Modelling the effect of changing transplanting date on consumptive water footprints for paddy under the system of rice intensification

BACKGROUND

Consumptive water footprint (CWF) is a comprehensive measure of water consumption by paddy and can be used to assess the impact on freshwater volume. The seasonal water consumption and water footprints of paddy under any irrigation practice vary with changing the transplanting dates. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of shifting transplanting dates on CWFs of paddy under the system of rice intensification (SRI) using a crop model. A medium-duration variety (IR-36) was cultivated during kharif (monsoon) and rabi (non-monsoon) seasons of 2015/16 and 2016/17. The field data were used to calibrate and validate the crop model, Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM)-Oryza, as well as simulate paddy yield, evapotranspiration and consumptive water footprints (CWFs) under different transplanting dates.

RESULTS

The APSIM-Oryza simulated grain yield was found to be closely matched with the observed yield during both calibration (r²  = 0.98, root-mean-square error < 300 kg ha^-1 ) and validation (r²  = 0.88, root-mean-square error < 400 kg ha^-1 ). The seasonal water savings in SRI practice was 18-21% compared to conventional, with an effect of a 20-30% improvement in the yield. The early transplanting on 1 July in kharif and 15 December in rabi can produce maximum grain yields of 4.55 and 5.15 t ha^-1 , respectively, with a minimum CWF of 1064 and 855 m³ t^-1 under SRI for the study region.

CONCLUSION

The comparison of yield and CWF scenarios under different transplanting dates revealed the superiority of early transplanting in terms of yield improvement with the least irrigation requirement and CWF under SRI. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of potassium fertilizer on the growth, physiological parameters, and water status of Brassica juncea cultivars under different irrigation regimes

Abiotic stress, especially a lack of water, can significantly reduce crop yields. In this study, we evaluated the physiological and biochemical effects of potassium sulfate (K2SO4) fertilizer and varied irrigation regimes on the economically significant oilseed crop, Brassica juncea L, under open field conditions. Two cultivars (RH-725 and RH-749) of B. juncea were used in a randomized complete block design experiment with three replicates. Irrigation regimes consisted of a control (double irrigation: once at the 50% flowering and another at 50% fruiting stages), early irrigation (at 50% flowering only), late irrigation (at 50% fruiting only) and stress (no irrigation). The K2SO4 applications were: control (K0, no fertilization); K1, 10 kg ha-1; and K2, 20 kg ha-1. We measured growth via fresh and dry plant weight, plant height, root length, and leaf area. All the growth parameters were higher in RH-749. The physiological attributes, including the membrane stability index and relative water content, were higher at the 50% flowering stage in RH-749. The amount of antioxidant enzymes (catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (POX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD)) was enhanced when both plants were fertilized during water stress. All of these enzymes had higher activity in RH-749. The total chlorophyll content and photosynthesis rate were considerably higher in RH-749, which leaked fewer electrolytes and maintained a less destructive osmotic potential under limited water conditions. The results indicated that it is water-stress tolerant when given a high concentration of K2SO4, which alleviated the adverse effects of water stress on growth and physiology.

Potassium fertilization improves growth, yield and seed quality of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) under drought stress at different growth stages

Water scarcity is a major concern for sunflower production in the semi-arid and arid regions of the world. Potassium (K) application has been found effective to alleviate the influence of drought stress; however, the impact of drought stress on seed quality of sunflower has not been reported frequently. Therefore, a field experiment was performed to determine the optimum K requirement for mitigating the adverse effects of water stress and improving growth and seed quality of spring-planted sunflower. Sunflower plants were exposed to water stress at different growth stages, i.e., I_o = no stress (normal irrigation), I₁ = pre-anthesisi stress (irrigation skipped at pre-anthesis stage), I₂ = anthesis stress (irrigation skipped at anthesis stage) and I₃ = post-anthesis stress (irrigation skipped at post-anthesis stage). Potassium was applied at four different rates, i.e., K_o = 0, K₁ = 50, K₂ = 100 and K₃ = 150 kg ha^-1. The results revealed that water stress at pre- and post-anthesis stages significantly reduced plant height, head diameter, number of achenes, oleic acid contents, and phosphorus (P) uptake. However, pre-anthesis stress improved linoleic acid contents. Treatment I_oK₃ (stress-free with 150 kg ha^-1 K) was optimum combination for 1000-achene weight, biological and achene yields, oil contents, protein contents, and N and P uptake. Results indicated that a higher amount of K and irrigation resulted in higher yield, whereas yield and yield components decreased with early-stage water stress. Nevertheless, potassium application lowered the impacts of waters stress compared to no application. Keeping in view these results, it is recommended that sunflower must be supplied 150 kg ha^-1 K in arid and semi-arid regions to achieve higher yield and better seed quality.

A multi-objective mathematical model of a water management problem with environmental impacts: An application in an irrigation project

The study proposes applying an efficient but straightforward multi-objective constrained optimization model for optimal water allocation among irrigation and environmental sectors. The model has been implemented in the Muhuri Irrigation Project (MIP), Bangladesh, where the irrigation systems lead to unjustifiable use of groundwater. This study explores how water can be optimised to increase agricultural production and sustain the local environment in the MIP. Hence, the paper has two objectives—to maximise the net return and minimise the deficit in environmental flow. The study uses a Non-Dominating Sorting Genetic Algorithm, NSGA-II, to solve the research problem. Results indicate that crops more profitable to trade should be cultivated. Furthermore, the rainfall has more impact on the net return and environmental flow deficit than water inflow. The findings of this study can help plan irrigation water and cropland resources and be a reference for further studies.

Influence of rice varieties, organic manure and water management on greenhouse gas emissions from paddy rice soils

The study is focused on impact of manure application, rice varieties and water management on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from paddy rice soil in pot experiment. The objectives of this study were a) to assess the effect of different types of manure amendments and rice varieties on greenhouse gas emissions and b) to determine the optimum manure application rate to increase rice yield while mitigating GHG emissions under alternate wetting and drying irrigation in paddy rice production. The first pot experiment was conducted at the Department of Agronomy, Yezin Agricultural University, Myanmar, in the wet season from June to October 2016. Two different organic manures (compost and cow dung) and control (no manure), and two rice varieties; Manawthukha (135 days) and IR-50 (115 days), were tested. The results showed that cumulative CH₄ emission from Manawthukha (1.084 g CH₄ kg^-1 soil) was significantly higher than that from IR-50 (0.683 g CH₄ kg^-1 soil) (P<0.0046) with yield increase (P<0.0164) because of the longer growth duration of the former. In contrast, higher cumulative nitrous oxide emissions were found for IR-50 (2.644 mg N₂O kg^-1 soil) than for Manawthukha (2.585 mg N₂O kg^-1 soil). However, IR-50 showed less global warming potential (GWP) than Manawthukha (P<0.0050). Although not significant, the numerically lowest CH₄ and N₂O emissions were observed in the cow dung manure treatment (0.808 g CH₄ kg^-1 soil, 2.135 mg N₂O kg^-1 soil) compared to those of the control and compost. To determine the effect of water management and organic manures on greenhouse gas emissions, second pot experiments were conducted in Madaya township during the dry and wet seasons from February to October 2017. Two water management practices {continuous flooding (CF) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD)} and four cow dung manure rates {(1) 0 (2) 2.5 t ha^-1 (3) 5 t ha^-1 (4) 7.5 t ha^-1} were tested. The different cow dung manure rates did not significantly affect grain yield or greenhouse gas emissions in this experiment. Across the manure treatments, AWD irrigation significantly reduced CH₄ emissions by 70% during the dry season and 66% during the wet season. Although a relative increase in N₂O emissions under AWD was observed in both rice seasons, the global warming potential was significantly reduced in AWD compared to CF in both seasons (P<0.0002, P<0.0000) according to reduced emission in CH₄. Therefore, AWD is the effective mitigation practice for reducing GWP without compromising rice yield while manure amendment had no significant effect on GHG emission from paddy rice field. Besides, AWD saved water about 10% in dry season and 19% in wet season.

Effect of co-application of wastewater and freshwater on the physiological properties and trace element content in Raphanus sativus: soil contamination and human health

Nowadays, the use of wastewater for crop irrigation is increasing at global scale mainly due to freshwater scarcity and economic benefits. However, the presence of different types of pollutants including the trace elements (TEs) poses a serious threat to environmental and human health. This pot study evaluated the effect of alone and mixed irrigation water [wastewater (WW) with canal water (CW) and tube-well water (TW)] on TEs build-up in the soil, their soil-plant transfer and allied health hazards in District Vehari. The WW samples were mainly contaminated with Cd (0.03 mg/L), Cr (1.45 mg/L), Cu (0.35 mg/L) and Ni (0.40 mg/L). The CW contained high levels of Cr and Fe, while TW was contaminated with Pb and Cr. In soil, the concentrations of Cd, Fe and Mn exceeded their respective limit values for all the treatments. Among all the treatments, TEs concentration was found highest in WW-3 irrigated soil. Application of all the treatments resulted in TEs (Cu, 60.1 mg/kg; Cd, 8.2 mg/kg; Ni, 39.9 mg/kg; Fe, 4411 mg/kg; Zn, 111.3 mg/kg and Pb, 44.5 mg/kg) accumulation mainly in the edible parts of Raphanus sativus. Compared to other treatments, TW and TW + CW irrigated plants accumulated higher levels of TEs. Results showed linear trends among TEs accumulation and alterations in physiological attributes of R. sativus. High TEs accumulation in TW irrigated treatments (TW + WW-1 and TW + CW) caused maximum H₂O₂ production, lipid peroxidation and decline in plant pigments. Risk assessment parameters showed both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for all the irrigation treatments due to high TEs contents in edible tissues. It is concluded that alone or combined application of WW, TW and CW is not fit for vegetable irrigation, in the studied area, due to high TEs contents.

