Septal Cholinergic Neuromodulation Tunes the Astrocyte-Dependent Gating of Hippocampal NMDA Receptors to Wakefulness

Developmental Spike Timing-Dependent Long-Term Depression Requires Astrocyte d-Serine at L2/3-L2/3 Synapses of the Mouse Somatosensory Cortex

Spike timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) is a learning rule important for synaptic refinement and for learning and memory during development. While different forms of presynaptic t-LTD have been deeply investigated, little is known about the mechanisms of somatosensory cortex postsynaptic t-LTD. In the present work, we investigated the requirements and mechanisms for induction of developmental spike timing-dependent long-term depression (t-LTD) at L2/3-L2/3 synapses in the juvenile mouse somatosensory cortex. We found that postnatal day (P) 13-21 mice of either sex show t-LTD at L2/3-L2/3 synapses induced by pairing single presynaptic activity with single postsynaptic action potentials at low stimulation frequency (0.2 Hz) that is expressed postsynaptically and requires the activation of ionotropic postsynaptic NMDA-type glutamate receptors containing GluN2B subunits. In addition, it requires postsynaptic Ca2+, Ca2+ release from internal stores, calcineurin, postsynaptic endocannabinoid synthesis, activation of CB1 receptors, and astrocytic signaling to release the gliotransmitter d-serine to activate postsynaptic NMDARs to induce t-LTD. These results show direct evidence of the mechanism involved in developmental postsynaptic t-LTD at L2/3-L2/3 synapses, revealing a central role of astrocytes and their release of d-serine in its induction.

Ezrin-mediated astrocyte-synapse signaling regulates cognitive function via astrocyte morphological changes in fine processes in male mice

Astrocytes, which actively participate in cognitive processes, have a complex spongiform morphology, highlighted by extensive ramified fine processes that closely enwrap the pre- and post-synaptic compartments, forming tripartite synapses. However, the role of astrocyte morphology in cognitive processes remains incompletely understood and even controversial. The actin-binding protein Ezrin is highly expressed in astrocytes and is a key structural determinant of astrocyte morphology. Here, we found that Ezrin expression and astrocyte fine process volume in the hippocampus of male mice increased after learning but decreased after lipopolysaccharide injection and in a mouse model of postoperative cognitive dysfunction, both of which involved models with impaired cognitive function. Additionally, astrocytic Ezrin knock-out led to significantly decreased astrocytic fine process volumes, decreased astrocyte-neuron proximity, and induced anxiety-like behaviors and cognitive dysfunction. Astrocytic Ezrin deficiency in the hippocampus was achieved by using a microRNA silencing technique delivered by adeno-associated viruses. Down-regulation of Ezrin in hippocampal astrocytes led to disrupted astrocyte-synapse interactions and impaired synaptic functions, including synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity, which could be rescued by exogenous administration of D-serine. Remarkably, decreased Ezrin expression and reduced astrocyte fine processes volumes were also observed in aged mice with decreased cognitive function. Moreover, overexpression of astrocytic Ezrin increased astrocyte fine process volumes and improved cognitive function in aged mice. Overall, our results indicate Ezrin-mediated astrocyte fine processes integrity shapes astrocyte-synapse signaling contributing to cognitive function.

Excitotoxic Storms of Ischemic Stroke: A Non-neuronal Perspective

Numerous neurological disorders share a fatal pathologic process known as glutamate excitotoxicity. Among which, ischemic stroke is the major cause of mortality and disability worldwide. For a long time, the main idea of developing anti-excitotoxic neuroprotective agents was to block glutamate receptors. Despite this, there has been little successful clinical translation to date. After decades of "neuron-centered" views, a growing number of studies have recently revealed the importance of non-neuronal cells. Glial cells, cerebral microvascular endothelial cells, blood cells, and so forth are extensively engaged in glutamate synthesis, release, reuptake, and metabolism. They also express functional glutamate receptors and can listen and respond for fast synaptic transmission. This broadens the thoughts of developing excitotoxicity antagonists. In this review, the critical contribution of non-neuronal cells in glutamate excitotoxicity during ischemic stroke will be emphasized in detail, and the latest research progress as well as corresponding therapeutic strategies will be updated at length, aiming to reconceptualize glutamate excitotoxicity in a non-neuronal perspective.

Fluorocitrate inhibition of astrocytes reduces nicotine self-administration and alters extracellular levels of glutamate and dopamine within the nucleus accumbens in male wistar rats

Emerging evidence suggests an important role of astrocytes in mediating behavioral and molecular effects of commonly misused drugs. Passive exposure to nicotine alters molecular, morphological, and functional properties of astrocytes. However, a potential involvement of astrocytes in nicotine reinforcement remains largely unexplored. The overall hypothesis tested in the current study is that astrocytes play a critical role in nicotine reinforcement. Protein levels of the astrocyte marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were examined in key mesocorticolimbic regions following chronic nicotine intravenous self-administration. Fluorocitrate, a metabolic inhibitor of astrocytes, was tested for its effects on behaviors related to nicotine reinforcement and relapse. Effects of fluorocitrate on extracellular neurotransmitter levels, including glutamate, GABA, and dopamine, were determined with microdialysis. Chronic nicotine intravenous self-administration increased GFAP expression in the nucleus accumbens core (NACcr), but not other key mesocorticolimbic regions, compared to saline intravenous self-administration. Both intra-ventricular and intra-NACcr microinjection of fluorocitrate decreased nicotine self-administration. Intra-NACcr fluorocitrate microinjection also inhibited cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. Local perfusion of fluorocitrate decreased extracellular glutamate levels, elevated extracellular dopamine levels, but did not alter extracellular GABA levels in the NACcr. Fluorocitrate did not alter basal locomotor activity. These results indicate that nicotine reinforcement upregulates the astrocyte marker GFAP expression in the NACcr, metabolic inhibition of astrocytes attenuates nicotine reinforcement and relapse, and metabolic inhibition of astrocytes disrupts extracellular dopamine and glutamate transmission. Overall, these findings suggest that astrocytes play an important role in nicotine reinforcement and relapse, potentially through regulation of extracellular glutamate and dopamine neurotransmission.

Deletion of murine astrocytic vesicular nucleotide transporter increases anxiety and depressive-like behavior and attenuates motivation for reward

Astrocytes are multi-functional glial cells in the central nervous system that play critical roles in modulation of metabolism, extracellular ion and neurotransmitter levels, and synaptic plasticity. Astrocyte-derived signaling molecules mediate many of these modulatory functions of astrocytes, including vesicular release of ATP. In the present study, we used a unique genetic mouse model to investigate the functional significance of astrocytic exocytosis of ATP. Using primary cultured astrocytes, we show that loss of vesicular nucleotide transporter (Vnut), a primary transporter responsible for loading cytosolic ATP into the secretory vesicles, dramatically reduces ATP loading into secretory lysosomes and ATP release, without any change in the molecular machinery of exocytosis or total intracellular ATP content. Deletion of astrocytic Vnut in adult mice leads to increased anxiety, depressive-like behaviors, and decreased motivation for reward, especially in females, without significant impact on food intake, systemic glucose metabolism, cognition, or sociability. These behavioral alterations are associated with significant decreases in the basal extracellular dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. Likewise, ex vivo brain slices from these mice show a strong trend toward a reduction in evoked dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Mechanistically, the reduced dopamine signaling we observed is likely due to an increased expression of monoamine oxidases. Together, these data demonstrate a key modulatory role of astrocytic exocytosis of ATP in anxiety, depressive-like behavior, and motivation for reward, by regulating the mesolimbic dopamine circuitry.

