Sociodemographic, psychological, and lifestyle characteristics are associated with a liking for salty and sweet tastes in French adults

Analysis of factors associated with public attitudes towards salt reduction: a multicountry cross-sectional survey

OBJECTIVE

This paper provides an in-depth examination of public attitudes towards salt reduction across seven culturally diverse countries: the USA, the UK, France, Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, and Brazil.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional regression analysis with questionnaire data.

SETTING

An analysis of questionnaire study in seven countries.

PARTICIPANTS

The study's questionnaire collected responses from 7090 participants across seven countries with the mean age of respondents being 46.06 years (SD 16.96). The gender distribution encompassed 3473 men (49.12%), 3582 women (50.66%), 24 non-binary individuals (0.34%) and 11 who identified as 'other' (0.16%).

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Attitudes toward sodium reduction were measured on a seven-point Likert scale.

RESULTS

Regression analysis revealed significant associations between attitudes towards sodium reduction and various factors across countries. Gender was a significant factor in France, with women showing less awareness than men (coefficient -0.123, 95% CI -0.237 to -0.008). Age was a significant factor in Japan and Thailand, with older generations exhibiting stronger awareness. Occupation was a significant factor in France (grocery, 0.678, 0.229 to 1.127) and Japan (food service, 0.792, 0.300 to 1.283). In France (0.090, 0.033 to 0.146) and Brazil (0.092, 0.040 to 0.144), attitudes towards reducing sugar intake were positively associated with sodium reduction attitudes. Government interventions showed varying impacts, with positive associations in Thailand (0.004, 0.001 to 0.008) and negative associations in France (-0.003 -0.005 to -0.000).

CONCLUSION

Our study reveals a complex array of factors shaping attitudes towards sodium reduction across seven countries. These findings support the need for nuanced, country-specific approaches in formulating sodium reduction strategies. Future research should validate these findings, explore further determinants and understand how attitudes translate into dietary behaviours.

Impaired Saltiness Perception Contributes to Higher Sodium Intake Among Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease: A Cross-Sectional Two-Center Study

OBJECTIVE

Dietary sodium restriction is important in the prognosis of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The association between saltiness perception and sodium intake among CKD patients is unclear, and the factors that influence saltiness are also not fully understood. We evaluated saltiness perception in CKD patients employing a cost-effective saltiness perception test using sodium solutions and evaluated the association between saltiness perception, sodium intake, and the influencing factors.

DESIGN AND METHODS

CKD outpatients not undergoing dialysis were enrolled from two medical centers and underwent saltiness perception tests together with 24-hour urine collections to measure daily sodium intake. Participants who perceived saltiness using the test solution containing 25 mM sodium were regarded to have "preserved" saltiness perception, while those unable to perceive saltiness were regarded as having "impaired" saltiness perception.

RESULTS

Of the total 132 participants, the median daily sodium intake was 3.36 g (range; 0.51-9.95 g/day), and 43 (32.6%) were ex- or current smokers. When participants were divided into 3 groups (G) according to daily sodium intake level: low (G1; 0.51-2.61 g/day), middle (G2; 2.62-3.99 g/day), and high (G3; 4.06-9.95 g/day), there was an obvious difference in impaired saltiness perception between three groups: 6.8% in G1, 50.0% in G2 and 86.4% in G3 (P value = 8.035 × 10-14, Cochran-Armitage test). In a multiple regression analysis in which the saltiness perception was adopted as a subjective variable, smoking habit (ex- or current smoker) and nonadherence to dietary sodium restriction were identified as significant explanatory variables.

CONCLUSION

We revealed the clear relationship between higher daily sodium intake and impaired saltiness perception that is related to nonadherence to dietary sodium restriction and smoking habit, both of which could be intervened by nutritional counseling and public health education.

Does vaping affect the taste and smell perception? An exploratory study with New Zealand young adults

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to assess potential effects of vaping on individual taste and smell perception in a sample of young adult New Zealanders.

DESIGN

This cross-sectional study measured taste and smell perception using intensity and hedonic ratings to two olfactory (i.e., vanillin, methional) and two gustatory stimuli (i.e., sucrose, monosodium glutamate), representing sweet and savoury flavours. Detection sensitivities to sucrose and vanillin were also assessed using a forced choice detection paradigm aligned with the signal detection framework. MANCOVAs were employed to compare sensory perception between groups based on vaping use frequency. Additional regression analyses were conducted to identify potential predictors of intensity and hedonic sensory ratings.

SETTING

Participants were recruited from the University of Otago student population and surrounding neighbourhoods of Dunedin, New Zealand in 2023.

PARTICIPANTS

The study included 213 university students (98 vapers and 115 non-vapers) RESULTS: We found a significant difference in hedonic ratings for vanillin, indicating a stronger preference among non-vapers. However, no other differences between the two groups were significant. Notably, the use of tobacco and mint flavours were emerged as significant predictors for hedonic responses to the savoury smell and sweet taste stimulus, respectively. No significant differences were observed between groups in the ability to detect weak stimuli.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that vape use, particularly with specific flavours, may be associated with alterations in hedonic responses to smells. This finding may have potential implications for how vaping affects on food preferences and dietary choices.