Effects of water deficit on growth and performance of drip irrigated sweet potato varieties

BACKGROUND

There are many scientific studies on performance of different sweet potato varieties under water deficits, however, no study on Koganesengan and Beniazuma varieties has been found in the literature. This study was aimed to investigate the effects of water deficit levels (control-WD₀ , low-WD₂₅ , medium-WD₅₀ and high-WD₇₅ water deficit levels) on growth, yield and quality parameters, water use efficiency and water-yield response factor values of these sweet potato varieties under drip irrigation.

RESULTS

The seasonal water consumptions of varieties were calculated as 808 and 826 mm, respectively, under no water deficit. All of the growth (except average tuber length for Koganesengan) and yield parameters of both varieties were significantly affected by water deficit treatments. However, most of the quality parameters including total dry mater, starch, ß-carotene, ascorbic acid, protein, saccharose and glucose contents for both varieties; total ash, crude fiber and phenolic matter content for Beniazuma; and fructose content and antioxidant activity for Koganesengan variety had no response to water deficits at any level. Under high deficit and control, fresh and dry vine, tuber and total yields ranged from 4.80 to 14.54, 0.85 to 2.35, 1.59 to 10.97 and 6.40 to 25.52 t ha^-1 for Koganesengan and 6.05 to 27.88, 0.99 to 4.09, 2.17 to 22.91 and 8.22 to 50.79 t ha^-1 for Beniazuma, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that Beniazuma variety is proportionally more sensitive to water deficit than Koganesengan. It can be concluded that both varieties can be grown in Mediterranean conditions by providing optimum irrigation applications. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Quantification and Comparison of Risks Associated with Wastewater Use in Spray Irrigation

In the U.S., spray irrigation is the most common method used in agriculture and supplementing with animal wastewater has the potential to reduce water demands. However, this could expose individuals to respiratory pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila and nontuberculosis Mycobacteria (NTM). Disinfection with methods like anaerobic digestion is an option but can increase concentrations of cytotoxic ammonia (personal communication). Our study aimed to model the annual risks of infection from these bacterial pathogens and the air concentrations of ammonia and determine if anaerobically digesting this wastewater is a safe option. Air dispersion modeling, conducted in AERMOD, generated air concentrations of water during the irrigation season (May-September) for the years 2013-2018. These values fed into the quantitative microbial risk assessments for the bacteria and allowed calculation of ammonia air concentrations. The outputs of these models were compared to the safety thresholds of 10^-4 infections/year and 0.5 mg/m³ , respectively, to determine their potential for negative health outcomes. It was determined that infection from NTM was not a concern for individuals near active spray irrigators, but that infection with L. pneumophila could be a concern, with a maximum predicted annual risk of infection of 3.5 × 10^-3 infections/year and 25.2% of parameter combinations exceeding the established threshold. Ammonia posed a minor risk, with 1.5% of parameter combinations surpassing the risk threshold of 0.5 mg/m³ . These findings suggest that animal wastewater should be anaerobically digested prior to use in irrigation to remove harmful pathogens.

ERA5-based global assessment of irrigation requirement and validation

While only 20% of harvested lands are actually irrigated, 40% of global agricultural production originates from irrigated areas. Therefore, assessing irrigation requirements is essential for the development of effective water-related policies for an efficient management of water resources. Moreover, global-scale analyses are becoming increasingly relevant, motivated by globalized production and international trade of food as well as by the need of common strategies to address climate change.

In this study, a comprehensive model to estimate crop growth and irrigation requirements of 26 main crops at global scale is presented. The model computes a soil water balance using daily precipitation and reference evapotranspiration based on a high-resolution ERA5 reanalysis dataset from the European Copernicus Program. The irrigation requirement, defined as the minimum water volume to avoid water stress, is computed for year 2000 at the resolution of 5 arc-min (or 0.0833°) and aggregated at different spatial and temporal scales for relevant analyses.

The estimated global irrigation requirements for 962 km³ is described in detail, also in relation to the spatial variability and to the monthly variation of the requirements. A focus on different areas of the world (California, Northern Italy and India) highlights the wealth of information provided by the model in different climatic conditions.

National data of irrigation withdrawals have been used for an extensive comparison with model results. A crop-specific validation has also been made for the State of California, comparing model results with local data of irrigation volume and independent estimates of crop water use. In both cases, we found a good agreement between model results and real data.

The estimation of non-irrigated crop area and production using the regression analysis approach: A case study of Bursa Region (Turkey) in the mid-nineteenth century

Agricultural land cover and its changing extent are directly related to human activities, which have an adverse impact on the environment and ecosystems. The historical knowledge of crop production and its cultivation area is a key element. Such data provide a base for monitoring and mapping spatio-temporal changes in agricultural land cover/use, which is of great significance to examine its impacts on environmental systems. Historical maps and related data obtained from historical archives can be effectively used for reconstruction purposes through using sample data from ground observations, government inventories, or other historical sources. This study considered historical population and cropland survey data obtained from Ottoman Archives and cropland suitability map, accessibility, and geophysical attributes as ancillary data to estimate non-irrigated crop production and its corresponding cultivation area in the 1840s Bursa Region, Turkey. We used the regression analysis approach to estimate agricultural land area and grain production for the unknown data points in the study region. We provide the spatial distribution of production and its cultivation area based on the estimates of regression models. The reconstruction can be used in line with future historical research aiming to model landscape, climate, and ecosystems to assess the impact of human activities on the environmental systems in preindustrial times in the Bursa Region context.

The effects of nitrogen application rate on the grain physicochemical properties of japonica rice under controlled and flooding irrigation

BACKGROUND

In this study, we investigated the effects of water-nitrogen interaction on the grain quality of two varieties of japonica rice grown on the North China Plain, based on evaluations of grain biochemical components, starch X-ray diffraction properties, thermal and pasting characteristics, and particle size distribution.

RESULTS

We found that, under controlled irrigation, increasing levels of nitrogen resulted in a reduction in grain starch content and an increase in protein content. Nitrogen fertilization, irrigation, and their interaction had significant effects on the particle size and size distribution of rice flour. Under both controlled and flooding irrigation, the lowest values of pasting parameters for cultivars Xindao22 and Xindao10 were observed in response to moderate and high nitrogen application, respectively. Under flooding irrigation, Xindao22 exhibited lower mean value of gelatinization onset, peak, and conclusion temperatures and enthalpy in response to control irrigation, whereas in Xindao10 these parameters were relatively stable with respect to nitrogen and irrigation treatments. However, we observed no significant effects of either nitrogen or irrigation on amylopectin chain length distribution or starch relative crystallinity.

CONCLUSION

Nitrogen application rate and irrigation methods had distinct effects on the physicochemical properties of flour derived from treated rice plants. The findings will provide support for scientific irrigation and fertilization in order to improve rice grain quality. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Can drip irrigation under mulch be replaced with shallow-buried drip irrigation in spring maize production systems in semiarid areas of northern China?

BACKGROUND

In recent years, shallow-buried drip irrigation in spring maize production has gradually replaced drip irrigation under plastic films and has become a common irrigation method in semiarid areas of northern China.

RESULT

Two years of field experiments were carried out in the semiarid area of western Jilin province to compare the two drip irrigation methods in the spring maize production system. The treatments included MW1 (drip irrigation under mulch + moderate irrigation amount), MW2 (drip irrigation under mulch + high irrigation amount), SM1 (shallow-buried drip irrigation + moderate irrigation amount), and SM2 (shallow-buried drip irrigation + high irrigation amount). The maize yields were significantly higher under mulch than under shallow-buried drip irrigation, but there was no interaction between mulch and the irrigation amount. Drip irrigation under mulch greatly improved spring maize N, P and K uptake compared with that under shallow-buried drip irrigation. The agronomic-use efficiency, recovery-use efficiency, and partial factor productivity were ranked in the order of MW2 > MW1 > SW2 > SW1. The water-use efficiency of drip irrigation under mulch was 7.44% and 6.82% higher than that of shallow-buried drip irrigation under the moderate and high irrigation levels, respectively. However, considering the costs of the plastic mulch, there was no significant (P < 0.05) difference in economic benefits between the SW and MW treatments.

