellular localization patterns of STAT3 affect autophagy in various ways. For example, nuclear STAT3 fine-tunes autophagy via the transcriptional regulation of several autophagy-related genes such as BCL2 family members, BECN1, PIK3C3, CTSB, CTSL, PIK3R1, HIF1A, BNIP3, and microRNAs with targets of autophagy modulators. Cytoplasmic STAT3 constitutively inhibits autophagy by sequestering EIF2AK2 as well as by interacting with other autophagy-related signaling molecules such as FOXO1 and FOXO3. Additionally, the mitochondrial translocation of STAT3 suppresses autophagy induced by oxidative stress and may effectively preserve mitochondria from being degraded by mitophagy. Understanding the role of STAT3 signaling in the regulation of autophagy may provide insight into the classic autophagy model and also into cancer therapy, especially for the emerging targeted therapy, because a series of targeted agents execute antitumor activities via blocking STAT3 signaling, which inevitably affects the autophagy pathway. Here, we review several of the representative studies and the current understanding in this particular field.

Regulating extracellular proteostasis capacity through the unfolded protein response

The extracellular aggregation of proteins into proteotoxic oligomers and amyloid fibrils is implicated in the onset and pathology of numerous diseases referred to as amyloid diseases. All of the proteins that aggregate extracellularly in association with amyloid disease pathogenesis originate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are secreted through the secretory pathway. Disruptions in ER protein homeostasis or proteostasis (i.e., ER stress) can facilitate the aberrant secretion of misfolded protein conformations to the extracellular space and exacerbate pathologic protein aggregation into proteotoxic species. Activation of an ER stress-responsive signaling pathway, the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR), restores ER proteostasis through the transcriptional regulation of ER proteostasis pathways. In contrast, the functional role for the UPR in regulating extracellular proteostasis during ER stress is poorly defined. We recently identified ERdj3 as a UPR-regulated secreted chaperone that increases extracellular proteostasis capacity in response to ER stress, revealing a previously-unanticipated direct mechanism by which the UPR impacts extracellular proteostasis. Here, we discuss the functional implications of ERdj3 secretion on extracellular proteostasis maintenance and define the mechanisms by which ERdj3 secretion coordinates intra- and extracellular proteostasis environments during ER stress.

Mitophagy is primarily due to alternative autophagy and requires the MAPK1 and MAPK14 signaling pathways

In cultured cells, not many mitochondria are degraded by mitophagy induced by physiological cellular stress. We observed mitophagy in HeLa cells using a method that relies on the pH-sensitive fluorescent protein Keima. With this approach, we found that mitophagy was barely induced by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone treatment, which is widely used as an inducer of PARK2/Parkin-related mitophagy, whereas a small but modest amount of mitochondria were degraded by mitophagy under conditions of starvation or hypoxia. Mitophagy induced by starvation or hypoxia was marginally suppressed by knockdown of ATG7 and ATG12, or MAP1LC3B, which are essential for conventional macroautophagy. In addition, mitophagy was efficiently induced in Atg5 knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts. However, knockdown of RAB9A and RAB9B, which are essential for alternative autophagy, but not conventional macroautophagy, severely suppressed mitophagy. Finally, we found that the MAPKs MAPK1/ERK2 and MAPK14/p38 were required for mitophagy. Based on these findings, we conclude that mitophagy in mammalian cells predominantly occurs through an alternative autophagy pathway, requiring the MAPK1 and MAPK14 signaling pathways.

Heat shock response and autophagy--cooperation and control

Protein quality control (proteostasis) depends on constant protein degradation and resynthesis, and is essential for proper homeostasis in systems from single cells to whole organisms. Cells possess several mechanisms and processes to maintain proteostasis. At one end of the spectrum, the heat shock proteins modulate protein folding and repair. At the other end, the proteasome and autophagy as well as other lysosome-dependent systems, function in the degradation of dysfunctional proteins. In this review, we examine how these systems interact to maintain proteostasis. Both the direct cellular data on heat shock control over autophagy and the time course of exercise-associated changes in humans support the model that heat shock response and autophagy are tightly linked. Studying the links between exercise stress and molecular control of proteostasis provides evidence that the heat shock response and autophagy coordinate and undergo sequential activation and downregulation, and that this is essential for proper proteostasis in eukaryotic systems.

PAWR-mediated suppression of BCL2 promotes switching of 3-azido withaferin A (3-AWA)-induced autophagy to apoptosis in prostate cancer cells

An active medicinal component of plant origin with an ability to overcome autophagy by inducing apoptosis should be considered a therapeutically active lead pharmacophore to control malignancies. In this report, we studied the effect of concentration-dependent 3-AWA (3-azido withaferin A) sensitization to androgen-independent prostate cancer (CaP) cells which resulted in a distinct switching of 2 interrelated conserved biological processes, i.e. autophagy and apoptosis. We have observed 3 distinct parameters which are hallmarks of autophagy in our studies. First, a subtoxic concentration of 3-AWA resulted in an autophagic phenotype with an elevation of autophagy markers in prostate cancer cells. This led to a massive accumulation of MAP1LC3B and EGFP-LC3B puncta coupled with gradual degradation of SQSTM1. Second, higher toxic concentrations of 3-AWA stimulated ER stress in CaP cells to turn on apoptosis within 12 h by elevating the expression of the proapoptotic protein PAWR, which in turn suppressed the autophagy-related proteins BCL2 and BECN1. This inhibition of BECN1 in CaP cells, leading to the disruption of the BCL2-BECN1 interaction by overexpressed PAWR has not been reported so far. Third, we provide evidence that pawr-KO MEFs exhibited abundant autophagy signs even at toxic concentrations of 3-AWA underscoring the relevance of PAWR in switching of autophagy to apoptosis. Last but not least, overexpression of EGFP-LC3B and DS-Red-BECN1 revealed a delayed apoptosis turnover at a higher concentration of 3-AWA in CaP cells. In summary, this study provides evidence that 3-AWA is a strong anticancer candidate to abrogate protective autophagy. It also enhanced chemosensitivity by sensitizing prostate cancer cells to apoptosis through induction of PAWR endorsing its therapeutic potential.