Physiological aspects of energy metabolism and gastrointestinal effects of carbohydrates

Macronutrient interactions and models of obesity: Insights from nutritional geometry

The global obesity epidemic results from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors, with diet being a prominent modifiable element driving weight gain and adiposity. Although excess intake of energetic macronutrients is implicated in causing obesity, ongoing debate centers on whether sugar or fat or both are driving the rising obesity rates. This has led to competing models of obesity such as the "Carbohydrate Insulin Model", the "Energy Balance Model", and the "Fructose Survival Hypothesis". Conflicting evidence from studies designed to focus on individual energetic macronutrients or energy rather than macronutrient mixtures underlies this disagreement. Recent research in humans and animals employing the nutritional geometry framework (NGF) emphasizes the importance of considering interactions among dietary components. Protein interacts with carbohydrates, fats, and dietary energy density to influence both calorie intake ("protein leverage") and, directly and indirectly, metabolic physiology and adiposity. Consideration of these interactions can help to reconcile different models of obesity, and potentially cast new light on obesity interventions.

Postprandial plasma aminoacidemia and indices of appetite regulation following pea-rice blend, pea isolate and whey protein ingestion in healthy young adults

Plant-derived proteins are often deficient in essential amino acids and have lower rates of digestibility than animal-derived proteins. Blending different plant-derived proteins could compensate for these deficiencies and may augment postprandial aminoacidemia over single-source plant proteins. This study assessed plasma amino acids and appetite hormones, appetite sensations and ad libitum energy intake following ingestion of a pea-rice protein blend (BLEND), compared with pea-only (PEA) and whey (WHEY) protein. In a randomised, double-blind, crossover design, ten healthy adults (M n 4, F n 6; mean (sd) age 22 (sd 3) years; BMI 24 (sd 3) kg·m2) ingested 0·3 g·kg·body mass-1 of BLEND, PEA or WHEY. Arterialised venous blood samples and appetite ratings were obtained in the fasted state and over 240 min postprandially. Energy intake was measured via an ad libitum buffet-style test meal. Mean plasma essential amino acid incremental AUC was higher in WHEY, compared with PEA (P < 0·01; mean diff (95 % CI): 44 218 (15 806, 72 631) μmol·240 min·l-1) and BLEND (P < 0·01; 14 358 (16 031, 101 121) μmol·240 min·l-1), with no differences between PEA and BLEND (P = 0·67). Plasma ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide-1, appetite ratings and ad libitum energy intake responses did not differ between treatments (P > 0·05 for all). Ingestion of a pea-rice protein blend did not augment postprandial aminoacidemia above pea protein, perhaps attributable to marginal differences in essential amino acid composition. No between-treatment differences in appetite or energy intake responses were apparent, suggesting that the influence of protein ingestion on perceived appetite ratings and orexigenic hormonal responses may not be solely determined by postprandial plasma aminoacidemia.

The interactivity of sources and dietary levels of resistant starches - impact on growth performance, starch, and nutrient digestibility, digesta oligosaccharides profile, cecal microbial metabolites, and indicators of gut health in broiler chickens

In a 21-d study, 480 Cobb 500 (off-sex) male broiler chicks were used to investigate the effects of feeding different sources and levels of resistant starches (RS) on growth performance, nutrient and energy utilization, and intestinal health in broiler chickens. The birds were allocated to 10 dietary treatments in a 3 × 3 + 1 factorial arrangement. The factors were 3 RS-sources (RSS): banana starch (BS), raw potato starch (RPS), and high-amylose corn starch (HCS); each at 3 levels (RSL) 25, 50, or 100 g/kg plus a corn-soybean meal control diet. Birds and feed were weighed on d 0, 8, and 21. On d 21, samples of jejunal tissue and digesta were collected for chemical analysis. Data were analyzed using the mixed model procedure of JMP with factor levels nested with the control. In the 0 to 21 phase, the birds fed the RPS diets had higher (P = 0.011) FI than those fed HCS or control diets, and FCR was greater (P = 0.030) in birds that received BS diets than in other diets. RSS × RSL was significant (P < 0.05) for total tract nutrient retention, AME, and AMEn on d 21. The starch digestibility was higher (P < 0.001) in birds that received the control diet than in RS diets, and decreased as RS levels increased, except for HCS. The apparent metabolizable energy (AME) and nitrogen-corrected AME (AMEn) were higher (P < 0.001) in birds fed 100 g/kg HCS diet, with both decreasing with increasing levels of BS and RPS, except for HCS. Relative ileal oligosaccharides profile showed significant (P < 0.05) RSS × RSL with a higher relative abundance of Hex(3) (P = 0.01) and Pent(3) (P = 0.001) in HCS diets. In conclusion, RS may influence gut health and growth performance in broiler chickens through modulation of cecal SCFA and nutrient digestion, but these depend largely on the botanical origin and concentrations of individual RS.

Ketogenic diet but not free-sugar restriction alters glucose tolerance, lipid metabolism, peripheral tissue phenotype, and gut microbiome: RCT

Restricted sugar and ketogenic diets can alter energy balance/metabolism, but decreased energy intake may be compensated by reduced expenditure. In healthy adults, randomization to restricting free sugars or overall carbohydrates (ketogenic diet) for 12 weeks reduces fat mass without changing energy expenditure versus control. Free-sugar restriction minimally affects metabolism or gut microbiome but decreases low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). In contrast, a ketogenic diet decreases glucose tolerance, increases skeletal muscle PDK4, and reduces AMPK and GLUT4 levels. By week 4, the ketogenic diet reduces fasting glucose and increases apolipoprotein B, C-reactive protein, and postprandial glycerol concentrations. However, despite sustained ketosis, these effects are no longer apparent by week 12, when gut microbial beta diversity is altered, possibly reflective of longer-term adjustments to the ketogenic diet and/or energy balance. These data demonstrate that restricting free sugars or overall carbohydrates reduces energy intake without altering physical activity, but with divergent effects on glucose tolerance, lipoprotein profiles, and gut microbiome.

Metabolome and Genome Analysis of a Novel Endophytic Fungus Aureobasidium pullulans KB3: Discovery of Polyketones and Polyketone Biosynthesis Pathway

Endophytic fungi associated with plants may contain undiscovered bioactive compounds. Under standard laboratory conditions, most undiscovered compounds are inactive, whereas their production could be stimulated under different cultivation conditions. In this study, six endophytic fungi were isolated from the bark of Koelreuteria paniculata in Quancheng Park, Jinan City, Shandong Province, one of which was identified as a new subspecies of Aureobasidium pullulans, named A. pullulans KB3. Additionally, metabolomic tools were used to screen suitable media for A. pullulans KB3 fermentation, and the results showed that peptone dextrose medium (PDM) was more beneficial to culture A. pullulans KB3 for isolation of novel compounds. Sphaerolone, a polyketone compound, was initially isolated from A. pullulans KB3 via scaled up fermentation utilizing PDM. Additionally, the whole-genome DNA of A. pullulans KB3 was sequenced to facilitate compound isolation and identify the biosynthesis gene clusters (BGCs). This study reports the multi-omics (metabolome and genome) analysis of A. pullulans KB3, laying the foundation for discovering novel compounds of silent BGCs and identifying their biosynthesis pathway.

Self -reported knowledge and understanding of added sugars by consumers in Ghana

The consumption of added sugars has been a major concern among consumers and researchers around the world. Some of these added sugars pose health threats such as obesity, and liver diseases to consumers. Therefore, consumers' understanding and knowledge of added sugars is important in regulating the intake of food items that contain different types and levels of added sugar. In this study, the knowledge and understanding of staff (consumers) of the University of Energy and Natural Resources, Ghana, was assessed through survey The results showed that about 38.5 % of consumers always read food labels whereas 3.1 % never read the labels of food they purchased. However, only about 20 % of consumers considered added sugars as most important information on food labels while most (about 38 %) were concerned about the calorie level in food items purchased. Based on the consumer's knowledge of sugars and sweeteners, there was a high level of disparity in classifying sugars in food as sugars and sweeteners. In addition, most consumers reported that they would adversely avoid food items containing lactose, isoglucose, and saccharin. The awareness of the consumers to the WHO recommendation for sugar reduction, the gender (P = 0.278), age (P = 0.959), level of education (P = 0.888), and staff category (P = 0.944) did not influence their decisions on purchasing food items with added sugars Most consumers were interested in issues of food and nutrition. Therefore, it is recommended that staff are taken through aspects of food nutrition as well as the consumption of added sugar towards the recommended levels.