Metabolic syndromes increase significantly with the accumulation of bad dietary habits

BACKGROUND

The association between dietary habits and metabolic syndrome (MetS) has not been well documented, due to the complexity and individualization of dietary culture in the Chinese population.

OBJECTIVE

To construct a composite score from various bad dietary habits and to evaluate their comprehensive association with the prevalence of MetS and its components among Chinese men and women across various age groups.

SETTING

Serial cross-sectional studies.

METHODS

Twenty-three dietary habits were assessed through face-to-face interviews with 98,838 males and 83,099 females in health check-up programs from 2015 to 2021, among which eighteen bad dietary habits were observed to be associated independently with total MetS. The total score of bad dietary habits was composed of four categories via variable clustering analysis, including irregular dietary habits, unhealthy dietary flavors, unbalanced dietary structure, and high-fat diet. The 2016 Chinese guideline for the management of dyslipidemia in adults was used to define MetS.

RESULTS

Men had a higher score of bad dietary habits than women (9.63 ± 3.11 vs. 8.37 ± 3.23), which decreased significantly with increasing age in both males and females (Pinteraction<0.01). The prevalence of total MetS increased significantly with the cumulative score of bad dietary habits in both males (highest quintile vs. lowest quintile: OR, 1.90; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.80-2.00; Plinear<0.01) and females (OR, 2.23; 95% CI, 2.02-2.46; Plinear<0.01) after adjusted for age, education, smoking status, alcohol consumption, and physical activities. These linear trends were also observed for each MetS component (all Plinear<0.01). The role of irregular dietary habits and high-fat diet on MetS prevalence are much higher in males than in females, while unhealthy dietary flavors and unbalanced dietary structure had a greater influence on females.

CONCLUSIONS

The accumulation of bad dietary habits contributes to the MetS developments. Thus, individualized lifestyle interventions are needed to correct bad dietary habits with regard to gender differences.

Self-Reported Frequency of Adding Salt to Food and Risk of Incident Chronic Kidney Disease

Importance

The self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods could reflect a person's long-term salt taste preference, and salt intake has been associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Whether self-reported adding of salt to foods is associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains unknown.

Objective

To prospectively examine the association of self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods with incident CKD risk in a general population of adults.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This population-based cohort study evaluated UK Biobank participants aged 37 to 73 years who were free of CKD at baseline. Participants were enrolled from 2006 to 2010 and prospectively followed up for disease diagnosis. Data were analyzed from October 2022 to April 2023.

Exposure

Self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods, categorized into never or rarely, sometimes, usually, and always.

Main Outcome and Measure

Incident CKD cases were defined by diagnostic codes. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs were calculated by using Cox proportional hazards models. Models were adjusted for several potential confounders including age, sex, race and ethnicity, Townsend Deprivation Index, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), body mass index, (BMI), smoking status, alcohol drinking status, regular physical activity, high cholesterol, diabetes, CVD, hypertension, infectious disease, immune disease, and nephrotoxic drugs use at baseline.

Results

Within a cohort of 465 288 individuals (mean [SD] age 56.32 [8.08] years; 255 102 female participants [54.83%]; 210 186 male participants [45.17%]), participants with higher self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods were more likely to have a higher BMI, higher Townsend Deprivation Index score, and diminished baseline eGFR compared with those who reported a lower frequency of adding salt to foods. Participants who added salt to their foods were also more likely than those who did not add salt to their foods to be current smokers and have diabetes or CVD at baseline. During a median (IQR) follow-up of 11.8 (1.4) years, 22 031 incident events of CKD were documented. Higher self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods was significantly associated with a higher CKD risk after adjustment for covariates. Compared with those who reported never or rarely adding salt to foods, those who reported sometimes adding salt to food (adjusted HR [aHR], 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.07), those who reported usually adding salt to food (aHR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.02-1.11), and those who reported always adding salt to food (aHR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.05-1.18) had an increased risk of CKD (P for trend < .001). In addition, eGFR, BMI, and physical activity significantly modified the associations, which were more pronounced among participants with a higher eGFR, lower BMI, or lower level of physical activity.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of 465 288 individuals, a higher self-reported frequency of adding salt to foods was associated with a higher risk of CKD in the general population. These findings suggest that reducing the frequency of adding salt to foods at the table might be a valuable strategy to lower CKD risk in the general population.

EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF DIETARY PATTERNS OF PATIENTS WITH GASTRIC ADENOCARCINOMA: A CASE-CONTROL STUDY IN CENTRAL BRAZIL

BACKGROUND

Diet is one of the most important modifiable risk factors for the incidence of gastric cancer.

OBJECTIVE

To carry out an exploratory analysis on the dietary patterns of individuals with gastric adenocarcinoma (AdG) in the Central Brazil region.

METHODS

This is a case-control study carried out from April 2019 to July 2022, in three reference centers for cancer treatment in Goiânia-GO. The cases were patients diagnosed with AdG, the control 1 dyspeptic patients submitted to upper digestive endoscopy and the control 2 patients without gastric complaints. In the three groups, patients aged 18 to 75 years and of both sexes were recruited. To assess food consumption, a Food Frequency Questionnaire validated for the Brazilian population was used. Dietary patterns were identified by Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), using principal component analysis as the extraction method, followed by Varimax rotation.