d-Serine Inhibits Non-ionotropic NMDA Receptor Signaling

NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) are widely recognized as master regulators of synaptic plasticity, most notably for driving long-term changes in synapse size and strength that support learning. NMDARs are unique among neurotransmitter receptors in that they require binding of both neurotransmitter (glutamate) and co-agonist (e.g., d-serine) to open the receptor channel, which leads to the influx of calcium ions that drive synaptic plasticity. Over the past decade, evidence has accumulated that NMDARs also support synaptic plasticity via ion flux-independent (non-ionotropic) signaling upon the binding of glutamate in the absence of co-agonist, although conflicting results have led to significant controversy. Here, we hypothesized that a major source of contradictory results might be attributed to variable occupancy of the co-agonist binding site under different experimental conditions. To test this hypothesis, we manipulated co-agonist availability in acute hippocampal slices from mice of both sexes. We found that enzymatic scavenging of endogenous co-agonists enhanced the magnitude of long-term depression (LTD) induced by non-ionotropic NMDAR signaling in the presence of the NMDAR pore blocker MK801. Conversely, a saturating concentration of d-serine completely inhibited LTD and spine shrinkage induced by glutamate binding in the presence of MK801 or Mg2+ Using a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based assay in cultured neurons, we further found that d-serine completely blocked NMDA-induced conformational movements of the GluN1 cytoplasmic domains in the presence of MK801. Our results support a model in which d-serine availability serves to modulate NMDAR signaling and synaptic plasticity even when the NMDAR is blocked by magnesium.

Astrocyte-mediated regulation of BLAWFS1 neurons alleviates risk-assessment deficits in DISC1-N mice

Assessing and responding to threats is vital in everyday life. Unfortunately, many mental illnesses involve impaired risk assessment, affecting patients, families, and society. The brain processes behind these behaviors are not well understood. We developed a transgenic mouse model (disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1 [DISC1]-N) with a disrupted avoidance response in risky settings. Our study utilized single-nucleus RNA sequencing and path-clamp coupling with real-time RT-PCR to uncover a previously undescribed group of glutamatergic neurons in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) marked by Wolfram syndrome 1 (WFS1) expression, whose activity is modulated by adjacent astrocytes. These neurons in DISC1-N mice exhibited diminished firing ability and impaired communication with the astrocytes. Remarkably, optogenetic activation of these astrocytes reinstated neuronal excitability via D-serine acting on BLAWFS1 neurons' NMDA receptors, leading to improved risk-assessment behavior in the DISC1-N mice. Our findings point to BLA astrocytes as a promising target for treating risk-assessment dysfunctions in mental disorders.

Expression and function of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in specific neuronal populations: Focus on striatal and prefrontal circuits

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are widely expressed in the central nervous system and play an important role in the control of neural functions including neuronal activity, transmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Although the common subtypes of nAChRs are abundantly expressed throughout the brain, their expression in different brain regions and by individual neuronal types is not homogeneous or incidental. In recent years, several studies have emerged showing that particular subtypes of nAChRs are expressed by specific neuronal populations in which they have major influence on the activity of local circuits and behavior. It has been demonstrated that even nAChRs expressed by relatively rare neuronal types can induce significant changes in behavior and contribute to pathological processes. Depending on the identity and connectivity of the particular nAChRs-expressing neuronal populations, the activation of nAChRs can have distinct or even opposing effects on local neuronal signaling. In this review, we will summarize the available literature describing the expression of individual nicotinic subunits by different neuronal types in two crucial brain regions, the striatum and the prefrontal cortex. The review will also briefly discuss nicotinic expression in non-neuronal, glial cells, as they cannot be ignored as potential targets of nAChRs-modulating drugs. The final section will discuss options that could allow us to target nAChRs in a neuronal-type-specific manner, not only in the experimental field, but also eventually in clinical practice.

D-Serine inhibits non-ionotropic NMDA receptor signaling

NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) are widely recognized as master regulators of synaptic plasticity, most notably for driving long-term changes in synapse size and strength that support learning. NMDARs are unique among neurotransmitter receptors in that they require binding of both neurotransmitter (glutamate) and co-agonist (e.g. d -serine) to open the receptor channel, which leads to the influx of calcium ions that drive synaptic plasticity. Over the past decade, evidence has accumulated that NMDARs also support synaptic plasticity via ion flux-independent (non-ionotropic) signaling upon the binding of glutamate in the absence of co-agonist, although conflicting results have led to significant controversy. Here, we hypothesized that a major source of contradictory results can be attributed to variable occupancy of the co-agonist binding site under different experimental conditions. To test this hypothesis, we manipulated co-agonist availability in acute hippocampal slices from mice of both sexes. We found that enzymatic scavenging of endogenous co-agonists enhanced the magnitude of LTD induced by non-ionotropic NMDAR signaling in the presence of the NMDAR pore blocker, MK801. Conversely, a saturating concentration of d -serine completely inhibited both LTD and spine shrinkage induced by glutamate binding in the presence of MK801. Using a FRET-based assay in cultured neurons, we further found that d -serine completely blocked NMDA-induced conformational movements of the GluN1 cytoplasmic domains in the presence of MK801. Our results support a model in which d -serine inhibits ion flux-independent NMDAR signaling and plasticity, and thus d -serine availability could serve to modulate NMDAR signaling even when the NMDAR is blocked by magnesium.

Significance Statement

NMDARs are glutamate-gated cation channels that are key regulators of neurodevelopment and synaptic plasticity and unique in their requirement for binding of a co-agonist (e.g. d -serine) in order for the channel to open. NMDARs have been found to drive synaptic plasticity via non-ionotropic (ion flux-independent) signaling upon the binding of glutamate in the absence of co-agonist, though conflicting results have led to controversy. Here, we found that d -serine inhibits non-ionotropic NMDAR-mediated LTD and LTD-associated spine shrinkage. Thus, a major source of the contradictory findings might be attributed to experimental variability in d -serine availability. In addition, the developmental regulation of d -serine levels suggests a role for non-ionotropic NMDAR plasticity during critical periods of plasticity.

Effective factors in the pathogenesis of Toxoplasmagondii

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a cosmopolitan protozoan parasite in humans and animals. It infects about 30 % of the human population worldwide and causes potentially fatal diseases in immunocompromised hosts and neonates. For this study, five English-language databases (ScienceDirect, ProQuest, Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus) and the internet search engine Google Scholar were searched. This review was accomplished to draw a global perspective of what is known about the pathogenesis of T. gondii and various factors affecting it. Virulence and immune responses can influence the mechanisms of parasite pathogenesis and these factors are in turn influenced by other factors. In addition to the host's genetic background, the type of Toxoplasma strain, the routes of transmission of infection, the number of passages, and different phases of parasite life affect virulence. The identification of virulence factors of the parasite could provide promising insights into the pathogenesis of this parasite. The results of this study can be an incentive to conduct more intensive research to design and develop new anti-Toxoplasma agents (drugs and vaccines) to treat or prevent this infection. In addition, further studies are needed to better understand the key agents in the pathogenesis of T. gondii.

Network-level encoding of local neurotransmitters in cortical astrocytes

Astrocytes, the most abundant non-neuronal cell type in the mammalian brain, are crucial circuit components that respond to and modulate neuronal activity through calcium (Ca2+) signalling1-7. Astrocyte Ca2+ activity is highly heterogeneous and occurs across multiple spatiotemporal scales-from fast, subcellular activity3,4 to slow, synchronized activity across connected astrocyte networks8-10-to influence many processes5,7,11. However, the inputs that drive astrocyte network dynamics remain unclear. Here we used ex vivo and in vivo two-photon astrocyte imaging while mimicking neuronal neurotransmitter inputs at multiple spatiotemporal scales. We find that brief, subcellular inputs of GABA and glutamate lead to widespread, long-lasting astrocyte Ca2+ responses beyond an individual stimulated cell. Further, we find that a key subset of Ca2+ activity-propagative activity-differentiates astrocyte network responses to these two main neurotransmitters, and may influence responses to future inputs. Together, our results demonstrate that local, transient neurotransmitter inputs are encoded by broad cortical astrocyte networks over a minutes-long time course, contributing to accumulating evidence that substantial astrocyte-neuron communication occurs across slow, network-level spatiotemporal scales12-14. These findings will enable future studies to investigate the link between specific astrocyte Ca2+ activity and specific functional outputs, which could build a consistent framework for astrocytic modulation of neuronal activity.