Polar bear energetic and behavioral strategies on land with implications for surviving the ice-free period

Declining Arctic sea ice is increasing polar bear land use. Polar bears on land are thought to minimize activity to conserve energy. Here, we measure the daily energy expenditure (DEE), diet, behavior, movement, and body composition changes of 20 different polar bears on land over 19-23 days from August to September (2019-2022) in Manitoba, Canada. Polar bears on land exhibited a 5.2-fold range in DEE and 19-fold range in activity, from hibernation-like DEEs to levels approaching active bears on the sea ice, including three individuals that made energetically demanding swims totaling 54-175 km. Bears consumed berries, vegetation, birds, bones, antlers, seal, and beluga. Beyond compensating for elevated DEE, there was little benefit from terrestrial foraging toward prolonging the predicted time to starvation, as 19 of 20 bears lost mass (0.4-1.7 kg•day-1). Although polar bears on land exhibit remarkable behavioral plasticity, our findings reinforce the risk of starvation, particularly in subadults, with forecasted increases in the onshore period.

Determining the metabolic effects of dietary fat, sugars and fat-sugar interaction using nutritional geometry in a dietary challenge study with male mice

The metabolic effects of sugars and fat lie at the heart of the "carbohydrate vs fat" debate on the global obesity epidemic. Here, we use nutritional geometry to systematically investigate the interaction between dietary fat and the major monosaccharides, fructose and glucose, and their impact on body composition and metabolic health. Male mice (n = 245) are maintained on one of 18 isocaloric diets for 18-19 weeks and their metabolic status is assessed through in vivo procedures and by in vitro assays involving harvested tissue samples. We find that in the setting of low and medium dietary fat content, a 50:50 mixture of fructose and glucose (similar to high-fructose corn syrup) is more obesogenic and metabolically adverse than when either monosaccharide is consumed alone. With increasing dietary fat content, the effects of dietary sugar composition on metabolic status become less pronounced. Moreover, higher fat intake is more harmful for glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity irrespective of the sugar mix consumed. The type of fat consumed (soy oil vs lard) does not modify these outcomes. Our work shows that both dietary fat and sugars can lead to adverse metabolic outcomes, depending on the dietary context. This study shows how the principles of the two seemingly conflicting models of obesity (the "energy balance model" and the "carbohydrate insulin model") can be valid, and it will help in progressing towards a unified model of obesity. The main limitations of this study include the use of male mice of a single strain, and not testing the metabolic effects of fructose intake via sugary drinks, which are strongly linked to human obesity.

A body composition model with multiple storage compartments for polar bears (Ursus maritimus)

Climate warming is rapidly altering Arctic ecosystems. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) need sea ice as a platform from which to hunt seals, but increased sea-ice loss is lengthening periods when bears are without access to primary hunting habitat. During periods of food scarcity, survival depends on the energy that a bear has stored in body reserves, termed storage energy, making this a key metric in predictive models assessing climate change impacts on polar bears. Here, we developed a body composition model for polar bears that estimates storage energy while accounting for changes in storage tissue composition. We used data of dissected polar bears (n = 31) to link routinely collected field measures of total body mass and straight-line body length to the body composition of individual bears, described in terms of structural mass and two storage compartments, adipose and muscle. We then estimated the masses of metabolizable proteins and lipids within these storage compartments, giving total storage energy. We tested this multi-storage model by using it to predict changes in the lipid stores from an independent dataset of wild polar bears (n = 36) that were recaptured 8-200 days later. Using length and mass measurements, our model successfully predicted direct measurements of lipid changes via isotopic dilutions (root mean squared error of 14.5 kg). Separating storage into two compartments, and allowing the molecular composition of storage to vary, provides new avenues for quantifying energy stores of individuals across their life cycle. The multi-storage body composition model thus provides a basis for further exploring energetic costs of physiological processes that contribute to individual survival and reproductive success. Given bioenergetic models are increasingly used as a tool to predict individual fitness and population dynamics, our approach for estimating individual energy stores could be applicable to a wide range of species.

Dietary fibre definition revisited - The case of low molecular weight carbohydrates

Low molecular weight (LMW) non-digestible carbohydrates (namely, oligosaccharides and inulin) are accepted as dietary fibre in many countries worldwide. The inclusion of oligosaccharides as dietary fibre was made optional within the Codex Alimentarius definition in 2009, which has caused great controversy. Inulin is accepted as dietary fibre by default, due to being a non-digestible carbohydrate polymer. Oligosaccharides and inulin occur naturally in numerous foods and are frequently incorporated into commonly consumed food products for a variety of purposes, such as to increase dietary fibre content. LMW non-digestible carbohydrates, due to their rapid fermentation in the proximal colon, may cause deleterious effects in individuals with functional bowel disorders (FBDs) and, as such, are excluded on the low FODMAP (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, and polyols) diet and similar protocols. Their addition to food products as dietary fibre allows the use of associated nutrition/health claims, causing a paradox for those with FBDs, which is further complicated by lack of clarity on food labelling. Therefore, this review aimed to discuss whether the inclusion of LMW non-digestible carbohydrates within the Codex definition of dietary fibre is warranted. This review provides justification for the exclusion of oligosaccharides and inulin from the Codex definition of dietary fibre. LMW non-digestible carbohydrates could, instead, be placed in their own category as prebiotics, recognised for their specific functional properties, or considered food additives, whereby they are not promoted for being beneficial for health. This would preserve the concept of dietary fibre being a universally beneficial dietary component for all individuals.

Measures of carbohydrate quality and their association with diet quality and cardiometabolic health outcomes in Singapore middle-aged and older adults

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Carbohydrate quality may play a key role in cardiometabolic health and disease risk. This study aimed to assess the dietary carbohydrate quality of the free-living middle-aged and older adults in Singapore, and its association with overall diet quality and cardiometabolic health.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This cross-sectional study examined the diet and cardiometabolic disease risk indicators of middle-aged and older adults in Singapore (n = 104). Dietary carbohydrate quality was assessed as the pass and fail rate of the population to four measures of carbohydrate quality: (i) dietary fiber recommended daily allowance (RDA), (ii) whole-grain recommendation, (iii) free sugar recommendation, and (iv) carbohydrate metrics. The association between each carbohydrate quality measure and diet quality, as well as cardiometabolic health, was assessed. Except for free sugar recommendation, the carbohydrate quality of the population was found to be poor with a low adherence (20-36%) to three measures. Subjects meeting these measures had generally higher intakes of fiber, protein, and most micronutrients compared with subjects who failed. Meeting different variants of the carbohydrate metrics was associated with 60% lower odds of pre-hypertensive blood pressure (p = 0.037; p = 0.047), and meeting the dietary fiber RDA was associated with lower waist circumference (p = 0.021).

CONCLUSION

An improvement in carbohydrate quality is warranted among free-living middle-aged and older adults in Singapore. Not all measures of carbohydrate quality were equally effective in preserving overall diet quality; the carbohydrate metrics and dietary fiber RDA can be identified as effective measures in relation to cardiometabolic disease risk.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT03554954, 13 Sept. 2018.

Restricting sugar or carbohydrate intake does not impact physical activity level or energy intake over 24 h despite changes in substrate use: a randomised crossover study in healthy men and women

PURPOSE

To determine the effects of dietary sugar or carbohydrate restriction on physical activity energy expenditure, energy intake, and physiological outcomes across 24 h.

METHODS

In a randomized, open-label crossover design, twenty-five healthy men (n = 10) and women (n = 15) consumed three diets over a 24-h period: moderate carbohydrate and sugar content (MODSUG = 50% carbohydrate [20% sugars], 15% protein, 35% fat); low sugar content (LOWSUG = 50% carbohydrate [< 5% sugars], 15% protein, 35% fat); and low carbohydrate content (LOWCHO = 8% carbohydrate [< 5% sugars], 15% protein, 77% fat). Postprandial metabolic responses to a prescribed breakfast (20% EI) were monitored under laboratory conditions before an ad libitum test lunch, with subsequent diet and physical activity monitoring under free-living conditions until blood sample collection the following morning.

RESULTS

The MODSUG, LOWSUG and LOWCHO diets resulted in similar mean [95%CI] rates of both physical activity energy expenditure (771 [624, 919] vs. 677 [565, 789] vs. 802 [614, 991] kcal·d-1; p = 0.29] and energy intake (2071 [1794, 2347] vs. 2195 [1918, 2473] vs. 2194 [1890, 2498] kcal·d-1; P = 0.34), respectively. The LOWCHO condition elicited the lowest glycaemic and insulinaemic responses to breakfast (P < 0.01) but the highest 24-h increase in LDL-cholesterol concentrations (P < 0.001), with no differences between the MODSUG and LOWSUG treatments. Leptin concentrations decreased over 24-h of consuming LOWCHO relative to LOWSUG (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

When energy density is controlled for, restricting either sugar or total dietary carbohydrate does not modulate physical activity level or energy intake over a 24-h period (~ 19-h free-living) despite substantial metabolic changes.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION ID

NCT03509610, https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03509610.