RESULTS

The commonality values in the EFA for the foods/food groups consumed by the cases and controls were above 0.30 for all variables. The variance explained by the model was 66.7% for cases, 60.3% for control 1 and 59.7% for control 2. Three eating patterns were identified in cases, control 1 and control 2 that explained 34, 87%, 35.41% and 33.25% respectively of the total variance. The first pattern ("healthy") was characterized by the consumption of vegetables, fruits, meat and cheese; the second ("unhealthy") for sausages, pizzas, snacks, ketchup, sweet drinks and instant noodles and the third ("prudent") rice, beans, meat and fried fish and pasta.

CONCLUSION

This study identified three dietary patterns among patients with AdG and controls in the Central Brazil region. According to the identified patterns, it will be possible to establish a relationship between diet and other epidemiological measures aimed at the prevention of gastric cancer.

The effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking on salty taste preferences based on Korean Community Health Survey data

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Excessive sodium intake, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption are risk factors for a wide range of diseases. This study aimed to determine whether smokers and drinkers are more likely to enjoy their food with more salt, and whether the combination of smoking and drinking is associated with salty taste preferences.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This study analyzed the data of over 16 million Koreans from two four-year Korean Community Health Survey cycles (i.e., 2010 to 2013 and 2014 to 2017). The respondents' preferences for salty foods (i.e., their salt intake levels, whether they added salt or soy sauce to foods served on the table, and whether they dipped fried foods in salt or soy sauce), and the odds ratio (OR) of their preference were examined among smokers and drinkers when adjusted for sex, age, body mass index, educational level, household income, marital status, and cigarette smoking or alcohol consumption status.

RESULTS

Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption were correlated with the consumption of salty food. Based on the adjusted model, cigarette smokers and alcohol drinkers preferred adding salt or soy sauce or dipping fried foods in soybean more than non-smokers and non-drinkers. In addition, people who smoked and consumed alcohol reported a more significant stacking effect regarding the salty taste preference.

CONCLUSION

This large population-based study found that both cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption were correlated with salty taste preferences, which may cause excessive sodium intake.

Comparison between 24-hour diet recall and 24-hour urine collection for estimating sodium and potassium intakes and their ratio among Korean adults

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to compare 24-h diet recall (DR) and 24-h urine collection (UC) for estimating sodium and potassium intakes and their ratio (Na/K), identifying factors associated with sodium and potassium intakes and Na/K, and identifying those who were likely to underestimate sodium and potassium intakes by DR.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

A total of 640 healthy adults aged 19-69 yrs completed a questionnaire survey, salty taste assessment, anthropometric measurement, two 24-h DRs, and two 24-h UCs.

RESULTS

The mean sodium and potassium intakes and Na/K were 3,755 mg/d, 2,737 mg/d, and 1.45 according to DR, and 4,145 mg/d, 2,812 mg/d, and 1.57 according to UC, with percentage differences of -9.4%, -2.7%, and -7.6% in the values between the two methods, respectively. Men, older adults, smokers, obese individuals, those who consumed all the liquid in the soup, and those who were found to be salty in the salty taste assessment consumed significantly more sodium; older adults, the heavy- activity group, and obese individuals consumed more potassium; and men, younger adults, smokers, and obese individuals had a significantly higher Na/K, according to UC. Compared with UC, DR was more likely to underestimate sodium intake in older adults, smokers, obese individuals, those who consumed all the liquid in the soup, and those who consumed eating-out/delivery food at least once a day, and potassium intake in older adults, the heavy-activity group, and obese individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

The mean sodium and potassium intakes and Na/K estimated by DR were comparable to those measured by UC. However, the association of sodium and potassium intakes with sociodemographic and health-related factors showed inconsistent results when estimated by DR and UC. Factors influencing the underestimation of sodium intake by DR compared to UC should be further investigated.

Adaptation of Food Craving Inventory to Turkish culture: a validity and reliability study

INTRODUCTION

The Food Craving Inventory is a 28-item self-report measure of specific food cravings. The inventory consists of 4 factors: high fats, sweets, carbohydrates/starches and fast-food fats.

PURPOSE

This study was carried out to evaluate the Turkish validity and reliability of the Food Craving Inventory, and to determine the psychometric properties and factor structure of the Turkish version.

METHODS

The sample of the study consists of 621 individuals between the ages of 19-50 who voluntarily agree to participate in online survey. Validity and reliability analyses were performed for the Turkish version of Food Craving Inventory (FCI-TR). Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to evaluate the factor structure of the Turkish version of FCI.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a four-factor structure as "sweets," "high-fats," "carbohydrates/starches" and "fast food fats". The Cronbach-alpha coefficient for the total score was 0.84; subfactors were calculated as 0.74 for "sweets", 0.64 for "high-fat foods", 0.65 for "carbohydrates/starches", and 0.66 for "fast-food fats". The scores of the FCI-TR factors and its total score significantly correlated with the sub-factors of Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ). A significant correlation was found between body mass index (BMI) and high fats and fast-food fats factor score. Also total and factor scores of the FCI-TR were different between BMI groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that the Turkish version of the FCI is a valid and reliable tool to measure food cravings in the Turkish population. FCI is also correlated with sub-factors of TFEQ.