Centripetal integration of past events in hippocampal astrocytes regulated by locus coeruleus

An essential feature of neurons is their ability to centrally integrate information from their dendrites. The activity of astrocytes, in contrast, has been described as mostly uncoordinated across cellular compartments without clear central integration. Here we report conditional integration of calcium signals in astrocytic distal processes at their soma. In the hippocampus of adult mice of both sexes, we found that global astrocytic activity, as recorded with population calcium imaging, reflected past neuronal and behavioral events on a timescale of seconds. Salient past events, indicated by pupil dilations, facilitated the propagation of calcium signals from distal processes to the soma. Centripetal propagation to the soma was reproduced by optogenetic activation of the locus coeruleus, a key regulator of arousal, and reduced by pharmacological inhibition of α1-adrenergic receptors. Together, our results suggest that astrocytes are computational units of the brain that slowly and conditionally integrate calcium signals upon behaviorally relevant events.

Astrocytes as a mechanism for contextually-guided network dynamics and function

Astrocytes are a ubiquitous and enigmatic type of non-neuronal cell and are found in the brain of all vertebrates. While traditionally viewed as being supportive of neurons, it is increasingly recognized that astrocytes play a more direct and active role in brain function and neural computation. On account of their sensitivity to a host of physiological covariates and ability to modulate neuronal activity and connectivity on slower time scales, astrocytes may be particularly well poised to modulate the dynamics of neural circuits in functionally salient ways. In the current paper, we seek to capture these features via actionable abstractions within computational models of neuron-astrocyte interaction. Specifically, we engage how nested feedback loops of neuron-astrocyte interaction, acting over separated time-scales, may endow astrocytes with the capability to enable learning in context-dependent settings, where fluctuations in task parameters may occur much more slowly than within-task requirements. We pose a general model of neuron-synapse-astrocyte interaction and use formal analysis to characterize how astrocytic modulation may constitute a form of meta-plasticity, altering the ways in which synapses and neurons adapt as a function of time. We then embed this model in a bandit-based reinforcement learning task environment, and show how the presence of time-scale separated astrocytic modulation enables learning over multiple fluctuating contexts. Indeed, these networks learn far more reliably compared to dynamically homogeneous networks and conventional non-network-based bandit algorithms. Our results fuel the notion that neuron-astrocyte interactions in the brain benefit learning over different time-scales and the conveyance of task-relevant contextual information onto circuit dynamics.

Integrative Pharmacology in the Treatment of Substance Use Disorders

The detrimental physical, mental, and socioeconomic effects of substance use disorders (SUDs) have been apparent to the medical community for decades. However, it has become increasingly urgent in recent years to develop novel pharmacotherapies to treat SUDs. Currently, practitioners typically rely on monotherapy. Monotherapy has been shown to be superior to no treatment at all for most substance classes. However, many randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have revealed that monotherapy leads to poorer outcomes when compared with combination treatment in all specialties of medicine. The results of RCTs suggest that monotherapy frequently fails since multiple dysregulated pathways, enzymes, neurotransmitters, and receptors are involved in the pathophysiology of SUDs. As such, research is urgently needed to determine how various neurobiological mechanisms can be targeted by novel combination treatments to create increasingly specific yet exceedingly comprehensive approaches to SUD treatment. This article aims to review the neurobiology that integrates many pathophysiologic mechanisms and discuss integrative pharmacology developments that may ultimately improve clinical outcomes for patients with SUDs. Many neurobiological mechanisms are known to be involved in SUDs including dopaminergic, nicotinic, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), and kynurenic acid (KYNA) mechanisms. Emerging evidence indicates that KYNA, a tryptophan metabolite, modulates all these major pathophysiologic mechanisms. Therefore, achieving KYNA homeostasis by harmonizing integrative pathophysiology and pharmacology could prove to be a better therapeutic approach for SUDs. We propose KYNA-NMDA-α7nAChRcentric pathophysiology, the "conductor of the orchestra," as a novel approach to treat many SUDs concurrently. KYNA-NMDA-α7nAChR pathophysiology may be the "command center" of neuropsychiatry. To date, extant RCTs have shown equivocal findings across comparison conditions, possibly because investigators targeted single pathophysiologic mechanisms, hit wrong targets in underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms, and tested inadequate monotherapy treatment. We provide examples of potential combination treatments that simultaneously target multiple pathophysiologic mechanisms in addition to KYNA. Kynurenine pathway metabolism demonstrates the greatest potential as a target for neuropsychiatric diseases. The investigational medications with the most evidence include memantine, galantamine, and N-acetylcysteine. Future RCTs are warranted with novel combination treatments for SUDs. Multicenter RCTs with integrative pharmacology offer a promising, potentially fruitful avenue to develop novel therapeutics for the treatment of SUDs.

Astrocytes and Memory: Implications for the Treatment of Memory-related Disorders

Memory refers to the imprint accumulated in the brain by life experiences and represents the basis for humans to engage in advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. Previously, research activities focused on memory have always targeted neurons. However, in addition to neurons, astrocytes are also involved in the encoding, consolidation, and extinction of memory. In particular, astrocytes are known to affect the recruitment and function of neurons at the level of local synapses and brain networks. Moreover, the involvement of astrocytes in memory and memory-related disorders, especially in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), has been investigated extensively. In this review, we describe the unique contributions of astrocytes to synaptic plasticity and neuronal networks and discuss the role of astrocytes in different types of memory processing. In addition, we also explore the roles of astrocytes in the pathogenesis of memory-related disorders, such as AD, brain aging, PTSD and addiction, thus suggesting that targeting astrocytes may represent a potential strategy to treat memory-related neurological diseases. In conclusion, this review emphasizes that thinking from the perspective of astrocytes will provide new ideas for the diagnosis and therapy of memory-related neurological disorders.

baz-2 enhances systemic proteostasis in vivo by regulating acetylcholine metabolism

Neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) or Huntington's disease (HD), are linked to protein aggregate neurotoxicity. According to the "cholinergic hypothesis," loss of acetylcholine (ACh) signaling contributes to the AD pathology, and therapeutic restoration of ACh signaling is a common treatment strategy. How disease causation and the effect of ACh are linked to protein aggregation and neurotoxicity remains incompletely understood, thus limiting the development of more effective therapies. Here, we show that BAZ-2, the Caenorhabditis elegans ortholog of human BAZ2B, limits ACh signaling. baz-2 mutations reverse aggregation and toxicity of amyloid-beta as well as polyglutamine peptides, thereby restoring health and lifespan in nematode models of AD and HD, respectively. The neuroprotective effect of Δbaz-2 is mediated by choline acetyltransferase, phenocopied by ACh-esterase depletion, and dependent on ACh receptors. baz-2 reduction or ectopic ACh treatment augments proteostasis via induction of the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response and the ubiquitin proteasome system.