Measurement of 24-h continuous human CH4 release in a whole room indirect calorimeter

We describe the technology and validation of a new whole room indirect calorimeter (WRIC) methodology to quantify volume of methane (VCH4) released from the human body over 24 h concurrently with the assessment of energy expenditure and substrate utilization. The new system extends the assessment of energy metabolism by adding CH4, a downstream product of microbiome fermentation that could contribute to energy balance. Our new system consists of an established WRIC combined with the addition of off-axis integrated-cavity output spectroscopy (OA-ICOS) to measure CH4 concentration ([CH4]). Development, validation, and reliability of the system included environmental experiments to measure the stability of the atmospheric [CH4], infusing CH4 into the WRIC and human cross-validation studies comparing [CH4] quantified by OA-ICOS and mid-infrared dual-comb spectroscopy (MIR DCS).Our infusion data indicated that the system measured 24-h [CH4] and VCH4 with high sensitivity, reliability, and validity. Cross-validation studies showed good agreement between OA-ICOS and MIR DCS technologies (r = 0.979, P < 0.0001). Human data revealed 24-h VCH4 was highly variable between subjects and within/between days. Finally, our method to quantify VCH4 released by breath or colon suggested that over 50% of the CH4 was eliminated through the breath. The method allows, for the first time, measurement of 24-h VCH4 (in kcal) and therefore the measurement of the proportion of human energy intake fermented to CH4 by the gut microbiome and released via breath or from the intestine; also, it allows us to track the effects of dietary, probiotic, bacterial, and fecal microbiota transplantation on VCH4.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first time that continuous assessment of CH4 is reported in parallel with measurements of O2 consumption and CO2 production inside a whole room indirect calorimeter in humans and over 24 h. We provide a detailed description of the whole system and its parts. We carried out studies of reliability and validity of the whole system and its parts. CH4 is released in humans during daily activities.

Association between Free Sugars Intake and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome in Chinese Adults: Results from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, 2000-2018

The association of free sugars intake with metabolic syndrome (MetS) is controversial. This study aimed to examine the association between free sugars intake and risk of MetS in Chinese adults. The data were from seven waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (2000−2018), a longitudinal and open prospective cohort study. Dietary intake was calculated based on the data collected by consecutive 3-day 24-h dietary recalls combined with household weighing for foods or condiments. Cox proportion hazard regressions and restricted cubic spline (RCS) were performed to explore the associations between free sugars intake and the risk of MetS. The present study selected 12,048 adults aged 18 years and above. During a median (IQR) follow-up of 9.0 (7.0, 15.0) years with 131,844.0 person-years, 3970 (32.95%) MetS occurred. After adjusting for all potential confounders, compared to adults with free sugars intake of <5 g/day group, adults with free sugars intake of 5−20 g/day were associated with a higher risk of MetS (HR, 1.094; 95% CI, 1.009−1.186). No significant association was observed between free sugars intake of >20 g/day and the risk of MetS (HR, 1.011; 95% CI, 0.800−1.277). There is an urgent need to pay attention to the intake of free sugars and comprehensive measures such as the improvements in the processing of sugary foods, and sugar composition should be included on food nutrition labels to control intake of free sugars in China.

Supplementing Dietary Fibers With a Low FODMAP Diet in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Randomized Controlled Crossover Trial

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Institution of a diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) in patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) may lead to inadequate fiber intake. This trial aimed to investigate the effects of supplementing specific fibers concomitantly with a low FODMAP diet on relevant clinical and physiological indices in symptomatic patients with IBS.

METHODS

A double-blind crossover trial was conducted in which 26 patients with IBS were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 low FODMAP diets differing only in total fiber content: control, 23 g/d; sugarcane bagasse, 33 g/d; or fiber combination (sugarcane bagasse with resistant starch), 45 g/d. Each diet lasted 14 days with most food provided and ≥21 days' washout between. Endpoints were assessed during baseline and dietary interventions.

RESULTS

From a median IBS Severity Scoring System total score at baseline of 305, all diets reduced median scores by >50 with no differences in rates of symptom response between the diets: control (57%), sugarcane bagasse (67%), fiber combination (48%) (P = .459). Stool output was ∼50% higher during the fiber-supplemented vs control diets (P < .001 for both). While there were no overall differences overall in stool characteristics, descriptors, and water content, or in gastrointestinal transit times, supplementation with sugarcane bagasse normalized both low stool water content and slow colonic transit from during the control diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Concomitant supplementation of fibers during initiation of a low FODMAP diet did not alter symptomatic response in patients with IBS but augmented stool bulk and normalized low stool water content and slow transit. Resistant starch did not exert additional symptomatic benefits over sugarcane bagasse alone. (Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry; Number, ACTRN12619000691145).

Fruit pomaces-their nutrient and bioactive components, effects on growth and health of poultry species, and possible optimization techniques

The ever-growing human population, coupled with the exigent need to meet the increasing demand for poultry meat and egg, has put the onus on poultry nutritionists and farmers to identify alternative feed ingredients that could assure the least-cost feed formulation. In addition, the public desire for non-antibiotic-treated poultry products has also necessitated the ultimate search for potent antibiotic alternatives for use in poultry production. While some identified alternatives are promising, their cost implications and technical know-how requirements may discourage their ease of adoption in poultry. The use of plants and/or their by-products, like fruit pomaces, present a pocket-friendly advantage and as a result, are gaining much interest. This is traceable to their rich phytochemical profile, nutritional composition, ready availability, and relatively cheap cost. The fruit juice and wine pressing industries generate a plethora of fruit wastes annually. Interestingly, fruit pomaces contain appreciable dietary fibre, protein, and phenolic compounds, and thus, their adoption could serve the poultry industry in dual capacities including as substitutes to antibiotics and some conventional feedstuff. Thus, there is a possibility to reduce fruit wastes produced and feed-cost in poultry farming from environmental and economical standpoints, respectively. This review seeks to provide reinforcing evidence on the applicability and impact of fruit pomaces in poultry nutrition.

Prebiotics and the Human Gut Microbiota: From Breakdown Mechanisms to the Impact on Metabolic Health

The colon harbours a dynamic and complex community of microorganisms, collectively known as the gut microbiota, which constitutes the densest microbial ecosystem in the human body. These commensal gut microbes play a key role in human health and diseases, revealing the strong potential of fine-tuning the gut microbiota to confer health benefits. In this context, dietary strategies targeting gut microbes to modulate the composition and metabolic function of microbial communities are of increasing interest. One such dietary strategy is the use of prebiotics, which are defined as substrates that are selectively utilised by host microorganisms to confer a health benefit. A better understanding of the metabolic pathways involved in the breakdown of prebiotics is essential to improve these nutritional strategies. In this review, we will present the concept of prebiotics, and focus on the main sources and nature of these components, which are mainly non-digestible polysaccharides. We will review the breakdown mechanisms of complex carbohydrates by the intestinal microbiota and present short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) as key molecules mediating the dialogue between the intestinal microbiota and the host. Finally, we will review human studies exploring the potential of prebiotics in metabolic diseases, revealing the personalised responses to prebiotic ingestion. In conclusion, we hope that this review will be of interest to identify mechanistic factors for the optimization of prebiotic-based strategies.

Scientific advice related to nutrient profiling for the development of harmonised mandatory front-of-pack nutrition labelling and the setting of nutrient profiles for restricting nutrition and health claims on foods

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver scientific advice related to nutrient profiling for the development of harmonised mandatory front‐of‐pack nutrition labelling and the setting of nutrient profiles for restricting nutrition and health claims on foods. This Opinion is based on systematic reviews and meta‐analyses of human studies on nutritionally adequate diets, data from the Global Burden of Disease framework, clinical practice guidelines, previous EFSA opinions and the priorities set by EU Member States in the context of their Food‐Based Dietary Guidelines and associated nutrient/food intake recommendations. Relevant publications were retrieved through comprehensive searches in PubMed. The nutrients included in the assessment are those likely to be consumed in excess or in inadequate amounts in a majority of European countries. Food groups with important roles in European diets have been considered. The Panel concludes that dietary intakes of saturated fatty acids (SFA), sodium and added/free sugars are above, and intakes of dietary fibre and potassium below, current dietary recommendations in a majority of European populations. As excess intakes of SFAs, sodium and added/free sugars and inadequate intakes of dietary fibre and potassium are associated with adverse health effects, they could be included in nutrient profiling models. Energy could be included because a reduction in energy intake is of public health importance for European populations. In food group/category‐based nutrient profiling models, total fat could replace energy in most food groups owing to its high‐energy density, while the energy density of food groups with low or no fat content may be well accounted for by the inclusion of (added/free) sugars. Some nutrients may be included in nutrient profiling models for reasons other than their public health importance, e.g. as a proxy for other nutrients of public health importance, or to allow for a better discrimination of foods within the same food category.