CONCLUSION

Drip irrigation under plastic film provides greater advantages for production, but shallow-buried drip irrigation may be a suitable method for farmers until fertigation technology is further optimized and the problem of plastic film pollution is solved. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Impacts of root pruning and magnetized water irrigation on the phytoremediation efficiency of Celosia argentea

Pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of magnetized water irrigation (100 mT) and root cutting (three pruning intensities) on phytoremediation efficiency of Celosia argentea. In the absence of magnetic field treatment, low root cutting intensity increased the dry weight of the below-ground and aerial parts of C. argentea. Moderate and severe cutting intensities decreased the biomass yield of the plant roots by 11.3% and 31.0%, and increased the dry weight of aerial parts by 75.9% and 27.6%, respectively, alleviating the detrimental effects of these pruning treatments on the plant roots. In the presence of magnetic field treatment, 10% and 25% of pruning treatments increased the dry weight of plant roots by 52.1% and 33.8%, and 33% pruning treatment decreased it by 14.1%. Under both irrigation treatments, low and moderate root cutting strategies did not affect the take up of Cd by the plant roots, while severe cutting decreased it significantly. Enzyme activities decreased with the increment of pruning intensity, and magnetic field can alleviate the negative impact, increasing the capacity of the root pruned species to scavenge the excessive ROS induced by the accumulated Cd. The results showed that root pruning enhanced the phytoremediation efficiency of C. argentea, and this effect was enhanced when combined with magnetized water irrigation.

Effects of different fertilization rates on growth, yield, quality and partial factor productivity of tomato under non-pressure gravity irrigation

To select the optimum fertilizer application under specific irrigation levels and to provide a reliable fertigation system for tomato plants, an experiment was conducted by using a microporous membrane for water-fertilizer integration under non-pressure gravity. A compound fertilizer (N:P₂O₅:K₂O, 18:7:20) was adopted for topdressing at four levels, 1290 kg/ha, 1140 kg/ha, 990 kg/ha, and 840 kg/ha, and the locally recommended level of 1875 kg/ha was used as the control to explore the effects of different fertilizer application rates on growth, nutrient distribution, quality, yield, and partial factor of productivity (PFP) in tomato. The new regime of microporous membrane water-fertilizer integration under non-pressure gravity irrigation reduced the fertilizer application rate while promoting plant growth in the early and intermediate stages. Except for the 990 kg/ha fertilizer treatment, yields per plant and per plot for each fertilizer application rate were higher than or equal to those of the control. The new regime could effectively improve PFP and reduce soil nutrient enrichment. Fertilizer at 840 kg/ha showed the optimum results by increasing PFP by 75.72% as compared to control. In conclusion, the fertilizer rate at 840 kg/ha has not only maintained the productivity of soil but also tomato growth and quality of fruit which makes the non-pressure gravity irrigation a potential and cost-effective way for fertilizer application.

Growth, water use, yield and quality parameters in oregano affected by reduced irrigation regimes

BACKGROUND

Determining plant tolerance to water stress is necessary in irrigation scheduling, decisions concerning supplementary irrigation, planning and operation and, more importantly, the rational use of water resources. In the present study, effects of the irrigation regime on oregano growth, water use, yield and quality parameters were investigated using reduced irrigation regime treatments.

RESULTS

Increased water stresses caused a decrease in all growth and yield parameters. Plant water use efficiency was not significantly different among the control, low and medium stress treatments, although it was the lowest for the extreme water stress treatment. Total essential oil yield was the only quality parameter demonstrating significant differences among treatments. Yield response factors were determined as 1.13, 1.12, 1.06 and 1.10 for total fresh, total dry, dry leaf and total essential oil yields, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Yield response factors indicate that oregano plant is slightly sensitive to water stress. Although the yield parameters were affected by water stress, Origanum onites, under cultivation in recent years, might have developed a resistance mechanism for quality parameters because it has grown in very dry conditions under a natural environment for many years. However, the negative relationships between crop evapotranspiration versus essential oil, total phenolic and flavonoid contents and extract yield indicates that the quality parameters of oregano under low plant water consumption may be increased. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Domestic wastewater infiltration process in desert sandy soil and its irrigation prospect analysis

Although domestic wastewater and its reclaimed water are alternative water resources in arid region, investigation of their negative effect must be done to prevent environmental pollution. In this paper, a short-term column experiment was conducted to simulate the infiltration process of wastewater in desert soil. Alfalfa was planted and irrigated with fresh water for control (CK), tertiary treated domestic wastewater (TTW), secondary treated domestic wastewater (STW) and raw domestic wastewater untreated (RW). The effect of wastewater application on desert soil, drainage and plant properties was evaluated. Experimental results demonstrated that the tested desert soil has no soil structure, organic matter, nor microbial community while possess high infiltration rate. The use of wastewater significantly improved plant growth, and the biomass of TTW, RW, STW were 5.5, 4.3, 2.9 times of CK. The infiltration rate of water in bare soil was high (high to low: TTW, CK, RW, STW), while plant growth reduced infiltration rate (ca. 40% with TTW and RW). Wastewater irrigation and plant growth decreased soil zeta potential, while increased formation of aggregates and bacterial abundance and diversity in soil. Top soil (0-30 cm) accumulation of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), organic matter and E. coli was evidenced and all could go down to deep soil and drainage with constant wastewater use. It was concluded that domestic wastewater had big potential in desert soil vegetation recovering and function restoration. Nevertheless, the N, salt, P and organic matter and E. coli in wastewater could give rise to desert soil and groundwater contamination if improper treatment was used.

Cadmium, chromium, nickel and nitrate accumulation in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) using wastewater irrigation and health risks assessment

The wastewater utilization for irrigation purposes is common practice in peri-urban areas located in vicinity of developed cities. This water contains elements like chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd) and nitrate (NO₃-N) that poses health risk when exposed to human. In this study effect of wastewater irrigation from Chakara wastewater plant, Faisalabad on growth of wheat and health risks was assessed. Pot experiment was conducted at Institute of Soil and Environmental, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad using different concentration of wastewater as treatment 100% tap water, 25% wastewater + 75% tap water, 50% wastewater + 50% tap water, 75% wastewater + 25% tap water, 100% wastewater. The results indicated that the wastewater irrigation negatively effects the plant growth and physiological parameters. The minimum plant height, grain weight, spike length, osmotic potential and SPAD values were recorded 50.33 cm, 1.47 g plant^-1, 7.00 cm, 423 and 38.91 respectively in 100% wastewater irrigation. The risk quotient (RQ _TEs) for each toxic element and cumulative risk index (RI _TEs) values were calculated. The cadmium risk quotient (Cd _RQ) for adults was on margin and value was >1 for in 75% wastewater + 25% tap water and 100% wastewater irrigation, while the RQ for Ni and Cr was <1. Maximum RI _TEs values calculated in 100% wastewater irrigation 0.424 and 0.294 for children and adults respectively. Hence it was concluded that wastewater irrigation significantly increased the accumulation rate of metals and nitrate in wheat and cause potential health risks for children and adults.

Combined effects of rice straw-derived biochar and water management on transformation of chromium and its uptake by rice in contaminated soils

Chromium (Cr) pollution in soil is a global problem owing to its wide industrial use. The mobility, toxicity, and crop uptake of Cr depends on its valence state. Cr(VI) is highly mobile and toxic whereas Cr(III) is generally considered immobile and less toxic. We performed a pot experiment to investigate the combined effects of rice straw-derived biochar and water management on transformation of Cr and its uptake by rice in contaminated soils. The main plots had water management treatments of alternating wetting and drying (AWD) and continuous flooding (CF), and the subplots had three levels of straw biochar (0, 5, and 10 g kg^-1). The results showed that water management and the addition of biochar had a significant effect on the dynamics of soil redox potential (Eh), pH, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and Fe(II) concentration. As these parameters are important factors affecting Cr transformation in paddy soils, the dynamics of the Cr(III) and Cr(VI) concentrations were clearly different under different treatments. The highest reduction of Cr(VI) was observed in the treatment with CF water management in combination with 10 g kg^-1 of biochar amendment, which resulted in a 62% reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in soil. The alterations in the oxidation state of Cr greatly affected its accumulation in the rice grains. The CF combined with 10 g kg^-1 of biochar treatment, caused the Cr concentration in rice grains to be 66.2% lower compared with that of the unamended control under AWD water management. Possibly owing to the reduction in phytotoxic effects of Cr(VI), the combined treatment showed an improvement in rice grain weight. In conclusion, the combination of 10 g kg^-1 of biochar amendment and CF water management may potentially be used in Cr-contaminated soil to mitigate the impacts of Cr contamination on rice production.