Adding salt to foods and hazard of premature mortality

AIMS

We analyzed whether the frequency of adding salt to foods was associated with the hazard of premature mortality and life expectancy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 501 379 participants from UK biobank who completed the questionnaire on the frequency of adding salt to foods at baseline. The information on the frequency of adding salt to foods (do not include salt used in cooking) was collected through a touch-screen questionnaire at baseline. We found graded relationships between higher frequency of adding salt to foods and higher concentrations of spot urinary sodium or estimated 24-h sodium excretion. During a median of 9.0 years of follow-up, 18 474 premature deaths were documented. The multivariable hazard ratios [95% confidence interval (CI)] of all-cause premature mortality across the increasing frequency of adding salt to foods were 1.00 (reference), 1.02 (0.99, 1.06), 1.07 (1.02, 1.11), and 1.28 (1.20, 1.35) (P-trend < 0.001). We found that intakes of fruits and vegetables significantly modified the associations between the frequency of adding salt to foods and all-cause premature mortality, which were more pronounced in participants with low intakes than those with high intakes of these foods (P-interaction = 0.02). In addition, compared with the never/rarely group, always adding salt to foods was related to 1.50 (95% CI, 0.72-2.30) and 2.28 (95% CI, 1.66-2.90) years lower life expectancy at the age of 50 years in women and men, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that higher frequency of adding salt to foods is associated with a higher hazard of all-cause premature mortality and lower life expectancy.

Vegans, vegetarians and omnivores differ in nutrient hedonics, salt and sweet preference and flavouring

BACKGROUND

Dietary content can influence taste responses. Therefore, we compared nutrient hedonics (liking foods by nutrient content), and seasoning, including taste responses to the prime flavours salt and sweet in 30 vegan, 37 vegetarian and 56 omnivore men and women.

METHODOLOGY

Questionnaires and taste tests examined macronutrient and electrolyte intake and hedonics, seasoning, salt and sweet preferences and psychophysical taste responses.

RESULTS

Compared to omnivores, vegans had lower protein, Ca⁺⁺, Na⁺ intake, and increased carbohydrate (CHO) intake. Independently of intake, hedonics for protein Ca⁺⁺ and Na⁺ were reduced and increased for CHO. Psychophysical responses to NaCl and sucrose also differed slightly, vegans and vegetarians scoring high concentrations of sucrose as more intense, Vegans reported more sweetening and less salting of food, added more sucrose to a test tea, less salt to a test soup, but did not differ in seasoning with oil or hot spice.

PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS

Habitual vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets may alter taste responses to nutrient content and salt and sweet, the latter more pronounced in vegan and vegetarian women. Recognising diet-dependent changes in taste hedonics can inform diets and products.

Levels of Salt Reduction in Bread, Acceptability and Purchase Intention by Urban Mozambican Consumers

Excess sodium (Na) consumption is implicated in several health problems, particularly hypertension, and bread is an important dietary source. We aimed to analyze perception of salt, acceptability, and purchase intention of low-salt and unsalted white bread by consumers in Mozambique. Sensory evaluation was performed using a triangular test (N = 42) to perceive if differences in saltiness were detected when comparing low-salt and unsalted with salt-reduced white bread. Nine-point hedonic and five-point purchase intention scales were used to measure acceptability and purchase intention, respectively (N = 120). Difference in saltiness was not detected when fresh white bread with 282 mg Na/100 g vs. 231 mg Na/100 g and 279 mg Na/100 g vs. 123 mg Na/100 g were compared. Difference in saltiness was not detected when comparing unsalted vs. 64 mg Na/100 g, while differences were detected when unsalted vs. 105 mg Na/100 g and unsalted vs. 277 mg Na/100 g were compared. Overall acceptability and purchase intention were not affected by reductions of Na in bread. A reduction of up to more than 50% of Na was not perceived and a small level of Na was not distinguished from unsalted bread. Consumers were shown to accept and be willing to buy both unsalted and salt-reduced bread, suggesting that Na can be reduced from current levels.

Psychological distress resulting from the COVID-19 confinement is associated with unhealthy dietary changes in two Italian population-based cohorts

Purpose

To examine the relationship between psychological distress resulting from the COVID-19 lockdown and dietary changes.

Methods

Cross-sectional analysis from 2 retrospective Italian cohorts recruited from May to September 2020: (1) The Moli-LOCK cohort consists of 1401 participants from the Moli-sani Study (n = 24,325) who were administered a telephone-based questionnaire to assess lifestyles and psychological factors during confinement; (2) the ALT RISCOVID-19 is a web-based survey of 1340 individuals distributed throughout Italy who self-responded to the same questionnaire using Google® forms.

Psychological distress was measured by assessments of depression (PHQ-9 and depressive items from the Screening Questionnaire for Disaster Mental Health- SQD-D), anxiety (GAD-7), stress (PSS-4), and post-traumatic stress disorder (SQD-P). Diet quality was assessed either as changes in consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) or adherence to Mediterranean diet (MD).

Results

In ALT RISCOVID-19, increased UPF intake was directly associated with depression (both PHQ-9 and SQD-D; p < 0.0001), anxiety (p < 0.0001), stress (p = 0.001) and SQD-P (p = 0.001); similar results were obtained in the Moli-LOCK cohort except for perceived stress. When psychometric scales were analysed simultaneously, only depression (SQD-D) remained associated with UPF (both cohorts). In both cohorts, psychological distress poorly influenced changes toward an MD, except for depression (SQD-D) that resulted inversely associated in the ALT RISCOVID-19 participants (β = − 0.16; 95% CI − 0.26, − 0.06).