Overview of the Composition of Whole Grains’ Phenolic Acids and Dietary Fibre and Their Effect on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases

Chronic non-communicable diseases are the major cause of death globally. Whole grains are recommended in dietary guidelines worldwide due to increasing evidence that their consumption can improve health beyond just providing energy and nutrients. Epidemiological studies have suggested that the incorporation of whole grains, as part of a healthy diet, plays a key role in reducing one’s risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cancer. Phenolic acids and dietary fibre are important components found in whole grains that are largely responsible for these health advantages. Both phenolic acids and dietary fibre, which are predominantly present in the bran layer, are abundant in whole-grain cereals and pseudo-cereals. Several studies indicate that whole grain dietary fibre and phenolic acids are linked to health regulation. The main focus of this study is two-fold. First, we provide an overview of phenolic acids and dietary fibres found in whole grains (wheat, barley, oats, rice and buckwheat). Second, we review existing literature on the linkages between the consumption of whole grains and the development of the following chronic non-communicable diseases: CVDs, obesity, T2D and cancer. Altogether, scientific evidence that the intake of whole grains reduces the risk of certain chronic non-communicable disease is encouraging but not convincing. Based on previous studies, the current review encourages further research to cover the gap between the emerging science of whole grains and human health.

Characterization of the juvenile koala gut microbiome across wild populations

In this study we compared the faecal microbiomes of wild joey koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) to those of adults, including their mothers, to establish whether gut microbiome maturation and inheritance in the wild is comparable to that seen in captivity. Our findings suggest that joey koala microbiomes slowly shift towards an adult assemblage between 6 and 12 months of age, as the microbiomes of 9-month-old joeys were more similar to those of adults than those of 7-month-olds, but still distinct. At the phylum level, differences between joeys and adults were broadly consistent with those in captivity, with Firmicutes increasing in relative abundance over the joeys' development and Proteobacteria decreasing. Of the fibre-degrading genes that increased in abundance over the development of captive joeys, those involved in hemicellulose and cellulose degradation, but not pectin degradation, were also generally found in higher abundance in adult wild koalas compared to 7-month-olds. Greater maternal inheritance of the faecal microbiome was seen in wild than in captive koalas, presumably due to the more solitary nature of wild koalas. This strong maternal inheritance of the gut microbiome could contribute to the development of localized differences in microbiome composition, population health and diet through spatial clustering of relatives.

Humans have intestinal bacteria that degrade the plant cell walls in herbivores

The cell walls of plants are mainly made of cellulose and contain a large number of calories. However, the main component, cellulose, is an indigestible plant fiber that is thought to be difficult for humans to use as energy. Herbivores acquire energy through the degradation of cell wall-derived dietary fiber by microorganisms in the digestive tract. Herbivores, especially horses, have a highly developed cecum and large intestine, and plants are fermented for their efficient use with the help of microorganisms. Humans also have an intestinal tract with a wide lumen on the proximal side of the large intestine, in which fermentation occurs. The digestive process of horses is similar to that of humans, and many of the intestinal bacteria found in horses that degrade plants are also found in humans. Therefore, it is thought that humans also obtain a certain amount of energy from cell wall-derived dietary fiber. However, the intake of dietary fiber by modern humans is low; thus, the amount of calories derived from indigestible plant fiber is considered to be very low. Cellulose in the plant cell wall is often accompanied by hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, suberin, and other materials. These materials are hard to degrade, and cellulose is therefore difficult for animals to utilize. If the cell wall can be degraded to some extent by cooking, it is thought that humans can obtain calories from cell wall-derived dietary fiber. If humans can use the calories from the cell wall for their diet, it may compensate for human food shortages.

The final fate of food: On the establishment of in vitro colon models

The search for life/health quality has driven the search for a better understanding of food components on the overall individual health, which turns to be intrinsically related to the digestive system. In vitro digestion models are considered an alternative for the in vivo studies for a variety of practical reasons, but further research is still needed concerning the colon model establishment. An effective in vitro colon model should consider all unit operations and transport phenomena, together with chemical and biochemical reactions, material handling and reactor design. Due to the different techniques and dependence on the donor microbiota, it is difficult to obtain a standard protocol with results reproductible in time and space. Furthermore, the colon model should be fed with a representative substrate, thus what happens in upper digestion tract and absorption prior to colon is also of crucial importance. Essentially, there are two ways to think about how to achieve a good and useful in vitro colon model: a complex biomimetic system that provides results comparable with the in vivo studies or a simple system, that despite the fact it could not give physiologically relevant data, it is sufficient to understand the fate of some specific components.

Exploration of the Potential for Efficient Fiber Degradation by Intestinal Microorganisms in Diqing Tibetan Pigs

In order to study the potential for efficient fiber degradation by intestinal microorganisms in Diqing Tibetan pigs, we first investigated the dietary structure of Diqing Tibetan pigs in their original habitat, then 60 healthy adult Diqing Tibetan pigs were randomly divided into 2 groups with 6 replicates each and 5 pigs in each replicate. The content of neutral detergent fiber in treatment 1 and 2 were adjusted to 20% and 40%, respectively. The total tract digestibility of nutrients and the degradation efficiency of fecal microorganisms to different types of fiber were determined. Results showed that the composition and nutritional level of Diqing Tibetan pig original diet differed greatly in different seasons. The content of crude fiber in the original diet was as high as 12.3% and the neutral detergent fiber was 32.5% in April, while the content of crude fiber was 4.9% and the neutral detergent fiber was 13.3% in October. With the increase of dietary fiber level, the total tract apparent digestibility of dry matter, crude fiber, crude protein, acid detergent fiber, neutral detergent fiber, ether extract, and organic matter decreased significantly (p < 0.05), and the contents of acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, isobutyric acid, valeric acid, and isovaleric acid in the feces were also significantly (p < 0.05) reduced. The ability of Diqing Tibetan pig fecal microorganisms to degrade neutral detergent fiber was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than “Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire” pig. In addition, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the degradation efficiency of the same type of fiber between NDF-20 and NDF-40 groups. Our results strongly suggested that Diqing Tibetan pigs have the potential to efficiently utilize fiber, and their unique intestinal microbial composition is the main reason for their efficient utilization of dietary fiber.

Significance of sugar intake in young adults: a review

BACKGROUND

Foodborne diseases non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are the main reason of death, accounting for 38 million (68%) of the 56 million premature deaths worldwide in 2012. Lower-middle and middle-income countries accounted for nearly three-quarters of all NCD fatalities (28 million), as well as the bulk of illness and premature death (82%). An excessive consumption of added sugar is source of worry for its link to unhealthy nutrition quality, overweight, and the risk of NCDs among adolescents. A further source of worry is the link among free sugar consumption and tooth cavities in young adults. Dental infections are the most common NCDs worldwide in young adults, and despite significant advances in management and cure in recent decades, issues remain, resulting in pain, anxiety, functional limitations (which include failing school grades and attendance in children), and social severe disability due to missing teeth.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this report is to give suggestions on how to consume added sugar in order to mitigate the possibility of NCDs in children and young adults, with an emphasis on the care and mitigation of obesity and metabolic syndrome and tooth decay among young adults.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The Keywords like adolescent, Health, Dental Caries, Obesity, Sugar Intake, Recommendation have been used to evaluate the standard of evidence discovered via current systematic reviews of the scientific literature relating to significance of sugar intake consumption and its effect in young adults.

RESULTS

The relevant data from prospective studies was judged to be of good quality, but data from nationwide population-based studies was judged to be of extremely low quality. Free sweeteners should be used in moderation during one's life, according to the World Health Organization (strong recommendation 1). WHO advises limiting natural sugar consumption to very little about 10% of total calorie intake among both grownups and children 2 (strong recommendation).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a significant association of prevalence of tooth decay, obesity due to sugar consumption at an alarming rate hence regulators as well as curriculum developers can utilize the recommendation reviewed by us to compare current free sugar intake levels in their nations to a benchmark. They may also be used to design ways to reduce free sugar consumption through a wide variety of social health initiatives, if required.