A study on interannual change features of soil salinity of cotton field with drip irrigation under mulch in Southern Xinjiang

The drip irrigation under mulch has become one of significant supporting technologies for cotton industry development in Xinjiang, and has shown the good economic and ecological benefits. With the rapid development of society and economy in Southern Xinjiang, the conventional mode of large-quota winter and spring irrigation, salt leaching and alkali decreasing is difficult to support sustainable development of land and water resources in Southern Xinjiang. This study tries to adjust soil moisture and salt content regulation mode of massive water salt leaching and drip irrigation under mulch in the non-growing period of cotton field in Southern Xinjiang, explores interannual soil salinity change features of drip irrigation cotton field without winter and spring irrigation, and provides experimental basis for drip irrigation technology under mulch which can reduce and exempt cotton irrigation in winter and spring. According to ET0, the dual-factor complete combination experiment involving 3 irrigating water quotas (I1, I2, I3) and 2 irrigation times (T12, T16) was designed, and 6 treatments were involved in total(I1T12,I2T12,I3T12,I1T16,I2T16 and I3T16). The investigation results of four-year (2012–2015) field positioning experiment showed that, under the condition of “germination under drip irrigation” without winter and spring irrigation, increasing irrigation quota and irrigation times could lower 0-100cm soil salinity accumulation, but the soil salinity accumulation degree was 40-100cm, and less than 0-30cm. In the seedling stage, bud stage, blossom and boll-forming stage, and boll opening stage, the average salinity of 0-100cm soil increased by 39.81%, 31.91%, 26.85% and 29.47%, respectively. Increasing irrigation quota and irrigation times could ease interannual soil salinity accumulation degree of cotton field with drip irrigation under mulch, without winter and spring irrigation. 0-100cm soil salinity before sowing was related to the irrigation quota of cotton in the growing stage of the last year. The larger the irrigation quota was, the smaller the soil salinity before sowing would be. The accumulation amount of soil salinity at the end of growing stage under different treatments was lower than that before sowing. The drip irrigation of cotton under mulch in the growing stage could effectively regulate soil salinity distribution and space-time migration process in the growing stage of cotton. Compared with the beginning of 2012, 0-100cm average soil salinity under 3 irrigation quotas (I1, I2, I3) was 33.66%, 5.60% and 1.24%, respectively. Salt accumulating rates under 12 irrigations and 16 irrigations were 20.66% and 6.33%, respectively. The soil had the risk of salinization when the “germination under drip irrigation” without winter and spring irrigation was used. Such results can provide the reference for prevention and treatment of soil moisture and salt content of cotton field with drip irrigation under mulch in the arid region.

Water management affects arsenic uptake and translocation by regulating arsenic bioavailability, transporter expression and thiol metabolism in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Water management is an economic and effective strategy to reduce arsenic (As) accumulation in rice grains, but little is known about the effect of water management on the migration and transformation of As in the soil-rice system. In this study, the effect of the continually (CF) and intermittent flooding (IF) treatments on the dynamic change of As in the rhizosphere soil-pore water-iron plaque-rice system was systematically investigated using pot experiments. The expressions of genes involved in As uptake and translocation in rice plants under different water management treatments were further examined. Results showed that the total As concentration in brown rice was increased by 50.8% in the CF treatment compared to the IF treatment, and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) made greater contribution (from 15.5% to 29.2%) to total As increase in brown rice under the CF treatment. The CF treatment increased As bioavailability in the rhizosphere soil and soil pore water, which enhanced As uptake and transport to the xylem in rice plants by inducing the expressions of silicon transporter genes (OsLsi1 and OsLsi2) compared to the IF treatment. Moreover, the CF treatment increased As translocation from roots to shoots by reducing soil available sulfur and phytochelatins (PCs) biosynthesis and vacuolar sequestration in rice roots compared with the IF treatment. The study provides insight into the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying As uptake and translocation in rice plants under different water regimes, which will be helpful for adopting the irrigation technique to mitigate excessive As accumulation in rice grains and associated health risk to humans.

Bioactive compounds and quality evaluation of 'Wonderful' pomegranate fruit and juice as affected by deficit irrigation

BACKGROUND

Persistent water shortage, typical of Mediterranean agricultural systems, has driven production methods towards the use of regulated deficit irrigation (DI) strategies, which may allow important water savings. To evaluate the extent to which pomegranate (cv. 'Wonderful') attributes may differ depending on the irrigation application rates, we investigated the effect of four different irrigation regimes (100, 75, 50, and 25% of maximum crop evapotranspiration - ET_C ) on their morpho-pomological, physico-chemical properties, and bioactive compounds.

RESULTS

The weight and the size of whole fruits, and the number of arils and their weight per fruit, decreased significantly with the restriction of ET_C water volumes applied to the crop. Minor differences were observed in soluble solids, pH, color of fruit skins, arils, and juices, although total acidity, maturity index, vitamin C, glucose, and fructose were not affected. However, total phenol content and antioxidant activity in juices were higher in the samples subjected to the DI treatments than in those submitted to full irrigation, showing the highest value at 50% ET_C . A similar trend was found for anthocyanins delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside and delphinidin-3-glucoside, reaching the highest concentration at 50% ET_C . Among non-anthocyanin compounds, punicalagins and pedunculagin were more concentrated in the 75% ETc samples.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate that the DI strategy throughout all the growing season is likely to have important implication for the pomegranate's physical, chemical, and phytochemical properties. Knowledge of them is useful in view of their processing and nutritional properties. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Quantification and risk assessment of heavy metal build-up in soil-plant system after irrigation with untreated city wastewater in Vehari, Pakistan

In peri-urban areas of district Vehari, farmers are using untreated city wastewater for crop irrigation owing to the scarcity of good-quality irrigation water. This practice may pose severe environmental and health issues to local inhabitants attributed to the high levels of potentially toxic metals in wastewater. The present study evaluated the potential impacts of wastewater irrigation on metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Mn, Pb and Zn) build-up in the soil-plant continuum and associated health risks. In this study, wastewater (n = 17), soil (n = 108) and plant (n = 65) samples were collected from 15 peri-urban sites of three tehsils of district Vehari. Results showed that the mean concentration (mg/L) of Cd (0.02), Mn (0.25) and Fe (1.57) in wastewater samples was higher than their respective threshold values. Similarly, Cd, Mn and Fe concentration in soil was beyond the permissible limits of agricultural soil receiving wastewater irrigation. However, plants showed high accumulation of Pb, Cr and Fe than their respective limits depending on the vegetable/crop species. The health risk parameters showed that Pb and Cd are the major toxic chemical substances to human health, and the daily intake of crop plants can pose a potential health threat due to wastewater-irrigated crop consumption. Results highlighted the necessity of wastewater pretreatment to avoid the soil and vegetable contamination by wastewater irrigation and to reduce the associated health risks.

Potential of Hyperspectral and Thermal Proximal Sensing for Estimating Growth Performance and Yield of Soybean Exposed to Different Drip Irrigation Regimes Under Arid Conditions

Proximal hyperspectral sensing tools could complement and perhaps replace destructive traditional methods for accurate estimation and monitoring of various morpho-physiological plant indicators. In this study, we assessed the potential of thermal imaging (TI) criteria and spectral reflectance indices (SRIs) to monitor different vegetative growth traits (biomass fresh weight, biomass dry weight, and canopy water mass) and seed yield (SY) of soybean exposed to 100%, 75%, and 50% of estimated crop evapotranspiration (ETc). These different plant traits were evaluated and related to TI criteria and SRIs at the beginning bloom (R1) and full seed (R6) growth stages. Results showed that all plant traits, TI criteria, and SRIs presented significant variations (p < 0.05) among irrigation regimes at both growth stages. The performance of TI criteria and SRIs for assessment of vegetative growth traits and SY fluctuated when relationships were analyzed for each irrigation regime or growth stage separately or when the data of both conditions were combined together. TI criteria and SRIs exhibited a moderate to strong relationship with vegetative growth traits when data from different irrigation regimes were pooled together at each growth stage or vice versa. The R6 and R1 growth stages are suitable for assessing SY under full (100% ETc) and severe (50% ETc) irrigation regimes, respectively, using SRIs. The overall results indicate that the usefulness of the TI and SRIs for assessment of growth, yield, and water status of soybean under arid conditions is limited to the growth stage, the irrigation level, and the combination between them.

Carbon stocks and dynamics of different land uses on the Cerrado agricultural frontier

The largest and most dynamic agricultural frontier in Brazil is known as MATOPIBA, an area that covers part of the Cerrado biome. Within this region, Western Bahia stands out as a large producer of soy and cotton. There are no studies that quantify carbon stocks for different land uses and land cover types in Western Bahia, which hinders comprehension of the role of agricultural expansion in carbon dynamics and the development of sustainable agriculture policies. Here, we evaluate how the land use changes in this region have affected the carbon balance in the aboveground biomass (AGB), belowground biomass (BGB), and soil reservoirs. We collected soil samples for areas with different land uses and land cover types to estimate soil carbon stocks (SCS) and combined remote sensing results and modeling techniques to develop a historical reconstruction of spatial patterns of SCS, AGB, and BGB during the period 1990–2018. The replacement of areas from the forest formations class with pasture and rainfed agriculture reduced the 100 cm depth SCS (SCS₁₀₀) by 37.3% (p = 0.031) and 30.3% (p = 0.053), respectively. By contrast, the conversion of pasture and rainfed agriculture to irrigated agriculture increased SCS₁₀₀ by 34% (p = 0.034) and 26.5% (p = 0.022), respectively. Spatial changes in historical carbon stocks are strongly associated with land use changes that occurred between 1990 and 2018. We estimated a non-significant loss of 61.9 Tg-C (p = 0.726) from the total carbon stocks (calculated as the sum of AGB, BGB, and SCS) of which 80% of the losses came from soil stocks, 11% from BGB, and 8% from AGB. These findings reveal the need to monitor carbon stocks in sandy soils to reduce the uncertainties of estimates and support the development of effective sustainable agriculture policies. The best alternatives for reducing carbon losses in the Cerrado are to maintain natural forest cover and to recover soils through sustainable soil management, especially in pasturelands where soil carbon stocks are lowest.