Conclusions

Psychological distress from the COVID-19 confinement is directly associated with unhealthy dietary modifications in two Italian cohorts. In view of possible future restrictive measures to contain pandemic, public health actions are warranted to mitigate the impact of psychological distress on diet quality.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00394-021-02752-4.

Sociodemographic disparity in health-related behaviours and dietary habits among public workers in China: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to estimate the distribution of health-related behaviours and dietary habits by sociodemographics among public workers in China.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

A representative sample was obtained from 10 government-run institutions in Hunan province of China.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 5029 public workers were included in this study.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Prevalence on their sociodemographic characteristics, health-related behaviours and dietary habits. Socioeconomic status (SES) scores were calculated by multiplying ordinal numerical values assigned to consecutive categories of education level and annual household income. Multivariate logistic regression analysis and categorical principal component analysis were used to estimate differences in health-related behaviours and dietary habits by sociodemographics.

RESULTS

The distribution of health-related behaviours and dietary habits was varied by sociodemographic groups. Middle-aged groups (41-60 years) were more likely to smoke (for men, 34.5%), use alcohol (for men, 22.5%), and have short sleep duration (for men, 36.3%; for women, 39.6%). Young participants (≤30 years) were more likely to have multiple unhealthy behaviours and dietary habits. Those in low-SES have a significant higher rate of smoking (OR_adj=1.46, 95% CI: 1.15 to 1.85) and leisure-time physical inactivity (OR_adj=1.18, 95% CI: 1.02 to 1.37), but a lower rate of late sleeping (OR_adj=0.69, 95% CI: 0.57 to 0.83) than those in high-SES. Notably, older men (≥51 years) with low-SES preferred the 'smoked and pickled foods and dessert' and 'fish and nut' pattern. In high-SES groups, 41-50 year old people preferred the 'traditional foods' and 'cereals and dairy product' pattern. No difference in dietary patterns by sociodemographics was found among women (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings of the disparity distribution of health-related behaviours and dietary habits by specific gender, age and SES among Chinese public workers have important policy implications for developing targeted health interventions to facilitate health-related behaviours and dietary habits in this population.

The food craving inventory in an Iranian population: post-hoc validation and individual differences

PURPOSE

The present study was performed to develop the Persian version of food craving inventory (FCI) (FCI-P) and to assess food craving in Iranian adult population. In addition, individual differences, including sex and body mass index (BMI) in food craving were assessed.

METHODS

Eight hundred and twenty subjects who participated in the same study Hill (Proc Nutr Soc 66: 277-285, 2007) were studied (540 women and 280 men). The FCI-P, International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ), and a questionnaire pertaining to demographic characteristics were completed for all participants.

RESULTS

Good content, construct, and convergent validity was observed for the FCI-P. A good reliability was found for both aggregate scores of the FCI-P and scores of its five factors. Exploratory factor analysis showed a five-factor model including "sweets," "high-fat foods," "fast food fats," "carbohydrates/starches" and "high-fat meats". These five factors accounted for 47.31% of the total variance. The scores of "uncontrolled eating" and "emotional eating" of the TFEQ were significantly correlated with the scores of the FCI-P factors and its total score. A significant correlation was found between BMI and the FCI-P score (r = 0.199). Significant differences were observed in the mean age and physical activity score among normal weight, overweight, and obese participants. Normal weight and overweight groups were more active than obese group. Obese participants had higher FCI-P score (P < 0.001) than the normal and overweight groups. FCI-P score was significantly higher in women than men.

CONCLUSIONS

FCI-P can be used as a valid and reliable measure to assess food craving in Iranian populations. Obese individuals experienced food craving more than normal weight subjects. Similarly, women may experience food craving more than men.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross sectional study.

Diet, eating behaviour and weight gain in men and women with overweight/obesity receiving varenicline for smoking cessation

Because trying to quit smoking and not gain weight requires changes in two major behaviours simultaneously we explored eating behaviour in smokers with overweight/obesity making a quit attempt using guideline-based treatment. Participants were randomized to a carbohydrate-reduced or fat-reduced diet. The Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and Binge Eating Scale were completed by 48 of 64 participants in the low-carbohydrate and 47 of 58 in the fat-reduced group at randomization, after 6 and 14 weeks. At 6 weeks, no between group differences were seen in eating behaviour scores thus, we combined the sample for further analyses. In the combined sample, restraint increased (3.94 [95% CI 3.05, 4.83]), disinhibition (uncontrolled eating) decreased (-0.86 [95% CI-1.31, -0.41]) and binge eating decreased (-1.95 [95% CI -2.83, -1.06]), while hunger scores did not change (-0.43 [95% CI -0.89, 0.03]) after 14 weeks. In a general linear model, increase in dietary restraint (P = .012) and decrease in binge eating (P = .040) were associated with lower weight gain (model R² _adj = .147). In a smoking cessation program, dietary support regardless of diet was associated with increased dietary restraint and reduced binge eating. Because smoking cessation causes weight gain these results indicate that dietary support leads to eating behaviour changes that may prevent weight gain.