Lifestyle, WCRF/AICR Recommendations, and Esophageal Adenocarcinoma Risk: A Systematic Review of the Literature

One of the most notable changes in the epidemiology of esophageal cancer (EC) is the rising incidence and prevalence of esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) in developed countries. The aim of this systematic review was to collect and summarize all the available evidence regarding lifestyle, diet, and EAC risk. We searched the PubMed and Scopus databases in January 2021 for studies providing information about lifestyle, diet, WCRF/AICR recommendations, and EAC risk; published in English; without a time filter. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess risk of bias. The results are stratified by risk factor. A total of 106 publications were included. Half of the case-control studies were judged as high quality, whilst practically all cohort studies were judged as high quality. Body mass index and waist circumference were associated with increased EAC risk. Physical activity did not appear to have a significant direct role in EAC risk. A diet rich in fruit, vegetables, and whole grains appeared to be more protective than a Western diet. Alcohol does not seem to be related to EAC, whereas smokers, particularly heavy smokers, have an increased risk of EAC. Prevention remains the best option to avert EAC. Comprehensible and easy to follow recommendations should be provided to all subjects. Protocol ID number: CRD-42021228762, no funds received.

Russian Society for the Prevention of Noncommunicable Diseases (ROPNIZ). Alimentary-dependent risk factors for chronic non-communicable diseases and eating habits: dietary correction within the framework of preventive counseling. Methodological Guidelines

The methodological guidelines are developed as a practical document for medical specialists working in the field of preventive medicine, in order to expand and improve the provision of this type of medical service to the adult population. The methodological guidelines include an informational and informative part for medical specialists and a practical part for patients, presented in the format of memos, contain the main sections-healthy nutrition, correction of eating habits, issues of modifying the diet for the main alimentary-dependent risk factors for chronic non-communicable diseases, such as arterial hypertension, obesity, disorders of lipid, carbohydrate and purine metabolism, a decrease in bone mineral density. They are intended for medical specialists working in the field of prevention, for doctors and secondary medical personnel of offices and departments of medical prevention, public health and medical prevention centers, healthy lifestyle specialists, teachers of medical educational institutions, for specialists who develop and implement educational programs for patients, as well as for medical specialists of a therapeutic profile.

Prediction of in-vitro glycemic responses of biscuits in an engineered small intestine system

The Glycemic Index (GI) indicates the effect of a food product on the increase/decrease in postprandial blood glucose levels. Monitoring the glycemic response is important, as it is associated with the human nutrition absorption. However, human or animal blood sampling involves financial, ethical, and other challenges. Accordingly, in the recent past, many human digestion models have been developed to understand the intricate changes that occur during human digestion and absorption processes. Dynamic models help in studying the digestion mechanics and hypotheses related to the health effects of food ingredients in controlled conditions. The objective of this study is to predict the GI of different biscuit composition using an engineered small intestine system, considering a mass transfer approach and in-silico simulation. Different GI was predicted for biscuits: 62 for plain biscuits (N) containing only refined wheat flour; 57 for finger millet flour biscuits (F); 51 for wheat bran fortified biscuits (W). The results were close to human in-vivo values; GI of 76 for plain biscuits (N); 58 for finger millet biscuits (F) and 41 for wheat bran fortified (W) biscuits, respectively (with no significant difference in the GI values of Engineered model and human glucose blood sampling results) which was confirmed with Bland-Altmann statistics. This finding will help in predicting the glycemic response of new biscuit products serving as an alternative approach to human blood sampling for GI analysis.

Impact of dietary carbohydrate type and protein-carbohydrate interaction on metabolic health

Reduced protein intake, through dilution with carbohydrate, extends lifespan and improves mid-life metabolic health in animal models. However, with transition to industrialised food systems, reduced dietary protein is associated with poor health outcomes in humans. Here we systematically interrogate the impact of carbohydrate quality in diets with varying carbohydrate and protein content. Studying 700 male mice on 33 isocaloric diets, we find that the type of carbohydrate and its digestibility profoundly shape the behavioural and physiological responses to protein dilution, modulate nutrient processing in the liver and alter the gut microbiota. Low (10%)-protein, high (70%)-carbohydrate diets promote the healthiest metabolic outcomes when carbohydrate comprises resistant starch (RS), yet the worst outcomes were with a 50:50 mixture of monosaccharides fructose and glucose. Our findings could explain the disparity between healthy, high-carbohydrate diets and the obesogenic impact of protein dilution by glucose-fructose mixtures associated with highly processed diets.

Acidic pH enhances butyrate production from pectin by faecal microbiota

Environmental pH and gut transit rate are the key factors determining the dynamics of colonic microbiota. In this study, the effect of changing pH on the composition and metabolism of pooled faecal microbiota was elucidated at physiologically relevant dilution rates Dhigh = 0.2 and Dlow = 0.05 1/h. The results showed the best adaptability of Bacteroides ovatus within the pH range 6.0-8.0 at both dilution rates. The butyrate producing Faecalibacterium and Coprococcus comes were extremely sensitive to pH > 7.5, while the abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila increased significantly at pH >7 at Dhigh, causing a pH-dependant shift in the dynamics of mucin degrading species. Increased gas formation was observed at pH < 6.5. Substantially more CO2 was produced at Dlow than at Dhigh (18-29 vs 12-23 mmol per L medium, respectively). Methane was produced only at Dlow and pH > 7, consistent with the simultaneous increased abundance of Methanobrevibacter smithii. Our study confirmed the importance of pH in the development of faecal microbiota in pectin-supplemented medium. Fermentation of other dietary fibres can be studied using the same approach. The significance of pH should be more emphasized in gut research and diagnostics.

Macronutrient Determinants of Obesity, Insulin Resistance and Metabolic Health

Obesity caused by the overconsumption of calories has increased to epidemic proportions. Insulin resistance is often associated with an increased adiposity and is a precipitating factor in the development of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and altered metabolic health. Of the various factors contributing to metabolic impairments, nutrition is the major modifiable factor that can be targeted to counter the rising prevalence of obesity and metabolic diseases. However, the macronutrient composition of a nutritionally balanced "healthy diet" are unclear, and so far, no tested dietary intervention has been successful in achieving long-term compliance and reductions in body weight and associated beneficial health outcomes. In the current review, we briefly describe the role of the three major macronutrients, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, and their role in metabolic health, and provide mechanistic insights. We also discuss how an integrated multi-dimensional approach to nutritional science could help in reconciling apparently conflicting findings.

Cultivation processes to select microorganisms with high accumulation ability

The microbial ability to accumulate biomolecules is fundamental for different biotechnological applications aiming at the production of biofuels, food and bioplastics. However, high accumulation is a selective advantage only under certain stressful conditions, such as nutrient depletion, characterized by lower growth rate. Conventional bioprocesses maintain an optimal and stable environment for large part of the cultivation, that doesn't reward cells for their accumulation ability, raising the risk of selection of contaminant strains with higher growth rate, but lower accumulation of products. Here in this work the physiological responses of different microorganisms (microalgae, bacteria, yeasts) under N-starvation and energy starvation are reviewed, with the aim to furnish relevant insights exploitable to develop tailored bioprocesses to select specific strains for their higher accumulation ability. Microorganism responses to starvation are reviewed focusing on cell cycle, biomass production and variations in biochemical composition. Then, the work describes different innovative bioprocess configurations exploiting uncoupled nutrient feeding strategies (feast-famine), tailored to maintain a selective pressure to reward the strains with higher accumulation ability in mixed microbial populations. Finally, the main models developed in recent studies to describe and predict microbial growth and intracellular accumulation upon N-starvation and feast-famine conditions have been reviewed.

Assessment of Carbohydrate Availability, Fermentability, and Food Energy Value in Humans Using Measurements of Breath Hydrogen

Measurements in humans of their breath hydrogen is sometimes used to assess the availability, fermentability, and food energy value of carbohydrates that, to an unknown extent, resists small intestinal digestion and fermentation in the large intestine. Here I outline that the method is utterly flawed and conclude that it is unsuitable for making claims as to the availability, fermentability, and food energy value of carbohydrates. More traditional methods, although more demanding of time and effort, can be used. Otherwise further development of methodology is essential to avoid undue risk of bias.