Network-level encoding of local neurotransmitters in cortical astrocytes

Astrocytes-the most abundant non-neuronal cell type in the mammalian brain-are crucial circuit components that respond to and modulate neuronal activity via calcium (Ca 2+ ) signaling 1-8 . Astrocyte Ca 2+ activity is highly heterogeneous and occurs across multiple spatiotemporal scales: from fast, subcellular activity 3,4 to slow, synchronized activity that travels across connected astrocyte networks 9-11 . Furthermore, astrocyte network activity has been shown to influence a wide range of processes 5,8,12 . While astrocyte network activity has important implications for neuronal circuit function, the inputs that drive astrocyte network dynamics remain unclear. Here we used ex vivo and in vivo two-photon Ca 2+ imaging of astrocytes while mimicking neuronal neurotransmitter inputs at multiple spatiotemporal scales. We find that brief, subcellular inputs of GABA and glutamate lead to widespread, long-lasting astrocyte Ca 2+ responses beyond an individual stimulated cell. Further, we find that a key subset of Ca 2+ activity-propagative events-differentiates astrocyte network responses to these two major neurotransmitters, and gates responses to future inputs. Together, our results demonstrate that local, transient neurotransmitter inputs are encoded by broad cortical astrocyte networks over the course of minutes, contributing to accumulating evidence across multiple model organisms that significant astrocyte-neuron communication occurs across slow, network-level spatiotemporal scales 13-15 . We anticipate that this study will be a starting point for future studies investigating the link between specific astrocyte Ca 2+ activity and specific astrocyte functional outputs, which could build a consistent framework for astrocytic modulation of neuronal activity.

d-Amino acids: new clinical pathways for brain diseases

Free d-amino acids (d-AAs) are emerging as a novel and important class of signaling molecules in many organs, including the brain and endocrine systems. There has been considerable progress in our understanding of the fundamental roles of these atypical messengers, with increasingly recognized implications in a wide range of neuropathologies, including schizophrenia (SCZ), epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), substance abuse, and chronic pain, among others. Research has enabled the discovery that d-serine, d-aspartate and more recently d-cysteine are essential for the healthy development and function of the central nervous system (CNS). We discuss recent progress that has profoundly transformed our vision of numerous physiological processes but has also shown how d-AAs are now offering therapeutic promise in clinical settings for several human diseases.

Astrocytes as Drivers and Disruptors of Behavior: New Advances in Basic Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targeting

Astrocytes are emerging as key regulators of cognitive function and behavior. This review highlights some of the latest advances in the understanding of astrocyte roles in different behavioral domains across lifespan and in disease. We address specific molecular and circuit mechanisms by which astrocytes modulate behavior, discuss their functional diversity and versatility, and highlight emerging astrocyte-targeted treatment strategies that might alleviate behavioral and cognitive dysfunction in pathologic conditions. Converging evidence across different model systems and manipulations is revealing that astrocytes regulate behavioral processes in a precise and context-dependent manner. Improved understanding of these astrocytic functions may generate new therapeutic strategies for various conditions with cognitive and behavioral impairments.

Cross species review of the physiological role of D-serine in translationally relevant behaviors

Bridging the gap between preclinical models of neurological and psychiatric disorders with their human manifestations is necessary to understand their underlying mechanisms, identify biomarkers, and develop novel therapeutics. Cognitive and social impairments underlie multiple neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders and are often comorbid with sleep disturbances, which can exacerbate poor outcomes. Importantly, many symptoms are conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates, although they may have subtle differences. Therefore, it is essential to determine the molecular mechanisms underlying these behaviors across different species and their translatability to humans. Genome-wide association studies have indicated an association between glutamatergic gene variants and both the risk and frequency of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism spectrum disorder. For example, changes in glutamatergic neurotransmission, such as glutamate receptor subtype N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction, have been shown to contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Furthermore, in neurological disorders, such as traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease, hyperactivation of NMDARs leads to synaptic damage. In addition to glutamate binding, NMDARs require the binding of a co-agonist D-serine or glycine to the GluN1 subunit to open. D-serine, which is racemized from L-serine by the neuronal enzyme serine racemase (SRR), and both SRR and D-serine are enriched in cortico-limbic brain regions. D-serine is critical for complex behaviors, such as cognition and social behavior, where dysregulation of its synthesis and release has been implicated in many pathological conditions. In this review, we explore the role of D-serine in behaviors that are translationally relevant to multiple psychiatric and neurological disorders in different models across species.

A conceptual framework for astrocyte function

The participation of astrocytes in brain computation was hypothesized in 1992, coinciding with the discovery that these cells display a form of intracellular Ca2+ signaling sensitive to neuroactive molecules. This finding fostered conceptual leaps crystalized around the idea that astrocytes, once thought to be passive, participate actively in brain signaling and outputs. A multitude of disparate roles of astrocytes has since emerged, but their meaningful integration has been muddied by the lack of consensus and models of how we conceive the functional position of these cells in brain circuitry. In this Perspective, we propose an intuitive, data-driven and transferable conceptual framework we coin 'contextual guidance'. It describes astrocytes as 'contextual gates' that shape neural circuitry in an adaptive, state-dependent fashion. This paradigm provides fresh perspectives on principles of astrocyte signaling and its relevance to brain function, which could spur new experimental avenues, including in computational space.

Ion Channels and Ionotropic Receptors in Astrocytes: Physiological Functions and Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease and Glioblastoma

The human brain is composed of nearly one hundred billion neurons and an equal number of glial cells, including macroglia, i.e., astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain. In the last few decades, compelling evidence has revealed that glial cells are far more active and complex than previously thought. In particular, astrocytes, the most abundant glial cell population, not only take part in brain development, metabolism, and defense against pathogens and insults, but they also affect sensory, motor, and cognitive functions by constantly modulating synaptic activity. Not surprisingly, astrocytes are actively involved in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) and other neurological disorders like brain tumors, in which they rapidly become reactive and mediate neuroinflammation. Reactive astrocytes acquire or lose specific functions that differently modulate disease progression and symptoms, including cognitive impairments. Astrocytes express several types of ion channels, including K+, Na+, and Ca2+ channels, transient receptor potential channels (TRP), aquaporins, mechanoreceptors, and anion channels, whose properties and functions are only partially understood, particularly in small processes that contact synapses. In addition, astrocytes express ionotropic receptors for several neurotransmitters. Here, we provide an extensive and up-to-date review of the roles of ion channels and ionotropic receptors in astrocyte physiology and pathology. As examples of two different brain pathologies, we focus on Alzheimer's disease (AD), one of the most diffuse neurodegenerative disorders, and glioblastoma (GBM), the most common brain tumor. Understanding how ion channels and ionotropic receptors in astrocytes participate in NDs and tumors is necessary for developing new therapeutic tools for these increasingly common neurological conditions.

d-Serine Increases Release of Acetylcholine in Rat Submandibular Glands

d-serine has been observed in submandibular gland tissue in rats, but its functions remain to be clarified. Oral administration of d-serine, but not l-serine, increased its concentrations in the submandibular gland and pilocarpine-induced salivary secretion. In vivo microdialysis was used to collect the d- and l-enantiomers of amino acids from local interstitial fluid in the rat submandibular gland. The proportion of the d-form of serine in interstitial fluid was higher than that in plasma or saliva. Perfusion of the rat submandibular gland with d-serine and l-glutamic acid via the submandibular gland artery resulted in a significant increase in salivary secretion after stimulation of muscarinic receptors with carbachol. In vivo microdialysis applied to the submandibular glands of rats showed that infusion of d-serine along with l-glutamate through the microdialysis probe significantly elevated acetylcholine levels in local interstitial fluids in the submandibular glands of anesthetized rats as compared to that with l-glutamate alone in an N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor glycine site antagonist-sensitive manner. These results indicate that d-serine augments salivary secretion by increasing acetylcholine release in the salivary glands.