Gastric Cancer and the Daily Intake of the Major Dish Groups Contributing to Sodium Intake: A Case-Control Study in Korea

Studies on the association between gastric cancer (GC) and the intake of soup-based dish groups (noodles and dumplings, soups, and stews), which are sodium-contributing foods, in Korea are insufficient, and the results of studies on the intake of pickled vegetables such as kimchi are inconsistent. This study aimed to determine the association between the incidence of GC and the daily intake of high-sodium dish groups (noodles and dumplings, soups, stews, and pickled vegetables) and whether these associations differ depending on behavioral risk factors for GC. In this case-control study, subjects aged 20–79 years were recruited from two hospitals between December 2002 and September 2006. A total of 440 cases and 485 controls were recruited, of which 307 pairs were matched and included for the analysis. In our results, a higher intake of noodles and dumplings was associated with a significantly increased incidence of GC. In the participants who consumed past or current alcohol, a higher intake of noodles and dumplings was associated with a significantly increased incidence of GC. Our results suggest that efforts to reduce the daily sodium intake from noodles and dumplings are needed to prevent and reduce the incidence of GC.

Phenol-Rich Food Acceptability: The Influence of Variations in Sweetness Optima and Sensory-Liking Patterns

The consumption of phenol-rich foods is limited by their prominent bitterness and astringency. This issue has been addressed by adding sweet tastes, which suppress bitterness, but this is not a complete solution since individuals also differ in their preference for sweetness. In this study, we aimed at identifying groups of consumers differing in sweetness optima and sensory-liking patterns. To this end, increasing concentrations of sucrose were added to a chocolate pudding base. This allowed us to (1) investigate if individual differences in sensory responses are associated with different sweet liking optima in a product context, (2) define the psychological and oro-sensory profile of sweet liker phenotypes derived using a product context, and (3) assess if individuals differing in sweet liking optima differ also in consumption and liking of phenol-rich foods and beverages as a function of their sensory properties (e.g., sweeter vs. more bitter and astringent products). Individuals (1208; 58.4% women, 18–69 years) were characterised for demographics, responsiveness to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), personality traits and attitudes toward foods. Three clusters were identified based on correlations between sensory responses (sweetness, bitterness and astringency) and liking of the samples: liking was positively related to sweetness and negatively to bitterness and astringency in High and Moderate Sweet Likers, and the opposite in Inverted U-Shaped. Differences between clusters were found in age, gender and personality. Furthermore, the Inverted-U Shaped cluster was found to have overall healthier food behaviours and preferences, with higher liking and consumption of phenol-rich vegetables and beverages without added sugar. These findings point out the importance of identifying the individual sensory-liking patterns in order to develop more effective strategies to promote the acceptability of healthy phenol-rich foods.

Demographic, Behavioural and Anthropometric Correlates of Food Liking: A Cross-sectional Analysis of Young Adults

The degree to which foods are liked or disliked is associated with dietary intake and health behaviours. However, most food liking research has focused on single foods and nutrients and few studies have examined associations with demographics and health behaviours. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the association between food liking and socio-demographics, health behaviours, diet quality and body mass index (BMI) in a sample of young Australian adults. Data from 1728 undergraduate students (21.8 (standard deviation [SD] 6.0) years; 76% female) were used. Food liking scores and a diet quality index (Dietary Guideline Index, DGI) were estimated from a Food Liking Questionnaire and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), respectively. Multivariate linear regression analyses were used to assess the association between food liking and correlates. Young adults with higher liking for encouraged core foods were older, female, did their own food shopping, consumed less packaged foods and had better diet quality. Higher liking for discretionary foods and beverages was associated with less healthy behaviours, such as smoking, higher BMI and lower diet quality. These results suggest that food liking measures may offer an appropriate methodology for understanding influences on young adults' food choices, adding to the body of literature investigating the potential for food liking scores to assess diet-disease relationships.

The Association between Salt Taste Perception, Mediterranean Diet and Metabolic Syndrome: A Cross-Sectional Study

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a widespread disorder and an important public health challenge. The purpose of this study was to identify the association between salt taste perception, Mediterranean diet and MetS. This cross-sectional study included 2798 subjects from the general population of Dalmatia, Croatia. MetS was determined using the Joint Interim Statement definition, and Mediterranean diet compliance was estimated using Mediterranean Diet Serving Score. Salt taste perception was assessed by threshold and suprathreshold testing (intensity and hedonic perception). Logistic regression was used in the analysis, adjusting for important confounding factors. As many as 44% of subjects had MetS, with elevated waist circumference as the most common component (77%). Higher salt taste sensitivity (lower threshold) was associated with several positive outcomes: lower odds of MetS (OR = 0.69; 95% CI 0.52–0.92), lower odds for elevated waist circumference (0.47; 0.27–0.82), elevated fasting glucose or diabetes (0.65; 0.45–0.94), and reduced HDL cholesterol (0.59; 0.42–0.84), compared to the higher threshold group. Subjects with lower salt taste threshold were more likely to consume more fruit, and less likely to adhere to olive oil and white meat guidelines, but without a difference in the overall Mediterranean diet compliance. Salt taste intensity perception was not associated with any of the investigated outcomes, while salty solution liking was associated with MetS (OR = 1.85, CI 95% 1.02–3.35). This study identified an association between salt taste perception and MetS and gave a new insight into taste perception, nutrition, and possible health outcomes.