Washing fresh tea leaves before picking decreases pesticide residues in tea

BACKGROUND

The use of pesticides during tea plant cultivation helps agricultural production and prevents and controls pests, diseases and weeds. It is of the utmost importance to balance pesticide application with tea quality, safety and consumer health. The uptake of pesticides into plants may lead to the presence of residues that are hazardous to human health, especially for some foliar-applied insecticides. The movability or penetration behavior of a pesticide remains unknown after it has been sprayed on a tea leaf.

RESULTS

Two organophosphate (acephate, trichlorfon) and three neonicotinoid pesticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and acetamiprid) were confirmed with respect to their removal from the treated fresh leaves of tea saplings via washing in a phytotron. Four of the targets have little penetrative ability into tea leaves, mainly existing (> 92%) on the tea leaf surface, except for trichlorfon (> 70%), for 30 days. With higher vapor pressures, trichlorfon and acetamiprid had relatively higher penetration ratios of 8.63-29.60% and 0.28-8.03% respectively. Two organophosphate insecticides were found to degrade more quickly, with lower final amounts of residues on and in the whole leaf compared to the neonicotinoid pesticides. In a field test, these residues could be reduced by 45-72% after a pre-harvest interval of 3 days, and by 16-89% after 7 days, when the fresh tea shoots were sprayed with 2 or 4 L m^-2 water.

CONCLUSION

Pesticides with different structures have different penetration abilities on the tea leaf surface, and some pesticides in commercial tea can be reduced by spraying with water before fresh leaves are picked. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Longitudinal Assessment of the Dynamics of Escherichia coli, Total Coliforms, Enterococcus spp., and Aeromonas spp. in Alternative Irrigation Water Sources: a CONSERVE Study

As climate change continues to stress freshwater resources, we have a pressing need to identify alternative (nontraditional) sources of microbially safe water for irrigation of fresh produce. This study is part of the center CONSERVE, which aims to facilitate the adoption of adequate agricultural water sources. A 26-month longitudinal study was conducted at 11 sites to assess the prevalence of bacteria indicating water quality, fecal contamination, and crop contamination risk (Escherichia coli, total coliforms [TC], Enterococcus, and Aeromonas). Sites included nontidal freshwater rivers/creeks (NF), a tidal brackish river (TB), irrigation ponds (PW), and reclaimed water sites (RW). Water samples were filtered for bacterial quantification. E. coli, TC, enterococci (∼86%, 98%, and 90% positive, respectively; n = 333), and Aeromonas (∼98% positive; n = 133) were widespread in water samples tested. Highest E. coli counts were in rivers, TC counts in TB, and enterococci in rivers and ponds (P < 0.001 in all cases) compared to other water types. Aeromonas counts were consistent across sites. Seasonal dynamics were detected in NF and PW samples only. E. coli counts were higher in the vegetable crop-growing (May-October) than nongrowing (November-April) season in all water types (P < 0.05). Only one RW and both PW sites met the U.S. Food Safety Modernization Act water standards. However, implementation of recommended mitigation measures of allowing time for microbial die-off between irrigation and harvest would bring all other sites into compliance within 2 days. This study provides comprehensive microbial data on alternative irrigation water and serves as an important resource for food safety planning and policy setting.IMPORTANCE Increasing demands for fresh fruit and vegetables, a variable climate affecting agricultural water availability, and microbial food safety goals are pressing the need to identify new, safe, alternative sources of irrigation water. Our study generated microbial data collected over a 2-year period from potential sources of irrigation (rivers, ponds, and reclaimed water sites). Pond water was found to comply with Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) microbial standards for irrigation of fruit and vegetables. Bacterial counts in reclaimed water, a resource that is not universally allowed on fresh produce in the United States, generally met microbial standards or needed minimal mitigation. We detected the most seasonality and the highest microbial loads in river water, which emerged as the water type that would require the most mitigation to be compliant with established FSMA standards. This data set represents one of the most comprehensive, longitudinal analyses of alternative irrigation water sources in the United States.

Influences of Irrigation with Diluted Seawater and Fertilization on Growth, Seed Yield and Nutrients Status of <i>Salicornia</i> Plants

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The feasibility of cultivating seawater depends on finding a germplasm resistance to salinity and developing appropriate agricultural techniques. Halophytes have the requisite salt tolerance and produce high biomass or seed yields under seawater irrigation. One of the promising halophytes is Salicornia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate production of Salicornia (Salicornia bigelovii L.) under irrigation with high saline water and influence of fertilization on growth, yield and nutrient content.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field experiment was conducted during 2018-2019. Four irrigation treatments (100% seawater, 50% seawater, 25% seawater and 100% well water) were running twice per week. A six fertilization treatments (control, algae extract as foliar and soil applications, NPK (20-20-20) alone or with micronutrients fertilizer (Fe+Mn+Zn+Cu in chelated form) and NPK+micronutrients fertilizer+algae extract were applied in combined with the four irrigation treatments.

RESULTS

The highest mean values of growth and seed yield of Salicornia plants were obtained by 50% dilution of seawater treatment. The treatment of algae extract soil with NPK+micronutrients fertilizers were produced the highest relative increase percentages in growth and yield. The combined treatment of NPK+micronutrients fertilizer+algae extract soil treatment in combined with 50% diluted of seawater was recorded the highest values of all parameters.

CONCLUSION

Soil applied of algae extract as a bio-fertilizer with NPK+micronutrients fertilizers gave the highest increasing in Salicornia growth, yield and contents of nutrients, especially at 25 and 50% seawater dilution treatments.

Optimizing root yield of cassava under fertigation and the masked effect of atmospheric temperature

BACKGROUND

Fertigation is a rare and an expensive method of fertilizer application to cassava, and hence there is a need to optimize its efficiency for profitability. This study's objective was to optimize root yield of cassava through fertigation using a logistic model.

RESULTS

The field treatments were six fertigation concentrations against three cassava varieties, selected according to their maturity period. The logistic model predicted 52%, 116% and 281% benefit of fertigation for the varieties Mweru, Kampolombo and Nalumino, respectively. Furthermore, only half of the amount of fertilizer applied for Mweru was required to achieve twice the root yield of Kampolombo. During the experiment, an unknown importance of atmospheric temperature to cassava and its relationship to fertigation was observed. An elevation of 3.7 °C in atmospheric temperature led to 226%, 364% and 265% increase in root yield of Mweru, Kampolombo and Nalumino, respectively. Conversely, shoot biomass and root yield declined when the average atmospheric temperatures dropped by 3.6 °C. However, the cold temperatures affected the short-growth-duration (Mweru) and medium-growth-duration (Kampolombo) varieties earlier, 22 days after the drop, than the long-growth-duration variety (Nalumino) - 50 days after the drop.

CONCLUSION

Fertigation induced resilience of the shoot biomass production to cold which was most pronounced in the root yield of Mweru in response to the highest fertigation concentration. Thus, while fertigation improved cassava's resilience to cold, it only did so effectively for short-growth-duration variety, Mweru. Also, enhanced performance of cassava under increased atmospheric temperature indicated its importance as a climate-smart crop. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of HMW-GSs on quality related traits in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under different water regimes

Alleles at the Glu-1 loci play important roles in the functional properties of wheat flour. The effects of various high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS) compositions on quality traits and bread-making properties were evaluated using 235 doubled haploid lines (DHs). The experiment was conducted in a split plot design with two water regimes as the main plot treatment, and DH lines as the subplot treatments. Results showed that the presence of subunit pair 5+10 at the Glu-D1 locus, either alone or in combination with others, appears to provide an improvement in quality and bread-making properties. At the Glu-A1 locus, subunit 1 produced a higher Zeleny sedimentation value (Zel) and stretch area (SA) than subunit 2* when subunits 14+15 and 5+10 were expressed at the Glu-B1 and Glu-D1 loci, and 2* had a positive effect on the maximum dough resistance (Rmax) when subunits 14+15 and 5'+12 were expressed at the Glu-B1 and Glu-D1 loci, respectively. Given subunit 1 at the Glu-A1 locus and 5'+12 at the Glu-D1 locus, the effects of Glu-B1 subunits 14+15 on the tractility (Tra), dough stability time (ST), and dough development time (DT) under the well-watered regime were significantly higher than those of Glu-B1 subunits 13+16. However, 13+16 had a positive effect on SA under the rain-fed regime when subunits 2* and 5+10 were expressed at the Glu-A1 and Glu-D1 loci, respectively. Multiple comparisons analysis revealed that the Zel and Rmax of the six subunits and eight HMW-GS compositions were stable under different water regimes. Overall, subunit compositions 1, 13+16 and 5+10 and 1, 14+15 and 5+10 had higher values for quality traits and bread-baking properties under the two water regimes. These results could play a positive guiding role in selecting and popularizing varieties suitable for production and cultivation in local areas.