The neurobiology and therapeutic potential of multi-targeting β-secretase, glycogen synthase kinase 3β and acetylcholinesterase in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, affecting almost 50 million of people around the world, characterized by a complex and age-related progressive pathology with projections to duplicate its incidence by the end of 2050. AD pathology has two major hallmarks, the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides accumulation and tau hyperphosphorylation, alongside with several sub pathologies including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, loss of neurogenesis and synaptic dysfunction. In recent years, extensive research pointed out several therapeutic targets which have shown promising effects on modifying the course of the disease in preclinical models of AD but with substantial failure when transposed to clinic trials, suggesting that modulating just an isolated feature of the pathology might not be sufficient to improve brain function and enhance cognition. In line with this, there is a growing consensus that an ideal disease modifying drug should address more than one feature of the pathology. Considering these evidence, β-secretase (BACE1), Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) has emerged as interesting therapeutic targets. BACE1 is the rate-limiting step in the Aβ production, GSK-3β is considered the main kinase responsible for Tau hyperphosphorylation, and AChE play an important role in modulating memory formation and learning. However, the effects underlying the modulation of these enzymes are not limited by its primarily functions, showing interesting effects in a wide range of impaired events secondary to AD pathology. In this sense, this review will summarize the involvement of BACE1, GSK-3β and AChE on synaptic function, neuroplasticity, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Additionally, we will present and discuss new perspectives on the modulation of these pathways on AD pathology and future directions on the development of drugs that concomitantly target these enzymes.

A role for GnRH in olfaction and cognition: Implications for veterinary medicine

Pulsatile secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is essential for the activation and maintenance of the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, which controls the onset of puberty and fertility. Two provocative recent studies suggest that, in addition to control reproduction, the neurons in the brain that produce GnRH are also involved in the control postnatal brain maturation, odour discrimination and adult cognition. Long-acting GnRH antagonists and agonists are commonly used to control fertility and behaviour in veterinary medicine, primarily in males. This review puts into perspective the potential risks of these androgen deprivation therapies and immunization on olfactory and cognitive performances and well-aging in domestic animals, including pets. We will also discuss the results reporting beneficial effects of pharmacological interventions restoring physiological GnRH levels on olfactory and cognitive alterations in preclinical models of Alzheimer's disease, which shares many pathophysiological and behavioural hallmarks with canine cognitive dysfunction. These novel findings raise the intriguing possibility that pulsatile GnRH therapy holds therapeutic potential for the management of this behavioural syndrome affecting older dogs.

The computational power of the human brain

At the end of the 20th century, analog systems in computer science have been widely replaced by digital systems due to their higher computing power. Nevertheless, the question keeps being intriguing until now: is the brain analog or digital? Initially, the latter has been favored, considering it as a Turing machine that works like a digital computer. However, more recently, digital and analog processes have been combined to implant human behavior in robots, endowing them with artificial intelligence (AI). Therefore, we think it is timely to compare mathematical models with the biology of computation in the brain. To this end, digital and analog processes clearly identified in cellular and molecular interactions in the Central Nervous System are highlighted. But above that, we try to pinpoint reasons distinguishing in silico computation from salient features of biological computation. First, genuinely analog information processing has been observed in electrical synapses and through gap junctions, the latter both in neurons and astrocytes. Apparently opposed to that, neuronal action potentials (APs) or spikes represent clearly digital events, like the yes/no or 1/0 of a Turing machine. However, spikes are rarely uniform, but can vary in amplitude and widths, which has significant, differential effects on transmitter release at the presynaptic terminal, where notwithstanding the quantal (vesicular) release itself is digital. Conversely, at the dendritic site of the postsynaptic neuron, there are numerous analog events of computation. Moreover, synaptic transmission of information is not only neuronal, but heavily influenced by astrocytes tightly ensheathing the majority of synapses in brain (tripartite synapse). At least at this point, LTP and LTD modifying synaptic plasticity and believed to induce short and long-term memory processes including consolidation (equivalent to RAM and ROM in electronic devices) have to be discussed. The present knowledge of how the brain stores and retrieves memories includes a variety of options (e.g., neuronal network oscillations, engram cells, astrocytic syncytium). Also epigenetic features play crucial roles in memory formation and its consolidation, which necessarily guides to molecular events like gene transcription and translation. In conclusion, brain computation is not only digital or analog, or a combination of both, but encompasses features in parallel, and of higher orders of complexity.

Retraction of Astrocyte Leaflets From the Synapse Enhances Fear Memory

BACKGROUND

The formation and retrieval of fear memories depends on orchestrated synaptic activity of neuronal ensembles within the hippocampus, and it is becoming increasingly evident that astrocytes residing in the environment of these synapses play a central role in shaping cellular memory representations. Astrocyte distal processes, known as leaflets, fine-tune synaptic activity by clearing neurotransmitters and limiting glutamate diffusion. However, how astroglial synaptic coverage contributes to mnemonic processing of fearful experiences remains largely unknown.

METHODS

We used electron microscopy to observe changes in astroglial coverage of hippocampal synapses during consolidation of fear memory in mice. To manipulate astroglial synaptic coverage, we depleted ezrin, an integral leaflet-structural protein, from hippocampal astrocytes using CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)/Cas9 gene editing. Next, a combination of Föster resonance energy transfer analysis, genetically encoded glutamate sensors, and whole-cell patch-clamp recordings was used to determine whether the proximity of astrocyte leaflets to the synapse is critical for synaptic integrity and function.

RESULTS

We found that consolidation of a recent fear memory is accompanied by a transient retraction of astrocyte leaflets from hippocampal synapses and increased activation of NMDA receptors. Accordingly, astrocyte-specific depletion of ezrin resulted in shorter astrocyte leaflets and reduced astrocyte contact with the synaptic cleft, which consequently boosted extrasynaptic glutamate diffusion and NMDA receptor activation. Importantly, after fear conditioning, these cellular phenotypes translated to increased retrieval-evoked activation of CA1 pyramidal neurons and enhanced fear memory expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, our data show that withdrawal of astrocyte leaflets from the synaptic cleft is an experience-induced, temporally regulated process that gates the strength of fear memories.

Physiological Roles of β-amyloid in Regulating Synaptic Function: Implications for AD Pathophysiology

The physiological functions of endogenous amyloid-β (Aβ), which plays important role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), have not been paid enough attention. Here, we review the multiple physiological effects of Aβ, particularly in regulating synaptic transmission, and the possible mechanisms, in order to decipher the real characters of Aβ under both physiological and pathological conditions. Some worthy studies have shown that the deprivation of endogenous Aβ gives rise to synaptic dysfunction and cognitive deficiency, while the moderate elevation of this peptide enhances long term potentiation and leads to neuronal hyperexcitability. In this review, we provide a new view for understanding the role of Aβ in AD pathophysiology from the perspective of physiological meaning.

Regulation of the Ca2+ Channel CaV1.2 Supports Spatial Memory and Its Flexibility and LTD

Widespread release of norepinephrine (NE) throughout the forebrain fosters learning and memory via adrenergic receptor (AR) signaling, but the molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. The β2 AR and its downstream effectors, the trimeric stimulatory Gs-protein, adenylyl cyclase (AC), and the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), form a unique signaling complex with the L-type Ca2+ channel (LTCC) CaV1.2. Phosphorylation of CaV1.2 by PKA on Ser1928 is required for the upregulation of Ca2+ influx on β2 AR stimulation and long-term potentiation induced by prolonged theta-tetanus (PTT-LTP) but not LTP induced by two 1-s-long 100-Hz tetani. However, the function of Ser1928 phosphorylation in vivo is unknown. Here, we show that S1928A knock-in (KI) mice of both sexes, which lack PTT-LTP, express deficiencies during initial consolidation of spatial memory. Especially striking is the effect of this mutation on cognitive flexibility as tested by reversal learning. Mechanistically, long-term depression (LTD) has been implicated in reversal learning. It is abrogated in male and female S1928A knock-in mice and by β2 AR antagonists and peptides that displace β2 AR from CaV1.2. This work identifies CaV1.2 as a critical molecular locus that regulates synaptic plasticity, spatial memory and its reversal, and LTD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We show that phosphorylation of the Ca2+ channel CaV1.2 on Ser1928 is important for consolidation of spatial memory and especially its reversal, and long-term depression (LTD). Identification of Ser1928 as critical for LTD and reversal learning supports the model that LTD underlies flexibility of reference memory.