The Paradox Association between Smoking and Blood Pressure among Half Million Chinese People

Background: The association between smoking and blood pressure (BP) has been explored extensively, yet the results remain inconclusive. Using real-world evidence of a large Chinese population, we examine the effect of smoking on BP levels. Methods: We utilize half a million adults from the China Kadoorie Biobank (CKB) study with baseline sampling collected between 2004 and 2008. Multivariable linear regression analyses are used to estimate linear regression coefficients of smoking for systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Results: 459,815 participants (180,236 males and 279,579 females) are included in the analysis. Regular smoking is significantly associated with lower SBP (-0.57 mm Hg, p < 0.001) and DBP (-0.35 mm Hg, p < 0.001) when compared with non-smoking in men. Additionally, SBP and DBP decrease significantly among all groups of different smoking status in women (p < 0.001). Additionally, pack-years show negative associations with SBP and DBP in both men and women. Further analysis shows the interaction of smoking and alcohol consumption is associated with an increase of SBP and DBP (men: 2.38 mm Hg and 0.89 mm Hg; women: 5.21 mm Hg and 2.62 mm Hg) among co-regular smokers and regular drinkers when compared with regular smokers who are not exposed to alcohol consumption. Conclusions: A negative association between smoking and BP is observed. However, the interaction between smoking and alcohol consumption is associated with BP increase. The findings suggest the importance of considering smoking and alcohol consumption in BP control in addition to antihypertensive treatment in clinical and public health practice.

Determinants of Sweetness Preference: A Scoping Review of Human Studies

Factors associated with sweetness preference are multi-faceted and incredibly complex. A scoping review was undertaken to identify determinants of sweetness preference in humans. Using an online search tool, ProQuest ™, a total of 99 publications were identified and subsequently grouped into the following categories of determinants: Age, dietary factors, reproductive hormonal factors, body weight status, heritable, weight loss, sound, personality, ethnicity and lifestyle, previous exposure, disease, and 'other' determinants. Methodologies amongst studies were heterogenous in nature (e.g., there was variability across studies in the sweetness concentrations tested, the number of different sweetness concentrations used to assess sweetness preference, and the methods utilized to measure sweetness preference), rendering interpretation of overall findings challenging; however, for certain determinants, the evidence appeared to support predictive capacity of greater sweetness preference, such as age during certain life-stages (i.e., young and old), being in a hungry versus satiated state, and heritable factors (e.g., similar sweetness preferences amongst family members). Recommendations for the design of future studies on sweetness preference determinants are provided herein, including an "investigator checklist" of criteria to consider.

According, against, and above dietary norms: a key to understanding the relationship between personality style and taste preferences

BACKGROUND

Understanding individual food preferences is critical for creating tailored strategies that promote healthy individual eating behaviors. Individual sensory liking appears to be an essential determinant of dietary intake. Taste preferences influence satisfaction and satiety, and may consequently influence weight status and psychological adjustment. The purpose of this study was to identify the association between taste preferences (sweet, salty, sweet & fatty, salty & fatty) and personality features.

METHODS

The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III) was used for the assessment of personality traits and PrefQuest (PQ) was used for measuring recalled food preferences. A total of 137 participants were included in the study. The relationship between compulsive and antisocial features and taste preferences was assessed by hierarchical multiple linear regression, while controlling for age, gender, BMI, marital status, and educational level.

RESULTS

The antisocial personality traits were a negative explanatory variable for sweet & fatty taste preference, R 2 = .15, t(132) =  - 2.40, p = .018, 95% [-.57, -.06] and salty & fatty taste preference, R 2 = .16, t(133) =  - 2.38, p = .019, 95% [-.07, -.01], while controlling for anthropological factors. In addition, men showed a higher preference than women for sweet & fatty food, such as chocolate or desserts, r sp  = .19, p = .021, and for the salty & fatty food, r sp  = .30, p < .001. BMI was not found to moderate the relationship between personality and taste preference. No significant association was found between compulsive personality traits and food preference, as assessed by sensory liking.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings can bring a much better understanding of the relationship between the compulsive or antisocial personality and taste preferences. In addition, it may help build psychotherapeutic and nutritional strategies that promote healthy eating behaviors, tailored to a particular personality style.

Relationship between sensory liking for fat, sweet or salt and cardiometabolic diseases: mediating effects of diet and weight status

PURPOSE

Previous works have been suggested that individual sensory liking is a predictor of dietary intake and weight status, and may consequently influence development of cardiometabolic diseases (CMDs). We investigated the association between sensory liking for fat-and-salt, fat-and-sweet, sweet or salt and the onset of hypertension, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) over 6 years in adults, and the mediating effects of dietary intake and body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

We examined the CMDs risk among 41,332 (for CVD and diabetes) and 37,936 (for hypertension) French adults (NutriNet-Santé cohort). Liking scores, individual characteristics, diet and anthropometry were assessed at baseline using questionnaires. Health events were collected during 6 years. Associations between sensory liking and CMDs risk, and the mediating effect of diet and BMI, were assessed using Cox proportional hazards models.