Validation and expanded uncertainty determination of pesticides in water; and their survey on paddy rice irrigation water from Argentina

A solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method was validated for the simultaneous determination of penconazole, cyproconazole, epoxiconazole, deltamethrin, azoxystrobin and kresoxim-methyl in paddy rice irrigation water. Different SPME fiber coatings and pH values were tested. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and pH 7 were chosen to optimize extraction. All pesticides presented a recovery percentage between 90.5 and 104.2%; and detection and quantification limits were 0.03 and 0.05 µg/kg for azoxystrobin and cyproconazole, 0.02 and 0.05 µg/kg for deltametrhin and epoxiconazole, 0.02 and 0.03 µg/kg for kresoxim-methyl, and 0.01 and 0.02 µg/kg for penconazole. The expanded uncertainty was estimated for all pesticides showing results lower than 20%. A total of 100 paddy rice irrigation water samples, collected in different rice fields from Argentina, were evaluated. The study showed that 86 of them presented residues. The concentrations exceeded the values that were set by European legislation and the frequencies were higher than 86% so the agricultural practices should be revised.

Mapping within‑field variability of soybean evapotranspiration and crop coefficient using the Earth Engine Evaporation Flux (EEFlux) application

Accurate information about the spatiotemporal variability of actual crop evapotranspiration (ETa), crop coefficient (Kc) and water productivity (WP) is crucial for water efficient management in the agriculture. The Earth Engine Evapotranspiration Flux (EEFlux) application has become a popular approach for providing spatiotemporal information on ETa and Kc worldwide. The aim of this study was to quantify the variability of water consumption (ETa) and the Kc for an irrigated commercial planting of soybeans based on the EEFlux application in the western region of the state of Bahia, Brazil. The water productivity (WP) for the fields was also obtained. Six cloud-free images from Landsat 7 and 8 satellites, acquired during the 2016/17 soybean growing season were used and processed on the EEFlux platform. The ETa from EEFlux was compared to that of the modified FAO (MFAO) approach using the following statistical metrics: Willmot's index of agreement (d-index), root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE) and mean bias error (MBE). The Kc from EEFlux was compared to the Kc used in the soybean field (Kc FAO-based) and to the Kc values obtained in different scientific studies using the d-index. A similar procedure was performed for WP. Our results reveal that EEFlux is able to provide accurate information about the variability of ETa and the Kc of soybean fields. The comparison between ETa EEFlux and ETa MFAO showed good agreement based on the d-index, with values of 0.85, 0.83 and 0.89 for central pivots 1, 2 and 3, respectively. However, EEFlux tends to slightly underestimate ETa. The Kc EEFlux showed good accordance with the Kc values considered in this study, except in phase II, where a larger difference was observed; the average WP of the three fields (1.14 kg m-3) was higher than that in the majority of the previous studies, which is a strong indicator of the efficient use of water in the studied soybean fields. The study showed that EEFlux, an innovative and free tool for access spatiotemporal variability of ETa and Kc at global scale is very efficient to estimate the ETa and Kc on different growth stages of soybean crop.

Campylobacter risk for the consumers of wastewater-irrigated vegetables based on field experiments

Water scarcity is emerging as a major problem in water stressed regions such as Middle East countries which highlights the importance of agricultural reuse of wastewater as a valid alternative source. However, consumption of wastewater-irrigated crops has been implicated as a vehicle for transmission of bacterial infections such as campylobacteriosis. Understanding and minimizing public health threats associated with agricultural reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) are crucial elements in sustainable water resource management. To address this need, the present study was carried out to determine Campylobacter risk for the consumers of TWW-irrigated vegetables by field experiments as well as quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model. Campylobacter was monitored in secondary treated wastewater, TWW-irrigated soil and harvested vegetables by nested real-time PCR assay. Campylobacter was detected in 64% (16/25) of TWW samples, whereas analysis of TWW-irrigated soil and vegetable samples yielded no positive result for Campylobacter. The estimated mean annual Campylobacter disease burden ranged from 2.37 × 10^-5 to 6.6 × 10^-5 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) per person per year (pppy) for vegetable consumers which was lower than the less stringent reference level of 10^-4 DALYs pppy has been recommended by world health organization (WHO). Our results in regard to the QMRA estimates and field experiments suggest that the reuse of TWW for irrigation of vegetables doesn't pose a considerable risk to human health from the viewpoint of Campylobacter infections in a semi-arid area.

Use of biochar to produce reclaimed water for irrigation use

Emerging contaminants, especially, pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are not removed well during conventional wastewater treatment and hence pose water quality risk to the environment and potentially to public health. Long-term use of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation can lead to accumulation of trace contaminants in the soil, ground water and their subsequent uptake by plants and potentially can enter human food chain. This paper uses biochar as an adsorbent to remove emerging contaminants from treated wastewater by performing fixed bed experiments. Ten emerging contaminants namely, carbamazepine (CBZ), caffeine, diethyltoluamide (DEET), diphenhydramine (DPH), meprobamate (MPB), primidone (PMD), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), fluoxetine (FXT), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and trimethoprim (TMP) were monitored during lab scale experiments. Results from the continuous flow runs showed that the breakthrough curve for compounds caffeine, CBZ, DEET and PFOA follow second order Thomas model with adsorption capacities of 396 μg g^-1, 392 μg g^-1, 1160 μg g^-1 and 32 μg g^-1 biochar, respectively. Whereas compounds such as DPH, TMP and FXT were completely removed throughout the column runs by biochar. Results for rest of the compounds were interfered by leaching of these compounds from biochar. It was observed that commercially available GAC performed much better than biochar for all the compounds considered. Even at 1% of obtained capacity, biochar amendment to soils where reclaimed water is used for irrigation can reduce the uptake of these compounds by plants.

Comparison of five Boosting-based models for estimating daily reference evapotranspiration with limited meteorological variables

Accurate ET0 estimation is of great significance in effective agricultural water management and realizing future intelligent irrigation. This study compares the performance of five Boosting-based models, including Adaptive Boosting(ADA), Gradient Boosting Decision Tree(GBDT), Extreme Gradient Boosting(XGB), Light Gradient Boosting Decision Machine(LGB) and Gradient boosting with categorical features support(CAT), for estimating daily ET0 across 10 stations in the eastern monsoon zone of China. Six different input combinations and 10-fold cross validation method were considered for fully evaluating model accuracy and stability under the condition of limited meteorological variables input. Meanwhile, path analysis was used to analyze the effect of meteorological variables on daily ET0 and their contribution to the estimation results. The results indicated that CAT models could achieve the highest accuracy (with global average RMSE of 0.5667 mm d-1, MAE of 4199 mm d-1and Adj_R2 of 0.8514) and best stability regardless of input combination and stations. Among the inputted meteorological variables, solar radiation(Rs) offers the largest contribution (with average value of 0.7703) to the R2 value of the estimation results and its direct effect on ET0 increases (ranging 0.8654 to 0.9090) as the station's latitude goes down, while maximum temperature (Tmax) showes the contrary trend (ranging from 0.8598 to 0.5268). These results could help to optimize and simplify the variables contained in input combinations. The comparison between models based on the number of the day in a year (J) and extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) manifested that both J and Ra could improve the modeling accuracy and the improvement increased with the station's latitudes. However, models with J could achieve better accuracy than those with Ra. In conclusion, CAT models can be most recommended for estimating ET0 and input variable J can be promoted to improve model performance with limited meteorological variables in the eastern monsoon zone of China.

Identification of key sectors of water resource utilization in China from the perspective of water footprint

We identified the key sectors of water resource use in China from the perspective of the water footprint to improve the use of water resources. The empirical results showed that there were six key sectors (including Crop Cultivation; Forestry; Livestock and Livestock Products; Fishery, Technical Services for Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock and Fishing; Other Food Products, and Scrap and Waste) for water consumption in China in 2015.We analyzed the use of green water, blue water, and grey water. These six sectors accounted for 66.15% of the total impact and 90.76% of the direct impact. Seven key sectors (the six sectors above plus Steel Processing)for the consumption of blue water in China can explain 59.70% of the total impact and 86.94% of the direct effect in 2015. Eight key sectors (Crop cultivation, Other food products, Scrap and Waste, Railway Freight Transport, Highway Freight and Passengers Transport, Water Freight and Passengers Transport, Pipeline Transport, and Health Services) responsible for the consumption of grey water in China in 2015 can explain 81.28% of the total impact and 95.73% of the direct impact. Therefore, the Chinese government should focus on the departments that manage water resources in these sectors when designing water-saving policies and improving water-use efficiency, such as promoting water-saving irrigation technology (including sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation) in the agricultural sector.

An improved approach to estimating the infiltration characteristics in surface irrigation systems

The most common methods for estimating the infiltration function are measurements through a double-ring infiltrometer (DRI) and empirical models. Infiltration data always exhibit different kinds of scatter, which affect the accuracy of the estimated infiltration function. This study presents a new methodology to calibrate the infiltration function. The suggested approach is based on combining the DRI method with the changes in the measured soil water content. Furrow irrigation experiments were conducted to estimate the infiltration function using different methods and to investigate the effect of data scatter on the reliability of the estimated infiltration function. Furrow elevations were observed, and for each irrigation event advance times, recession times, and inflow rates were observed. The infiltration depths were measured as a function of the change in the soil water content before and after irrigation event. Infiltration parameters were estimated using DRI treatment, empirical model (Kostiakov model), and suggested approach. Measured and simulated infiltration depths using the described methods were compared. The results show that the infiltration depths estimated using a DRI were lower than the observed infiltration depths, while the infiltration depths estimated using the empirical model were higher than the observed infiltration depths. The results indicate that the infiltration function estimated using the recommended approach was more accurate and reasonable than the infiltration function estimated using the DRI, and empirical (Kostiakov model) methods. In addition, the proposed approach can reduce the required measurements during the irrigation event, and can also reduce the potential scatter in the estimated infiltration function that results from soil variability and measurement errors.