Glycemic index of different varieties of yam as influenced by boiling, frying and roasting

Yam is one of the commonly consumed carbohydrate staples. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of boiling, roasting, and frying on the glycemic index (GI) of white yam (Dioscorea rotundata), yellow yam (Dioscorea cayenesis), and water yam (Dioscorea alata). Yam tubers were obtained (peeled, sliced, washed) deep fried in vegetable oil for 35-40 min and boiled in water for about 35-45 min. Sliced unpeeled tubers were also roasted at about 120°C for 40-45 min. The cooked yam samples were fed to 10 healthy subjects aged between 20-50 years. A glucometer was used to measure the blood glucose concentrations of the test individuals before consuming the yam diets and after the 15th, 30th, 45th, 60th, 90th, and 120th min of consumption. The average incremental area under the curves (IAUC) obtained from the recorded blood glucose concentrations were used to calculate the GI of various yam diets. The GI of the yam diets were found to be in the following increasing order: White-yam-boiled (44.26%) < Water-yam-boiled (50.12%) < White-yam-roasted (50.62%) < Water-yam-roasted (54.04%) < White-yam-fried (59.13%) < Yellow-yam-fried (65.08%) < Water-yam-fried (69.16%) < Yellow-yam-roasted (70.62%) < Yellow-yam-boiled (75.18%). White yam diets relatively had lower GI compared to yellow yam and water yam. Boiling was found to give generally lower GI in the white and water yams and could therefore be applied in the preparation of lower GI diets for diabetics.

Chemical Oxygen Demand Can Be Converted to Gross Energy for Food Items Using a Linear Regression Model

BACKGROUND

Human and microbial metabolism are distinct disciplines. Terminology, metrics, and methodologies have been developed separately. Therefore, combining the 2 fields to study energetic processes simultaneously is difficult.

OBJECTIVES

When developing a mechanistic framework describing gut microbiome and human metabolism interactions, energy values of food and digestive materials that use consistent and compatible metrics are required. As an initial step toward this goal, we developed and validated a model to convert between chemical oxygen demand (COD) and gross energy (${E_g}$) for >100 food items and ingredients.

METHODS

We developed linear regression models to relate (and be able to convert between) theoretical gross energy (${E_g}^{\prime}$) and chemical oxygen demand (COD'); the latter is a measure of electron equivalents in the food's carbon. We developed an overall regression model for the food items as a whole and separate regression models for the carbohydrate, protein, and fat components. The models were validated using a sample set of computed ${E_g}^{\prime}$ and COD' values, an experimental sample set using measured ${E_g}$ and COD values, and robust statistical methods.

RESULTS

The overall linear regression model and the carbohydrate, protein, and fat regression models accurately converted between COD and ${E_g}$, and the component models had smaller error. Because the ratios of COD per gram dry weight were greatest for fats and smallest for carbohydrates, foods with a high fat content also had higher ${E_g}$ values in terms of kcal · g dry weight-1.

CONCLUSION

Our models make it possible to analyze human and microbial energetic processes in concert using a single unit of measure, which fills an important need in the food-nutrition-metabolism-microbiome field. In addition, measuring COD and using the regressions to calculate ${E_g}$ can be used instead of measuring ${E_g}$ directly using bomb calorimetry, which saves time and money.

The role of lactose in weanling pig nutrition: a literature and meta-analysis review

Lactose plays a crucial role in the growth performance of pigs at weaning because it is a palatable and easily digestible energy source that eases the transition from milk to solid feed. However, the digestibility of lactose declines after weaning due to a reduction in endogenous lactase activity in piglets. As a result, some lactose may be fermented in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Fermentation of lactose by intestinal microbiota yields lactic acid and volatile fatty acids, which may positively regulate the intestinal environment and microbiome, resulting in improved gastrointestinal health of weanling pigs. We hypothesize that the prebiotic effect of lactose may play a larger role in weanling pig nutrition as the global feed industry strives to reduce antibiotic usage and pharmacological levels of zinc oxide and supra-nutritional levels of copper. Evidence presented in this review indicates that high dietary lactose improves growth performance of piglets, as well as the growth of beneficial bacteria, particularly Lactobacillus, with the positive effects being more pronounced in the first 2 weeks after weaning. However, the risk of post-weaning diarrhea may increase as pigs get older due to reduced lactase activity, high dietary lactose concentrations, and larger feed intakes, all of which may lead to excessive lactose fermentation in the intestine of the pig. Therefore, dietary lactose levels exert different effects on growth performance and gastrointestinal physiological functions in different feeding phases of weanling pigs. However, no formal recommendation of lactose for weanling pigs has been reported. A meta-analysis approach was used to determine that diets fed to swine should include 20%, 15%, and 0 lactose from d 0–7, d 7–14, and d 14–35 post-weaning, respectively. However, sustainable swine production demands that economics must also be taken into account as lactose and lactose containing ingredients are expensive. Therefore, alternatives to lactose, so called “lactose equivalents” have also been studied in an effort to decrease feed cost while maintaining piglet performance with lower dietary lactose inclusions. In summary, the present review investigated dose-response effects of dietary lactose supplementation to exert positive responses and begin to elucidate its mechanisms of action in post-weaning pig diets. The results may help to replace some or all lactose in the diet of weanling pigs, while improving production economics given the high cost of lactose and availability in some swine production markets.

Macronutrient composition of the diet and long-term changes in weight and waist circumference in the EPIC-Italy cohort

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The overall macronutrient composition of diet, rather than just calorie intake, may influence long-term changes of anthropometry. We investigated relationships between dietary macronutrient composition and long-term changes in weight and waist circumference in participants of the EPIC-Italy - the Italian section of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition - study.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 32,119 participants provided anthropometric measures at recruitment and 12 years later (mean). Diet at recruitment was assessed using validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires. Weight and waist changes associated with replacing 10% of energy from one macronutrient with 10% of energy from another macronutrient were assessed by multivariable linear regression. Increased energy from total protein at the expense of any other macronutrient was significantly associated with increased weight and waist circumference. Increased starch at the expense of sugar and total protein was associated with significantly decreased weight and waist circumference; when starch replaced total fat, weight significantly decreased. Increased sugar at the expense of starch and total fat was significantly associated with increased weight and waist circumference; but increase at the expense of total protein was significantly associated with decreased weight and waist circumference.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that increasing protein at the expense of fat or carbohydrates, and reducing starch by increasing other macronutrients, might be associated with increased weight and waist gain.

Effects of soluble dietary fiber from soybean residue fermented by Neurospora crassa on the intestinal flora in rats

In this study, soluble dietary fiber (SDF, including oligosaccharides and polysaccharides) of soybean residue (SR) fermented by Neurospora crassa was used as a research object. In vitro fermentation technology was used to analyze the fermentation properties of SDF from fermented soybean residue (FSR). Moreover, the effects of SDF from FSR on the composition and diversity of intestinal microflora of rats were studied by high-throughput sequencing technology. Results showed that the SDF content of fermented soybean residue was 27.21%. The addition of SDF in the range 2 to 10 g L-1 could increase the levels of gas production and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), as well as decrease the pH and ammonia N concentration after 24 h fermentation in the fermentation broth compared with the control group (p < 0.05). The animal-based experiments showed that Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes were the major dominant phyla in all the groups. Compared with the control group, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides of FSR changed the relative abundance and diversity of the bacterial community, and increased the numbers of beneficial flora, such as Prevotellaceae and Lactobacillales. It was shown that SDF of SR fermented by Neurospora crassa had great effects on the intestinal environment and the composition of intestinal flora in rats.

Cardio-Metabolic Effects of High-Fat Diets and Their Underlying Mechanisms-A Narrative Review

The majority of the epidemiological evidence over the past few decades has linked high intake of fats, especially saturated fats, to increased risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, findings of some recent studies (e.g., the PURE study) have contested this association. High saturated fat diets (HFD) have been widely used in rodent research to study the mechanism of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. Two separate but somewhat overlapping models-the diacylglycerol (DAG) model and the ceramide model-have emerged to explain the development of insulin resistance. Studies have shown that lipid deposition in tissues such as muscle and liver inhibit insulin signaling via the toxic molecules DAG and ceramide. DAGs activate protein kinase C that inhibit insulin-PI3K-Akt signaling by phosphorylating serine residues on insulin receptor substrate (IRS). Ceramides are sphingolipids with variable acyl group chain length and activate protein phosphatase 2A that dephosphorylates Akt to block insulin signaling. In adipose tissue, obesity leads to infiltration of macrophages that secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines that inhibit insulin signaling by phosphorylating serine residues of IRS proteins. For cardiovascular disease, studies in humans in the 1950s and 1960s linked high saturated fat intake with atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. More recently, trials involving Mediterranean diet (e.g., PREDIMED study) have indicated that healthy monounsaturated fats are more effective in preventing cardiovascular mortality and coronary artery disease than are low-fat, low-cholesterol diets. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Mediterranean diets are potential mediators of these benefits.