Amyloid β-based therapy for Alzheimer's disease: challenges, successes and future

Amyloid β protein (Aβ) is the main component of neuritic plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and its accumulation has been considered as the molecular driver of Alzheimer's pathogenesis and progression. Aβ has been the prime target for the development of AD therapy. However, the repeated failures of Aβ-targeted clinical trials have cast considerable doubt on the amyloid cascade hypothesis and whether the development of Alzheimer's drug has followed the correct course. However, the recent successes of Aβ targeted trials have assuaged those doubts. In this review, we discussed the evolution of the amyloid cascade hypothesis over the last 30 years and summarized its application in Alzheimer's diagnosis and modification. In particular, we extensively discussed the pitfalls, promises and important unanswered questions regarding the current anti-Aβ therapy, as well as strategies for further study and development of more feasible Aβ-targeted approaches in the optimization of AD prevention and treatment.

Astrocytic α4-containing nAChR signaling in the hippocampus governs the formation of temporal association memory

Everyday episodic memories involve linking together related events that are temporally separated. However, the mechanisms of forming this temporal association have remained unclear. Here, using astrocyte-specific manipulations, we show that potentiating astrocyte Ca²⁺ signaling in the hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) enhances the strength of such temporal association, in parallel with long-term potentiation (LTP) enhancement of temporoammonic pathway to CA1, whereas attenuation of astrocyte Ca²⁺ signaling has the opposite effect. Moreover, we identify that these effects are mediated by astrocytic α4 subunit-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α4-nAChRs) via mechanisms involving NMDAR co-agonist supply. Finally, astrocytic α4-nAChRs underlie the cognitive enhancer nicotine's physiological effects. Together, these findings highlight the importance of astrocyte Ca²⁺ signaling in cognitive behavior and reveal a mechanism in governing the temporal association of episodic memory formation that operates through α4-nAChRs on hippocampal astrocytes.

Induction of astrocytic Slc22a3 regulates sensory processing through histone serotonylation

Neuronal activity drives alterations in gene expression within neurons, yet how it directs transcriptional and epigenomic changes in neighboring astrocytes in functioning circuits is unknown. We found that neuronal activity induces widespread transcriptional up-regulation and down-regulation in astrocytes, highlighted by the identification of Slc22a3 as an activity-inducible astrocyte gene that encodes neuromodulator transporter Slc22a3 and regulates sensory processing in the mouse olfactory bulb. Loss of astrocytic Slc22a3 reduced serotonin levels in astrocytes, leading to alterations in histone serotonylation. Inhibition of histone serotonylation in astrocytes reduced the expression of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) biosynthetic genes and GABA release, culminating in olfactory deficits. Our study reveals that neuronal activity orchestrates transcriptional and epigenomic responses in astrocytes while illustrating new mechanisms for how astrocytes process neuromodulatory input to gate neurotransmitter release for sensory processing.

Astrocyte-oligodendrocyte interaction regulates central nervous system regeneration

Failed regeneration of myelin around neuronal axons following central nervous system damage contributes to nerve dysfunction and clinical decline in various neurological conditions, for which there is an unmet therapeutic demand. Here, we show that interaction between glial cells - astrocytes and mature myelin-forming oligodendrocytes - is a determinant of remyelination. Using in vivo/ ex vivo/ in vitro rodent models, unbiased RNA sequencing, functional manipulation, and human brain lesion analyses, we discover that astrocytes support the survival of regenerating oligodendrocytes, via downregulation of the Nrf2 pathway associated with increased astrocytic cholesterol biosynthesis pathway activation. Remyelination fails following sustained astrocytic Nrf2 activation in focally-lesioned male mice yet is restored by either cholesterol biosynthesis/efflux stimulation, or Nrf2 inhibition using the existing therapeutic Luteolin. We identify that astrocyte-oligodendrocyte interaction regulates remyelination, and reveal a drug strategy for central nervous system regeneration centred on targeting this interaction.

Astrocytic CD44 Deficiency Reduces the Severity of Kainate-Induced Epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy affects millions of people worldwide, yet we still lack a successful treatment for all epileptic patients. Most of the available drugs modulate neuronal activity. Astrocytes, the most abundant cells in the brain, may constitute alternative drug targets. A robust expansion of astrocytic cell bodies and processes occurs after seizures. Highly expressed in astrocytes, CD44 adhesion protein is upregulated during injury and is suggested to be one of the most important proteins associated with epilepsy. It connects the astrocytic cytoskeleton to hyaluronan in the extracellular matrix, influencing both structural and functional aspects of brain plasticity.

METHODS

Herein, we used transgenic mice with an astrocyte CD44 knockout to evaluate the impact of the hippocampal CD44 absence on the development of epileptogenesis and ultrastructural changes at the tripartite synapse.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that local, virally-induced CD44 deficiency in hippocampal astrocytes reduces reactive astrogliosis and decreases the progression of kainic acid-induced epileptogenesis. We also observed that CD44 deficiency resulted in structural changes evident in a higher dendritic spine number along with a lower percentage of astrocyte-synapse contacts, and decreased post-synaptic density size in the hippocampal molecular layer of the dentate gyrus.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our study indicates that CD44 signaling may be important for astrocytic coverage of synapses in the hippocampus and that alterations of astrocytes translate to functional changes in the pathology of epilepsy.

Multicore fiber optic imaging reveals that astrocyte calcium activity in the cerebral cortex is modulated by internal motivational state

Astrocytes are a direct target of neuromodulators and can influence neuronal activity on broad spatial and temporal scales through their close proximity to synapses. However, our knowledge about how astrocytes are functionally recruited during different animal behaviors and their diverse effects on the CNS remains limited. To enable measurement of astrocyte activity patterns in vivo during normative behaviors, we developed a high-resolution, long working distance, multi-core fiber optic imaging platform that allows visualization of cortical astrocyte calcium transients through a cranial window in freely moving mice. Using this platform, we defined the spatiotemporal dynamics of astrocytes during diverse behaviors, ranging from circadian fluctuations to novelty exploration, showing that astrocyte activity patterns are more variable and less synchronous than apparent in head-immobilized imaging conditions. Although the activity of astrocytes in visual cortex was highly synchronized during quiescence to arousal transitions, individual astrocytes often exhibited distinct thresholds and activity patterns during explorative behaviors, in accordance with their molecular diversity, allowing temporal sequencing across the astrocyte network. Imaging astrocyte activity during self-initiated behaviors revealed that noradrenergic and cholinergic systems act synergistically to recruit astrocytes during state transitions associated with arousal and attention, which was profoundly modulated by internal state. The distinct activity patterns exhibited by astrocytes in the cerebral cortex may provide a means to vary their neuromodulatory influence in response to different behaviors and internal states.

Goodnight, astrocyte: waking up to astroglial mechanisms in sleep

Astrocytes mediate many important aspects of neural homeostasis, but until recently, their role in sleep was largely unknown. The situation has dramatically changed in the last decade. The use of transgenic animals, optogenetics, chemogenetics, brain imaging and sophisticated molecular assays has led to exciting discoveries. Astrocytes dynamically change their activity across the sleep-wake cycle and may encode sleep need via changes in intracellular signalling pathways. Astrocytes also exocytose/secrete sleep-inducing molecules which modulate brain activity, sleep architecture and sleep regulation. Many of these observations have been made in mice and Drosophila melanogaster, indicating that astroglial sleep mechanisms are evolutionarily conserved. We review recent findings and discuss future directions.