Multistage stochastic programming modeling for farmland irrigation management under uncertainty

Farmland management and irrigation scheduling are vital to a productive agricultural economy. A multistage stochastic programming model is proposed to maximize farmers’ annual profit under uncertainty. The uncertainties considered include crop prices, irrigation water availability, and precipitation. During the first stage, pre-season decisions including seed type and plant density are made, while determinations of when to irrigate and how much water to be used for each irrigation are made in the later stages. The presented case study, based on a farm in Nebraska, U.S.A., showed that a 10% profit increase could be achieved by taking the corn price and irrigation water availability uncertainties into consideration using two-stage stochastic programming. An additional 13% profit increase could be achieved by taking precipitation uncertainty into consideration using multistage stochastic programming. The stochastic model outperforms the deterministic model, especially when there are limited water supplies. These results indicate that multistage stochastic programming is a promising method for farm-scale irrigation management and can increase farm profitability.

Improving border irrigation performance with predesigned varied-discharge

Insufficient water resources restrict wheat production in the North China Plain, so it is urgent and essential to improve the border irrigation performance and water use efficiency. This study developed a predesigned varied-discharge irrigation scheme in the closed-ended border. Field treatments, including continuous-discharge (CD), increased-discharge (ID) and decreased-discharge (DD) border irrigation tests, were conducted to evaluate the irrigation performance of the proposed varied-discharge scheme. The DD border irrigation treatment had great application efficiency (AE), distribution uniformity (DU) and requirement efficiency (RE), and its comprehensive evaluation indicator (Y) was also significantly higher than other treatments. DD treatment achieved the average AE, DU, RE and Y values of 91.4%, 95.5%, 99.5% and 95.4%, respectively. Furthermore, the hydraulic simulation model WinSRFR was used to optimize the scheme of predesigned varied-discharge border irrigation, and sensitivity analyses of infiltration parameters, roughness coefficient, slope and inflow rate were carried out. The results indicate that the predesigned varied-discharge border irrigation scheme can improve the irrigation performance, and the DD border irrigation scheme has more satisfactory robustness than that of the ID border irrigation scheme.

Rhizobioaugmentation of Casuarina glauca with N-fixing actinobacteria Frankia decreases enzymatic activities in wastewater irrigated soil: effects of Frankia on C. glauca growth

The use of wastewater for irrigation in agroforestry is cost-effective for water management. It is well established that rhizospheric microorganisms such as N₂-fixing bacteria are able to modulate rhizobioaugmention and to boost phyoremediation process. To date, no study has been conducted to evaluate biological effects of rhizobioaugmentation in Casuarina glauca trees induced by their symbiont N-fixing actinobacteria of the genus Frankia. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the main effects of rhizobioaugmentation on the biological activity in the C. glauca's rhizosphere and on C. glauca growth in soils irrigated with industrial wastewater. Two Frankia strains (BMG5.22 and BMG5.23) were used in a single or dual inoculations of C. glauca seedlings irrigated with industrial wastewater. Soil enzymes activity related to carbon, phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen cycling were measured. Results revealed that the BMG5.22 Frankia strain increases significantly the size (dry weight) of C. glauca shoots and roots while dual inoculation increased significantly the root length. Surprisingly, β-glucosidase (BG), cellobiohydrolase (CBH), β-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAGase), aryl sulfatase (AS), acid phosphatase (AP), alkaline phosphatase (AlP), glycine aminopeptidase (GAP), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), and peroxidase (PER) activity in the rhizosphere decreased significantly in soils treated with the two strains of symbionts. This suggests no positive correlations between enzymatic activity and C. glauca growth.

Influence of variation in the volumetric moisture content of the substrate on irrigation efficiency in early potato varieties

Potato is a plant with high water requirements. This factor affects not only the weight of potato tubers but also their quality parameters. In order to achieve quantity and quality goal, it is helpful if we apply the principles of precision agriculture, which also contributes to sustainable management of environmental resources. Accurate identification of the water requirements of crops is the basis for determining optimal irrigation doses and dates. After their application, it is possible to assess the effectiveness of irrigation treatments and their impact on the air-water conditions in soil with a root system. The aim of the presented study was to analyse the influence of volumetric soil moisture diversity on the vegetation of early potato varieties. Two potato varieties were subject to investigation: Denar and Julinka. Pot experiments were carried out at the Department of Horticulture of Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences. Three variants were analysed: one with a low water content in the soil (pF 2.7), one with the optimal water content (pF 2.5) and one with a high water content (pF 2.2). The basis for the selection of the frequency and application rate of water doses was soil moisture measured with an SM150-Kit set. Volumetric moisture was measured with a TDR apparatus. It was found that the water requirements of both potato varieties differ and increase along with the development of the aboveground and underground parts. Moreover, it was shown that the irrigation requirements of cv. Julinka are higher than those of Denar (31.4–33.0% higher), depending on the adopted variant. The research also showed that the most effective method of potato cultivation is to maintain soil moisture at a lower level. This should be taken into account in regions where the cultivation of this species uses supplementation of the water requirements by irrigation.

Effects of supplemental irrigation at the jointing stage on population dynamics, grain yield, and water-use efficiency of two different spike-type wheat cultivars

To solve the problems of yield reduction and low water-use efficiency (WUE) of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) caused by winter and spring drought, a 2-year field experiment (2017-2019) was performed under movable shelter conditions with the large- and multispike cultivars Shannong 23 and 29, respectively, to explore the optimal supplemental irrigation regime. Three wetting layers were used for irrigation at the jointing stage: 0-10 cm (T2), 0-20 cm (T3) and 0-30 cm (T4). No irrigation at the jointing stage (T1) served as the control. Within a given cultivar, the soil water content in the 0-80 cm soil layers increased after irrigation, and the rate of tiller mortality decreased with increasing depth of the wetting layer used for irrigation at jointing. No significant differences were found between the T3 and T4 treatments in the photosynthetic rate (Pn) of the apical leaf of the main stem (O), the first primary tiller (I) and the fourth tiller (IV) after jointing. However, compared with the T3 treatment, the T4 treatment had a significantly higher transpiration rate (Tr) and lower instantaneous water-use efficiency (WUEleaf) of the apical leaf of the O and tillers I and IV. This eventually led to a decreasing WUE, although there was no significant change in the spike number or grain yield. These results indicated that moderate irrigation at jointing can effectively reduce the tiller mortality, improve the leaf Pn of the tillers, and increase the spike number and grain yield. However, excessive irrigation can significantly increase the leaf Tr of the tillers, lead to inefficient water consumption and significantly reduce the WUEleaf of the tillers and the WUE. Irrigation at the jointing stage brought the soil water content in the 0-20 cm profile to 100% of field capacity, making it the most suitable supplemental irrigation regime for both the large- and multispike cultivars in the North China Plain.

Optimal fertigation for high yield and fruit quality of greenhouse strawberry

Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and water are four crucial factors that have significant effects on strawberry yield and fruit quality. We used a 11 that involved 36 treatments with five levels of each of the four variables (N, P, and K fertilizers and water) to optimize fertilization and water combination for high yield and quality. Moreover, we used the SSC/TA ratio (the ratio of soluble solid content to titratable acid) as index of quality. Results showed that N fertilizer was the most important factor, followed by water and P fertilizer, and the N fertilizer had significant effect on yield and SSC/TA ratio. By contrast, the K fertilizer had significant effect only on yield. N×K fertilizer interacted significantly on yield, whereas the other interactions among the four factors had no significant effects on yield or SSC/TA ratio. The effects of the four factors on yield and SSC/TA ratio were ranked as N fertilizer > water > K fertilizer > P fertilizer and N fertilizer > P fertilizer > water > K fertilizer, respectively. The yield and SSC/TA ratio increased when NPK fertilizer and water increased, but then decreased when excessive NPK fertilizer and water were applied. The optimal fertilizer and water combination were 22.28-24.61 g plant-1 Ca (NO3)2·4H2O, 1.75-2.03 g plant-1 NaH2PO4, 12.41-13.91 g plant-1 K2SO4, and 12.00-13.05 L water plant-1 for yields of more than 110 g plant-1 and optimal SSC/TA ratio of 8.5-14.

Abiotic stress management and Verdejo wine composition: cluster thinning in different water regimes

BACKGROUND

The effects of cluster thinning (TH) on Verdejo wine composition were studied. Cluster thinning was applied in three water regimes (WR) (R0, rainfed control; R25, drip-irrigated at 25% ETo, and R50, drip-irrigated at 50% ETo) during the 2012-2014 seasons.

RESULTS

Cluster thinning advanced grape maturity, although this was only significant in 2012. A significant effect of TH on R0 was observed in 2013, the wettest season, increasing the concentration of alcohols, esters, acetates, and lactones. The same trend was shown in 2012 for all groups of volatile compounds in R0. In contrast, for all volatile families to increase was observed in 2014, the driest season, when TH was applied to R50. WR*TH interactions were found in most wine chemical parameters.