Cardio-metabolic consequences of dietary carbohydrates: reconciling contradictions using nutritional geometry

Carbohydrates are the major source of dietary energy, but their role in health and disease remains controversial. Recent epidemiological evidence suggests that the increased consumption of carbohydrates is associated with obesity and increased risk of mortality and dietary trials show that carbohydrate restriction leads to weight loss and improved glycaemic status in obese and diabetic subjects. In contrast, the diets of populations with long and healthy lifespans (e.g. traditional Okinawans from Japan) are high in carbohydrate and low in protein, and several clinical and preclinical studies have linked low-carbohydrate-high-protein diets with increased mortality risk. In this paper we attempt to reconcile these contradictory findings by moving beyond traditional single-nutrient analyses to consider the interactions between nutrients on health outcomes. We do so using the Geometric Framework (GF), a nutritional modelling platform that explicitly considers the main and interactive effects of multiple nutrients on phenotypic characteristics. Analysis of human data by GF shows that weight loss and improved cardio-metabolic outcomes under carbohydrate restriction derive at least in part from reduced caloric intake due to the concomitantly increased proportion of protein in the diet. This is because, as in many animals, a specific appetite for protein is a major driver of food intake in humans. Conversely, dilution of protein in the diet leverages excess food intake through compensatory feeding for protein ('protein leverage'). When protein is diluted in the diet by readily digestible carbohydrates and fats, as is the case in modern ultra-processed foods, protein leverage results in excess calorie intake, leading to rising levels of obesity and metabolic disease. However, when protein is diluted in the diet by increased quantities of less readily digestible forms of carbohydrate and fibre, energy balance is maintained and health benefits accrue, especially during middle age and early late-life. We argue that other controversies in carbohydrate research can be resolved using the GF methodology in dietary studies.

Diet, nutrients and the microbiome

Although there is associative evidence linking fecal microbiome profile to health and disease, many studies have not considered the confounding effects of dietary intake. Consuming food provides fermentable substrate which sustains the microbial ecosystem that resides with most abundance in the colon. Western, Mediterranean and vegetarian dietary patterns have a role in modulating the gut microbiota, as do trending restrictive diets such the paleolithic and ketogenic. Altering the amount or ratio of carbohydrate, protein and fat, particularly at the extremes of intake, impacts the microbiome. Diets high in fermentable carbohydrates support the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium, Prevotella, Ruminococcus, Dorea and Roseburia, among others, capable of degrading polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and sugars. Conversely, very high fat diets increase bile-resistant organisms such as Bilophila and Bacteroides. Food form, whole foods vs. ultra-processed, alters the provision of macronutrient substrate to the colon due to differing digestibility, and thereby may impact the microbiota and its metabolic activity. In addition, phytochemicals in plant-based foods have specific and possibly prebiotic effects on the microbiome. Further, food ingredients such as certain low-calorie sweeteners enhance Bifidobacterium spp. The weight of evidence to date suggests a high level of interindividual variability in the human microbiome vs. clearly defined, dietary-induced profiles. Healthful dietary patterns, emphasizing plant foods high in microbial-available carbohydrate, support favorable microbiome profiles active in saccharolytic fermentation. Future research into diet and microbiome should consider the balance of gut microbial-generated metabolites, an important link between microbiome profile and human health.

Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses explaining the relationship between carbohydrate quality and health have usually examined a single marker and a limited number of clinical outcomes. We aimed to more precisely quantify the predictive potential of several markers, to determine which markers are most useful, and to establish an evidence base for quantitative recommendations for intakes of dietary fibre.

METHODS

We did a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of prospective studies published from database inception to April 30, 2017, and randomised controlled trials published from database inception to Feb 28, 2018, which reported on indicators of carbohydrate quality and non-communicable disease incidence, mortality, and risk factors. Studies were identified by searches in PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and by hand searching of previous publications. We excluded prospective studies and trials reporting on participants with a chronic disease, and weight loss trials or trials involving supplements. Searches, data extraction, and bias assessment were duplicated independently. Robustness of pooled estimates from random-effects models was considered with sensitivity analyses, meta-regression, dose-response testing, and subgroup analyses. The GRADE approach was used to assess quality of evidence.

FINDINGS

Just under 135 million person-years of data from 185 prospective studies and 58 clinical trials with 4635 adult participants were included in the analyses. Observational data suggest a 15-30% decrease in all-cause and cardiovascular related mortality, and incidence of coronary heart disease, stroke incidence and mortality, type 2 diabetes, and colorectal cancer when comparing the highest dietary fibre consumers with the lowest consumers Clinical trials show significantly lower bodyweight, systolic blood pressure, and total cholesterol when comparing higher with lower intakes of dietary fibre. Risk reduction associated with a range of critical outcomes was greatest when daily intake of dietary fibre was between 25 g and 29 g. Dose-response curves suggested that higher intakes of dietary fibre could confer even greater benefit to protect against cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and colorectal and breast cancer. Similar findings for whole grain intake were observed. Smaller or no risk reductions were found with the observational data when comparing the effects of diets characterised by low rather than higher glycaemic index or load. The certainty of evidence for relationships between carbohydrate quality and critical outcomes was graded as moderate for dietary fibre, low to moderate for whole grains, and low to very low for dietary glycaemic index and glycaemic load. Data relating to other dietary exposures are scarce.

INTERPRETATION

Findings from prospective studies and clinical trials associated with relatively high intakes of dietary fibre and whole grains were complementary, and striking dose-response evidence indicates that the relationships to several non-communicable diseases could be causal. Implementation of recommendations to increase dietary fibre intake and to replace refined grains with whole grains is expected to benefit human health. A major strength of the study was the ability to examine key indicators of carbohydrate quality in relation to a range of non-communicable disease outcomes from cohort studies and randomised trials in a single study. Our findings are limited to risk reduction in the population at large rather than those with chronic disease.

FUNDING

Health Research Council of New Zealand, WHO, Riddet Centre of Research Excellence, Healthier Lives National Science Challenge, University of Otago, and the Otago Southland Diabetes Research Trust.

Direct and Long-Term Metabolic Consequences of Lowly vs. Highly-Digestible Starch in the Early Post-Weaning Diet of Mice

Starches of low and high digestibility have different metabolic effects. Here, we examined whether this gives differential metabolic programming when fed in the immediate post-weaning period. Chow-fed mice were time-mated, and their nests were standardized and cross-fostered at postnatal days 1⁻2. After postnatal week (PW) 3, individually housed female and male offspring were switched to a lowly-digestible (LDD) or highly-digestible starch diet (HDD) for three weeks. All of the mice received the same high-fat diet (HFD) for nine weeks thereafter. Energy and substrate metabolism and carbohydrate fermentation were studied at the end of the HDD/LDD and HFD periods by extended indirect calorimetry. Glucose tolerance (PW 11) and metabolic flexibility (PW14) were analyzed. Directly in response to the LDD versus the HDD, females showed smaller adipocytes with less crown-like structures in gonadal white adipose tissue, while males had a lower fat mass and higher whole body fat oxidation levels. Both LDD-fed females and males showed an enlarged intestinal tract. Although most of the phenotypical differences disappeared in adulthood in both sexes, females exposed to LDD versus HDD in the early post-weaning period showed improved metabolic flexibility in adulthood. Cumulatively, these results suggest that the type of starch introduced after weaning could, at least in females, program later-life health.

Non-invasive continuous real-time in vivo analysis of microbial hydrogen production shows adaptation to fermentable carbohydrates in mice

Real time in vivo methods are needed to better understand the interplay between diet and the gastrointestinal microbiota. Therefore, a rodent indirect calorimetry system was equipped with hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) sensors. H2 production was readily detected in C57BL/6J mice and followed a circadian rhythm. H2 production was increased within 12 hours after first exposure to a lowly-digestible starch diet (LDD) compared to a highly-digestible starch diet (HDD). Marked differences were observed in the faecal microbiota of animals fed the LDD and HDD diets. H2 was identified as a key variable explaining the variation in microbial communities, with specific taxa (including Bacteroides and Parasutterella) correlating with H2 production upon LDD-feeding. CH4 production was undetectable which was in line with absence of CH4 producers in the gut. We conclude that real-time in vivo monitoring of gases provides a non-invasive time-resolved system to explore the interplay between nutrition and gut microbes in a mouse model, and demonstrates potential for translation to other animal models and human studies.