The role of astrocytic α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in Alzheimer disease

The ongoing search for therapeutic interventions in Alzheimer disease (AD) has highlighted the complexity of this condition and the need for additional biomarkers, beyond amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau, to improve clinical assessment. Astrocytes are brain cells that control metabolic and redox homeostasis, among other functions, and are emerging as an important focus of AD research owing to their swift response to brain pathology in the initial stages of the disease. Reactive astrogliosis - the morphological, molecular and functional transformation of astrocytes during disease - has been implicated in AD progression, and the definition of new astrocytic biomarkers could help to deepen our understanding of reactive astrogliosis along the AD continuum. As we highlight in this Review, one promising biomarker candidate is the astrocytic α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR), upregulation of which correlates with Aβ pathology in the brain of individuals with AD. We revisit the past two decades of research into astrocytic α7nAChRs to shed light on their roles in the context of AD pathology and biomarkers. We discuss the involvement of astrocytic α7nAChRs in the instigation and potentiation of early Aβ pathology and explore their potential as a target for future reactive astrocyte-based therapeutics and imaging biomarkers in AD.

Astrocytic TDP-43 dysregulation impairs memory by modulating antiviral pathways and interferon-inducible chemokines

Transactivating response region DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) pathology is prevalent in dementia, but the cell type-specific effects of TDP-43 pathology are not clear, and therapeutic strategies to alleviate TDP-43-linked cognitive decline are lacking. We found that patients with Alzheimer's disease or frontotemporal dementia have aberrant TDP-43 accumulation in hippocampal astrocytes. In mouse models, induction of widespread or hippocampus-targeted accumulation in astrocytic TDP-43 caused progressive memory loss and localized changes in antiviral gene expression. These changes were cell-autonomous and correlated with impaired astrocytic defense against infectious viruses. Among the changes, astrocytes had elevated levels of interferon-inducible chemokines, and neurons had elevated levels of the corresponding chemokine receptor CXCR3 in presynaptic terminals. CXCR3 stimulation altered presynaptic function and promoted neuronal hyperexcitability, akin to the effects of astrocytic TDP-43 dysregulation, and blockade of CXCR3 reduced this activity. Ablation of CXCR3 also prevented TDP-43-linked memory loss. Thus, astrocytic TDP-43 dysfunction contributes to cognitive impairment through aberrant chemokine-mediated astrocytic-neuronal interactions.

Maternal Inflammation with Elevated Kynurenine Metabolites Is Related to the Risk of Abnormal Brain Development and Behavioral Changes in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Several studies show that genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset and progression of neurodevelopmental disorders. Maternal immune activation (MIA) during gestation is considered one of the major environmental factors driving this process. The kynurenine pathway (KP) is a major route of the essential amino acid L-tryptophan (Trp) catabolism in mammalian cells. Activation of the KP following neuro-inflammation can generate various endogenous neuroactive metabolites that may impact brain functions and behaviors. Additionally, neurotoxic metabolites and excitotoxicity cause long-term changes in the trophic support, glutamatergic system, and synaptic function following KP activation. Therefore, investigating the role of KP metabolites during neurodevelopment will likely promote further understanding of additional pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this review, we describe the changes in KP metabolism in the brain during pregnancy and represent how maternal inflammation and genetic factors influence the KP during development. We overview the patients with ASD clinical data and animal models designed to verify the role of perinatal KP elevation in long-lasting biochemical, neuropathological, and behavioral deficits later in life. Our review will help shed light on new therapeutic strategies and interventions targeting the KP for neurodevelopmental disorders.

Norepinephrine links astrocytic activity to regulation of cortical state

Cortical state, defined by population-level neuronal activity patterns, determines sensory perception. While arousal-associated neuromodulators-including norepinephrine (NE)-reduce cortical synchrony, how the cortex resynchronizes remains unknown. Furthermore, general mechanisms regulating cortical synchrony in the wake state are poorly understood. Using in vivo imaging and electrophysiology in mouse visual cortex, we describe a critical role for cortical astrocytes in circuit resynchronization. We characterize astrocytes' calcium responses to changes in behavioral arousal and NE, and show that astrocytes signal when arousal-driven neuronal activity is reduced and bi-hemispheric cortical synchrony is increased. Using in vivo pharmacology, we uncover a paradoxical, synchronizing response to Adra1a receptor stimulation. We reconcile these results by demonstrating that astrocyte-specific deletion of Adra1a enhances arousal-driven neuronal activity, while impairing arousal-related cortical synchrony. Our findings demonstrate that astrocytic NE signaling acts as a distinct neuromodulatory pathway, regulating cortical state and linking arousal-associated desynchrony to cortical circuit resynchronization.

Pathophysiology of nAChRs: limbic circuits and related disorders

Human epidemiological studies have identified links between nicotine intake and stress disorders, including anxiety, depression and PTSD. Here we review the clinical evidence for activation and desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) relevant to affective disorders. We go on to describe clinical and preclinical pharmacological studies suggesting that nAChR function may be involved in the etiology of anxiety and depressive disorders, may be relevant targets for medication development, and may contribute to the antidepressant efficacy of non-nicotinic therapeutics. We then review what is known about nAChR function in a subset of limbic system areas (amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex), and how this contributes to stress-relevant behaviors in preclinical models that may be relevant to human affective disorders. Taken together, the preclinical and clinical literature point to a clear role for ACh signaling through nAChRs in regulation of behavioral responses to stress. Disruption of nAChR homeostasis is likely to contribute to the psychopathology observed in anxiety and depressive disorders. Targeting specific nAChRs may therefore be a strategy for medication development to treat these disorders or to augment the efficacy of current therapeutics.

Organizing principles of astrocytic nanoarchitecture in the mouse cerebral cortex

Astrocytes are increasingly understood to be important regulators of central nervous system (CNS) function in health and disease; yet, we have little quantitative understanding of their complex architecture. While broad categories of astrocytic structures are known, the discrete building blocks that compose them, along with their geometry and organizing principles, are poorly understood. Quantitative investigation of astrocytic complexity is impeded by the absence of high-resolution datasets and robust computational approaches to analyze these intricate cells. To address this, we produced four ultra-high-resolution datasets of mouse cerebral cortex using serial electron microscopy and developed astrocyte-tailored computer vision methods for accurate structural analysis. We unearthed specific anatomical building blocks, structural motifs, connectivity hubs, and hierarchical organizations of astrocytes. Furthermore, we found that astrocytes interact with discrete clusters of synapses and that astrocytic mitochondria are distributed to lie closer to larger clusters of synapses. Our findings provide a geometrically principled, quantitative understanding of astrocytic nanoarchitecture and point to an unexpected level of complexity in how astrocytes interact with CNS microanatomy.

Astrocytes in memory formation and maintenance

Learning and memory are fundamental but highly complex functions of the brain. They rely on multiple mechanisms including the processing of sensory information, memory formation, maintenance of short- and long-term memory, memory retrieval and memory extinction. Recent experiments provide strong evidence that, besides neurons, astrocytes crucially contribute to these higher brain functions. However, the complex interplay of astrocytes and neurons in local neuron-glia assemblies is far from being understood. Although important basic cellular principles that govern and link neuronal and astrocytic cellular functions have been established, additional mechanisms clearly continue to emerge. In this short essay, we first review current technologies allowing the experimenter to explore the role of astrocytes in behaving animals, with focus on spatial memory. We then discuss astrocytic signaling mechanisms and their role in learning and memory. We also reveal gaps in our knowledge that currently prevent a comprehensive understanding of how astrocytes contribute to acquisition, storage and retrieval of memory by modulating neuronal signaling in local circuits.