CONCLUSION

The variation in wine volatile composition among the vintages that were observed shows that the capacity of TH to exert an influence depends not only on the water regime but also on annual conditions. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Agrometeorological models to forecast açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) yield in the Eastern Amazon

BACKGROUND

The increasing demand in Brazil and the world for products derived from the açaí palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart) has generated changes in its production process, principally due to the necessity of maintaining yield in situations of seasonality and climate fluctuation. The objective of this study was to estimate açaí fruit yield in irrigated system (IRRS) and rainfed system or unirrigated (RAINF) using agrometeorological models in response to climate conditions in the eastern Amazon. Modeling was done using multiple linear regression using the 'stepwise forward' method of variable selection. Monthly air temperature (T) values, solar radiation (SR), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), precipitation + irrigation (P + I), and potential evapotranspiration (PET) in six phenological phases were correlated with yield. The thermal necessity value was calculated through the sum of accumulated degree days (ADD) up to the formation of fruit bunch, as well as the time necessary for initial leaf development, using a base temperature of 10 °C.

RESULTS

The most important meteorological variables were T, SR, and VPD for IRRS, and for RAINF water stress had the greatest effect. The accuracy of the agrometeorological models, using maximum values for mean absolute percent error (MAPE), was 0.01 in the IRRS and 1.12 in the RAINF.

CONCLUSION

Using these models yield was predicted approximately 6 to 9 months before the harvest, in April, May, November, and December in the IRRS, and January, May, June, August, September, and November for the RAINF. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Promoting adoption of two-stage agricultural drainage ditches: A change agent perspective

Adoption of innovations, including adoption of conservation practices, is a topic of extensive scholarly enterprise. The diffusion of innovations literature has often examined the characteristics of three sets of variables: the adopter, the change agent, and the innovation. This literature clearly establishes the crucial role of change agents in promoting an innovation. However, what we don’t know is what makes change agents want to promote a particular innovation. In this study, change agents’ perceptions of the attributes of two-stage drainage ditches, an innovative agricultural drainage ditch design, are examined in order to understand what affects their willingness to promote them. Diffusion of innovation theory provides the conceptual grounding as well as the theoretical motivation for this study. The data for this study come from semi-structured interviews with 17 change agents. Results suggest that change agents perceive the relative advantage associated with two-stage ditches to be low, and that two-stage ditches might be perceived by potential adopters to be incompatible with the prevalent sociocultural beliefs about drainage ditch management. Results also indicate that change agents’ perceptions of environmental benefits of adopting two-stage ditches affects their willingness to promote them. Results are more broadly informative about promoting conservation practices, and is relevant for both academicians and practitioners.

Risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern in the context of wastewater reuse for irrigation: An integrated modelling approach

Direct reuse of reclaimed wastewater (RWW) in agriculture has recently received increasing attention as a possible solution to water scarcity. The presence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in RWW can be critical, as these chemicals can be uptaken in irrigated crops and eventually ingested during food consumption. In the present study, an integrated model was developed to predict the fate of CECs in water reuse systems where RWW is used for edible crops irrigation. The model was applied to a case study where RWW (originating from a municipal wastewater treatment plant) is discharged into a water channel, with subsequent irrigation of silage maize, rice, wheat and ryegrass. Environmental and human health risks were assessed for 13 CECs, selected based on their chemical and hazard characteristics. Predicted CEC concentrations in the channel showed good agreement with available measurements, indicating potential ecotoxicity of some CECs (estrogens and biocides) due to their limited attenuation. Plant uptake predictions were in good agreement with existing literature data, indicating higher uptake in leaves and roots than fruits. Notably, high uncertainties were shown for weakly acidic CECs, possibly due to degradation in soil and pH variations inside plants. The human health risk due to the ingestion of wheat and rice was assessed using the threshold of toxicological concern and the hazard quotient. Both approaches predicted negligible risk for most CECs, while sulfamethoxazole and 17α-ethinylestradiol exhibited the highest risk for consumers. Alternative scenarios were evaluated to identify possible risk minimization strategies (e.g., adoption of a more efficient irrigation system).

Elimination of cyanobacteria and microcystins in irrigation water-effects of hydrogen peroxide treatment

Cyanobacterial blooms pose a risk to wild and domestic animals as well as humans due to the toxins they may produce. Humans may be subjected to cyanobacterial toxins through many routes, e.g., by consuming contaminated drinking water, fish, and crop plants or through recreational activities. In earlier studies, cyanobacterial cells have been shown to accumulate on leafy plants after spray irrigation with cyanobacteria-containing water, and microcystin (MC) has been detected in the plant root system after irrigation with MC-containing water. This paper reports a series of experiments where lysis of cyanobacteria in abstracted lake water was induced by the use of hydrogen peroxide and the fate of released MCs was followed. The hydrogen peroxide-treated water was then used for spray irrigation of cultivated spinach and possible toxin accumulation in the plants was monitored. The water abstracted from Lake Köyliönjärvi, SW Finland, contained fairly low concentrations of intracellular MC prior to the hydrogen peroxide treatment (0.04 μg L^-1 in July to 2.4 μg L^-1 in September 2014). Hydrogen peroxide at sufficient doses was able to lyse cyanobacteria efficiently but released MCs were still present even after the application of the highest hydrogen peroxide dose of 20 mg L^-1. No traces of MC were detected in the spinach leaves. The viability of moving phytoplankton and zooplankton was also monitored after the application of hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide at 10 mg L^-1 or higher had a detrimental effect on the moving phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Health assessment of spatial and temporal distribution of arsenic in soils irrigated with reclaimed water

Reclaimed water is an important water resource for agricultural irrigation. Based on the systematic analysis of experimental data, this paper studies the spatiotemporal transformation and distribution of As in soil-crop system. Through the comparison with groundwater irrigation, reclaimed water irrigation was tested and studied in connection with the greenhouse vegetables in the growing season. The accumulation, distribution and transportation of As in different depths of soil within 7 days after reclaimed water irrigation were analyzed and discussed. The results showed that the concentration of As was the highest on the first day after irrigation; it was the highest at the depth of 100 cm on the third day after irrigation, but its concentration in the topsoil slightly decreased; from the fifth to the seventh day, the concentrations of As in the different layers of soil were almost the same, but it was the highest at the depth of 80-120 cm; and it decreased slightly with the increase in depth when the depth was less than 120 cm. As in soil during the growing season varied as the frequency of irrigation increased. The specific situation was as follows: as the accumulated As in the topsoil increased, the increased As at the depth of 80-120 cm would become less and the concentration of As at 200 cm would fall. Therefore, when the appropriate concentration of reclaimed water is used for irrigation, the concentration of As in the deep layer soil will comply with the standard limits of GB15618-1995 and the irrigation with reclaimed water of appropriate concentration will not cause As pollution.

Health evaluation on migration and distribution of heavy metal Cd after reclaimed water drip irrigation

The utilization of reclaimed water is one of the effective measures to save water resources. The study of reclaimed water irrigation and the analysis of how heavy metals migrate in the soil, especially their movement laws, have important theoretical and practical significance. It helps to predict the risk of heavy metals in foods, which protects our health and safety. In this paper, we studied the accumulation and distribution of heavy metal Cd in soils with reclaimed water drip irrigation in greenhouses during growing season, comparing the effects with groundwater drip irrigation. The results show that the Cd concentration in the surface soil is the highest on the second day after drip irrigation. It will be the highest on the fourth day in the depth of 100 cm, and then, it will decrease slightly. During the period of the sixth day to the eighth day, the Cd concentrations are similar in each depth, and it is the highest in the depth of 0-40 cm and 80-120 cm, but the Cd concentration decreases with the lower depth below 120 cm. By utilizing proper ways of reclaimed water drip irrigation, the Cd concentration in the deep soil will not violate the standard limits of GB15618-1995, which will not cause Cd pollution.

Enhancing Nut Quality Parameters and Sensory Profiles in Three Almond Cultivars by Different Irrigation Regimes

The climate change is already affecting many agricultural systems and human environments, and the implementation of adaptation strategies, especially those related to irrigated agriculture in semiarid regions, is urgent. In this regard, deep knowledge about the effects that irrigation has on the food quality parameters will allow us to estimate the potential benefits of deficit irrigation (DI) strategies. This work presents the effects on the quality parameters of three almond cultivars (Marta, Guara, and Lauranne) subjected to three irrigation doses: (i) full-irrigated treatment (F_I) at 100% crop evapotranspiration (ET_C), (ii) an overirrigated treatment at 150% ET_C (150% ET_C), and (iii) regulated deficit irrigation (RDI₆₅) treatment, in which irrigation was done as in F_I, expect during the kernel-filling period when this treatment received 65% ET_C. According to experimental findings, the cultivar most sensitive to water stress was Marta, having the most significant improvements for RDI₆₅. In general, the effects of the irrigation dose on the morphological and physicochemical parameters were not huge but some improvements were observed in key parameters such as the color and contents of specific sugars, organic acids, and unsaturated fatty acids. Thus, it can be concluded that the irrigation dose did not drastically affect the fruit almond quality, although it is possible to improve several key parameters when a moderate RDI strategy is applied.