Application of resistant starch in swine and poultry diets with particular reference to gut health and function

The immediate post-weaning period poses a major challenge on the survival of piglets. Similarly, newly hatched chicks face life threatening challenges due to enteric infections. In the past several years, in-feed antibiotics have been used to reduce these production problems and improve growth. However, in-feed antibiotics have been banned in many jurisdictions and therefore the most effective alternatives to in-feed antibiotics must be developed. To date, several studies have been conducted to develop alternatives to antibiotics. One of the potential candidates as alternatives to in-feed antibiotics is resistant starch (RS). Resistance starch is a type of starch that resists enzymatic digestion in the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract and therefore passes to hindgut where it can be fermented by resident microorganisms. Microbial fermentation of RS in the hindgut results in the production of short chain fatty acids (SCFA). Production of SCFA in turn results in growth and proliferation of colonic and cecal cells, increased expression of genes involved in gut development, and creation of an acidic environment. The acidic environment suppresses the growth of pathogenic microorganisms while selectively promoting the growth of beneficial microbes. Thus, RS has the potential to improve gut health and function by modifying and stabilising gut microbial community and by improving the immunological status of the host. In this review, we discussed the roles of RS in modifying and stabilising gut microbiota, gut health and function, carcass quality, and energy metabolism and growth performance in pigs and poultry.

The inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis weakens the drought tolerance in white clover (Trifolium repens) associated with the alteration of extensive proteins

Changes of endogenous polyamine (PA) levels could be a key adaptive response to drought in plants. White clover pretreated with or without dicyclohexylamine (DCHA), an inhibitor of PA biosynthesis, was subjected to drought stress induced by 18% polyethylene glycol 6000 for 8 days in controlled growth chambers. Results showed that drought stress significantly increased endogenous PA content, whereas DCHA significantly decreased PA accumulation under drought stress. The attenuate PA biosynthesis was unfavorable for plant growth and drought tolerance, as reflected by significantly lower relative water content, relative growth rate, instantaneous water use efficiency, and cell membrane stability in leaves in response to drought. On the basis of proteomic analysis, the inhibition of PA synthesis decreased the accumulation of many key differentially expressed proteins including (1) ribosomal structure and biogenesis: elongation factor, ribosomal protein S10E, and 30S ribosomal protein; (2) amino acid transport and metabolism: cysteine synthase, delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase, and glutamate decarboxylase; (3) carbohydrate metabolism and energy production: photosystem apoprotein, sucrose-phosphate synthase, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, sucrose-phosphatase, NADH oxidoreductase, and ATP synthase; (4) antioxidant metabolism: catalase, peroxidase I, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione S-transferase; and (5) other biological processes: heat shock protein 70, heat shock protein 90, and calcium-dependent protein kinase associated with the decreased drought tolerance in white clover. These findings indicate that PAs play a critical role in the regulation of growth, ribosome, amino acid and energy metabolism, and antioxidant reactions in white clover under drought stress. Drought-induced increases in endogenous PAs could be one of key adaptive responses against drought stress in white clover.

In Defense of Sugar: A Critique of Diet-Centrism

Sugars are foundational to biological life and played essential roles in human evolution and dietary patterns for most of recorded history. The simple sugar glucose is so central to human health that it is one of the World Health Organization's Essential Medicines. Given these facts, it defies both logic and a large body of scientific evidence to claim that sugars and other nutrients that played fundamental roles in the substantial improvements in life- and health-spans over the past century are now suddenly responsible for increments in the prevalence of obesity and chronic non-communicable diseases. Thus, the purpose of this review is to provide a rigorous, evidence-based challenge to 'diet-centrism' and the disease-mongering of dietary sugar. The term 'diet-centrism' describes the naïve tendency of both researchers and the public to attribute a wide-range of negative health outcomes exclusively to dietary factors while neglecting the essential and well-established role of individual differences in nutrient-metabolism. The explicit conflation of dietary intake with both nutritional status and health inherent in 'diet-centrism' contravenes the fact that the human body is a complex biologic system in which the effects of dietary factors are dependent on the current state of that system. Thus, macronutrients cannot have health or metabolic effects independent of the physiologic context of the consuming individual (e.g., physical activity level). Therefore, given the unscientific hyperbole surrounding dietary sugars, I take an adversarial position and present highly-replicated evidence from multiple domains to show that 'diet' is a necessary but trivial factor in metabolic health, and that anti-sugar rhetoric is simply diet-centric disease-mongering engendered by physiologic illiteracy. My position is that dietary sugars are not responsible for obesity or metabolic diseases and that the consumption of simple sugars and sugar-polymers (e.g., starches) up to 75% of total daily caloric intake is innocuous in healthy individuals.

Energy efficiency of digestible protein, fat and carbohydrate utilisation for growth in rainbow trout and Nile tilapia

Currently, energy evaluation of fish feeds is performed on a digestible energy basis. In contrast to net energy (NE) evaluation systems, digestible energy evaluation systems do not differentiate between the different types of digested nutrients regarding their potential for growth. The aim was to develop an NE evaluation for fish by estimating the energy efficiency of digestible nutrients (protein, fat and carbohydrates) and to assess whether these efficiencies differed between Nile tilapia and rainbow trout. Two data sets were constructed. The tilapia and rainbow data set contained, respectively, eight and nine experiments in which the digestibility of protein, fat and energy and the complete energy balances for twenty-three and forty-five diets was measured. The digestible protein (dCP), digestible fat (dFat) and digestible carbohydrate intakes (dCarb) were calculated. By multiple regression analysis, retained energy (RE) was related to dCP, dFat and dCarb. In tilapia, all digestible nutrients were linearly related to RE (P<0·001). In trout, RE was quadratically related to dCarb (P<0·01) and linearly to dCP and dFat (P<0·001). The NE formula was NE=11·5×dCP+35·8×dFAT+11·3×dCarb for tilapia and NE=13·5×dCP+33·0×dFAT+34·0×dCarb-3·64×(dCarb)2 for trout (NE in kJ/(kg0·8×d); dCP, dFat and dCarb in g/(kg0·8×d)). In tilapia, the energetic efficiency of dCP, dFat and dCarb was 49, 91 and 66 %, respectively, showing large similarity with pigs. Tilapia and trout had similar energy efficiencies of dCP (49 v. 57 %) and dFat (91 v. 84 %), but differed regarding dCarb.

The effect of prunes on stool output, gut transit time and gastrointestinal microbiota: A randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND & AIM

Prunes (dried plums) are perceived to maintain healthy bowel function, however their effects on gastrointestinal (GI) function are poorly researched and potential mechanisms of action are not clear. We aimed to investigate the effect of prunes on stool output, whole gut transit time (WGTT), gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) in healthy adults METHODS: We conducted a parallel group, randomised controlled trial with three treatment arms in 120 healthy adults with low fibre intakes and stool frequency of 3-6 stools/wk. Subjects were randomised to 80 g/d prunes (plus 300 ml/d water); 120 g/d prunes (plus 300 ml/d water) or control (300 ml/d water) for 4 weeks. Stool weight was the primary outcome and determined by 7-day stool collection. Secondary outcomes included stool frequency and consistency (stool diary), WGTT (radio-opaque markers), GI symptoms (diary), microbiota (quantitative PCR) and SCFA (gas liquid chromatography). Group assignment was concealed from the outcome assessors.

RESULTS

There were significantly greater increases in stool weight in both the 80 g/d (mean + 22.2 g/d, 95% CI -1-45.3) and 120 g/d (+32.8 g/d, 95% CI 13.9-51.7) prune groups compared with control (-0.8 g/d, 95% CI -17.2 to 15.6, P = 0.026). Stool frequency was significantly greater following 80 g/d (mean 6.8 bowel movements/wk, SD 3.8) and 120 g/d (5.6, SD 1.9) prune consumption compared with control (5.4, SD 2.1) (P = 0.023), but WGTT was unchanged. The incidence of flatulence was significantly higher after prune consumption. There were no significant differences in any of the bacteria measured, except for a greater increase in Bifidobacteria across the groups (P = 0.046). Prunes had no effect on SCFA or stool pH.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy individuals with infrequent stool habits and low fibre intake, prunes significantly increased stool weight and frequency and were well tolerated. Prunes may have health benefits in populations with low stool weight.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NUMBER AND WEBSITE

ISRCTN42793297 http://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN42793297.