Salt-loading promotes extracellular ATP release mediated by glial cells in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of rats

Previously, we have shown that purinergic signalling is involved in the control of hyperosmotic-induced sympathoexcitation at the level of the PVN, via activation of P2X receptors. However, the source(s) of ATP that drives osmotically-induced increases in sympathetic outflow remained undetermined. Here, we tested the two competing hypotheses that either (1) higher extracellular ATP in PVN during salt loading (SL) is a result of a failure of ectonucleotidases to metabolize ATP; and/or (2) SL can stimulate PVN astrocytes to release ATP. Rats were salt loaded with a 2 % NaCl solution replacing drinking water up to 4 days, an experimental model known to cause a gradual increase in blood pressure and plasma osmolarity. Immunohistochemical assessment of glial-fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) revealed increased glial cell reactivity in the PVN of rats after 4 days of high salt exposure. ATP and adenosine release measurements via biosensors in hypothalamic slices showed that baseline ATP release was increased 17-fold in the PVN while adenosine remained unchanged. Disruption of Ca²⁺-dependent vesicular release mechanisms in PVN astrocytes by virally-driven expression of a dominant-negative SNARE protein decreased the release of ATP. The activity of ectonucleotidases quantified in vitro by production of adenosine from ATP was increased in SL group. Our results showed that SL stimulates the release of ATP in the PVN, at least in part, from glial cells by a vesicle-mediated route and likely contributes to the neural control of circulation during osmotic challenges.

Activity-dependent induction of astrocytic Slc22a3 regulates sensory processing through histone serotonylation

Neuronal activity drives global alterations in gene expression within neurons, yet how it directs transcriptional and epigenomic changes in neighboring astrocytes in functioning circuits is unknown. Here we show that neuronal activity induces widespread transcriptional upregulation and downregulation in astrocytes, highlighted by the identification of a neuromodulator transporter Slc22a3 as an activity-inducible astrocyte gene regulating sensory processing in the olfactory bulb. Loss of astrocytic Slc22a3 reduces serotonin levels in astrocytes, leading to alterations in histone serotonylation. Inhibition of histone serotonylation in astrocytes reduces expression of GABA biosynthetic genes and GABA release, culminating in olfactory deficits. Our study reveals that neuronal activity orchestrates transcriptional and epigenomic responses in astrocytes, while illustrating new mechanisms for how astrocytes process neuromodulatory input to gate neurotransmitter release for sensory processing.

Lymphocyte deficiency alters the transcriptomes of oligodendrocytes, but not astrocytes or microglia

Though the brain was long characterized as an immune-privileged organ, findings in recent years have shown extensive communications between the brain and peripheral immune cells. We now know that alterations in the peripheral immune system can affect the behavioral outputs of the central nervous system, but we do not know which brain cells are affected by the presence of peripheral immune cells. Glial cells including microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) are critical for the development and function of the central nervous system. In a wide range of neurological and psychiatric diseases, the glial cell state is influenced by infiltrating peripheral lymphocytes. However, it remains largely unclear whether the development of the molecular phenotypes of glial cells in the healthy brain is regulated by lymphocytes. To answer this question, we acutely purified each type of glial cell from immunodeficient Rag2-/- mice. Interestingly, we found that the transcriptomes of microglia, astrocytes, and OPCs developed normally in Rag2-/- mice without reliance on lymphocytes. In contrast, there are modest transcriptome differences between the oligodendrocytes from Rag2-/- and control mice. Furthermore, the subcellular localization of the RNA-binding protein Quaking, is altered in oligodendrocytes. These results demonstrate that the molecular attributes of glial cells develop largely without influence from lymphocytes and highlight potential interactions between lymphocytes and oligodendrocytes.

An astrocytic signaling loop for frequency-dependent control of dendritic integration and spatial learning

Dendrites of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells amplify clustered glutamatergic input by activation of voltage-gated sodium channels and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs). NMDAR activity depends on the presence of NMDAR co-agonists such as D-serine, but how co-agonists influence dendritic integration is not well understood. Using combinations of whole-cell patch clamp, iontophoretic glutamate application, two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy and glutamate uncaging in acute rat and mouse brain slices we found that exogenous D-serine reduced the threshold of dendritic spikes and increased their amplitude. Triggering an astrocytic mechanism controlling endogenous D-serine supply via endocannabinoid receptors (CBRs) also increased dendritic spiking. Unexpectedly, this pathway was activated by pyramidal cell activity primarily in the theta range, which required HCN channels and astrocytic CB1Rs. Therefore, astrocytes close a positive and frequency-dependent feedback loop between pyramidal cell activity and their integration of dendritic input. Its disruption in mice led to an impairment of spatial memory, which demonstrated its behavioral relevance.

Cholinergic Functioning, Cognition, and Anticholinergic Medication Burden in Schizophrenia

Acetylcholine (ACh) signaling is critical for central nervous function and is known to be abnormal in schizophrenia (SZ), a chronic neuropsychiatric disorder in which cognitive deficits persist, despite treatment. This review provides a summary of the clinical evidence linking ACh abnormalities to SZ-associated cognitive deficits, an overview of ACh-based pro-cognitive strategies attempted in SZ, and a survey of recent studies that describe the impact of anticholinergic medication burden on cognitive outcomes in SZ. Methodological challenges that currently limit more substantial investigation of ACh in SZ patients and future directions are also discussed.

Dual effects of supplemental oxygen on pulmonary infection, inflammatory lung injury, and neuromodulation in aging and COVID-19

Clinical studies have shown a significant positive correlation between age and the likelihood of being infected with SARS-CoV-2. This increased susceptibility is positively correlated with chronic inflammation and compromised neurocognitive functions. Postmortem analyses suggest that acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), with systemic and lung hyperinflammation, can cause significant morbidity and mortality in COVID-19 patients. Supraphysiological supplemental oxygen, also known as hyperoxia, is commonly used to treat decreased blood oxygen saturation in COVID-19 patients. However, prolonged exposure to hyperoxia alone can cause oxygen toxicity, due to an excessive increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can overwhelm the cellular antioxidant capacity. Subsequently, this causes oxidative cellular damage and increased levels of aging biomarkers, such as telomere shortening and inflammaging. The oxidative stress in the lungs and brain can compromise innate immunity, resulting in an increased susceptibility to secondary lung infections, impaired neurocognitive functions, and dysregulated hyperinflammation, which can lead to ALI/ARDS, and even death. Studies indicate that lung inflammation is regulated by the central nervous system, notably, the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAIP), which is innervated by the vagus nerve and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs) on lung cells, particularly lung macrophages. The activation of α7nAChRs attenuates oxygen toxicity in the lungs and improves clinical outcomes by restoring hyperoxia-compromised innate immunity. Mechanistically, α7nAChR agonist (e.g., GAT 107 and GTS-21) can regulate redox signaling by 1) activating Nrf2, a master regulator of the antioxidant response and a cytoprotective defense system, which can decrease cellular damage caused by ROS and 2) inhibiting the activation of the NF-κB-mediated inflammatory response. Notably, GTS-21 has been shown to be safe and it improves neurocognitive functions in humans. Therefore, targeting the α7nAChR may represent a viable therapeutic approach for attenuating dysregulated hyperinflammation-mediated ARDS and sepsis in COVID-19 patients receiving prolonged oxygen therapy.

Astrocytes Learn to Detect and Signal Deviations from Critical Brain Dynamics

Astrocytes are nonneuronal brain cells that were recently shown to actively communicate with neurons and are implicated in memory, learning, and regulation of cognitive states. Interestingly, these information processing functions are also closely linked to the brain's ability to self-organize at a critical phase transition. Investigating the mechanistic link between astrocytes and critical brain dynamics remains beyond the reach of cellular experiments, but it becomes increasingly approachable through computational studies. We developed a biologically plausible computational model of astrocytes to analyze how astrocyte calcium waves can respond to changes in underlying network dynamics. Our results suggest that astrocytes detect synaptic activity and signal directional changes in neuronal network dynamics using the frequency of their calcium waves. We show that this function may be facilitated by receptor scaling plasticity by enabling astrocytes to learn the approximate information content of input synaptic activity. This resulted in a computationally simple, information-theoretic model, which we demonstrate replicating the signaling functionality of the biophysical astrocyte model with receptor scaling. Our findings provide several experimentally testable hypotheses that offer insight into the regulatory role of astrocytes in brain information processing.