RESULTS

Sensory liking for fat-and-salt was associated with an increased risk of diabetes, hypertension and CVD [hazard ratios (HR) for 1-point increment of the sensory score: HR 1.30 (95% CI 1.18, 1.43), HR 1.08 (1.04, 1.13) and HR 1.10 (1.02, 1.19), respectively]. BMI and dietary intake both explained 93%, 98% and 70%, of the overall variation of liking for fat-and-salt liking in diabetes, hypertension and CVD, respectively. Liking for fat-and-sweet and liking for salt were also associated with an increased risk of diabetes [HR 1.09 (1.01, 1.17) and HR 1.09 (1.01, 1.18), respectively], whereas liking for sweet was associated with a decreased risk [HR 0.76 (0.69, 0.84)].

CONCLUSIONS

Higher liking for fat-and-salt is significantly associated with CMDs risk, largely explained by dietary intake and BMI. Our findings may help to guide effective targeted measures in prevention.

Quantifying Sweet Taste Liker Phenotypes: Time for Some Consistency in the Classification Criteria

Taste hedonics is a well-documented driver of food consumption. The role of sweetness in directing ingestive behavior is largely rooted in biology. One can then intuit that individual differences in sweet-liking may constitute an indicator of variations in the susceptibility to diet-related health outcomes. Despite half a century of research on sweet-liking, the best method to identify the distinct responses to sweet taste is still debated. To help resolve this issue, liking and intensity ratings for eight sucrose solutions ranging from 0 to 1 M were collected from 148 young adults (29% men). Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) revealed three response patterns: a sweet-liker (SL) phenotype characterized by a rise in liking as concentration increased, an inverted U-shaped phenotype with maximum liking at 0.25 M, and a sweet-disliker (SD) phenotype characterized by a decline in liking as a function of concentration. Based on sensitivity and specificity analyses, present data suggest the clearest discrimination between phenotypes is seen with 1.0 M sucrose, where a liking rating between -15 and +15 on a -50/+50 scale reliably distinguished individuals with an inverted U-shaped response from the SLs and the SDs. If the efficacy of this approach is confirmed in other populations, the discrimination criteria identified here can serve as the basis for a standard method for classifying sweet taste liker phenotypes in adults.

Dietary sources of salt intake in adults and older people: a population-based study in a Brazilian town

OBJECTIVE

To assess salt intake and its dietary sources using biochemical and self-report methods and to characterize salt intake according to sociodemographic and disease-related variables in a sample of the Brazilian population.

DESIGN

Population-based cross-sectional survey.

SETTING

Salt intake was assessed by biochemical (24 h urinary Na excretion) and self-report methods (sodium FFQ, 24 h dietary recall, seasoned-salt questionnaire, discretionary-salt questionnaire and total reported salt intake).ParticipantsAdults and older people (n 517) aged 20-80 years, living in Artur Nogueira, São Paulo, Brazil.

RESULTS

Mean salt intake based on 24 h urinary Na excretion and total reported salt intake was 10·5 and 11·0 g/d, respectively; both measures were significantly correlated. Discretionary salt and seasoned salt were the most important sources of salt intake (68·2 %). Men in the study consumed more salt than women as estimated by 24 h urinary Na excretion (11·7 v. 9·6 g salt/d; P&lt;0·0001). Participants known to be hypertensive added more salt to their meals but consumed less salty ultra-processed foods. Waist circumference in both sexes and BMI were positively correlated with salt intake estimated by 24 h urinary Na excretion. In addition, regression analysis revealed that being a young male or having a high waist circumference was a predictor of higher salt intake.

CONCLUSIONS

Salt intake in this population was well above the recommended amount. The main source of salt intake came from salt added during cooking. Salt intake varied according to sex and waist circumference.

Taste loss in the elderly: Possible implications for dietary habits

Aging may coincide with a declining gustatory function that can affect dietary intake and ultimately have negative health consequences. Taste loss is caused by physiological changes and worsened by events often associated with aging, such as polypharmacy and chronic disease. The most pronounced increase in elderly people's detection threshold has been observed for sour and bitter tastes, but their perception of salty, sweet, and umami tastes also seems to decline with age. It has often been suggested that elderly people who lose their sense of taste may eat less food or choose stronger flavors, but the literature has revealed a more complicated picture: taste loss does not appear to make elderly people prefer stronger flavors, but nutrition surveys have pointed to a greater consumption of sweet and salty foods. Real-life eating habits thus seem to be more influenced by other, social and psychological factors. Elderly gustatory function is worth investigating to identify dietary strategies that can prevent the consequences of unhealthy eating habits in the elderly. This paper discusses age-related changes in taste perception, focusing on their consequences on food preferences, and pointing to some strategies for preserving appropriate dietary habits in elderly people.

Development and Validation of the Food Liking Questionnaire in a French-Canadian Population

The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire assessing food liking in a French-Canadian population. A questionnaire was developed, in which participants were asked to rate their degree of liking of 50 food items. An expert panel evaluated the content validity. For the validation study, 150 men and women completed the questionnaire twice. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed to assess the number of subscales of the questionnaire. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the subscales were evaluated. Concurrent validity was assessed through correlations between liking scores and self-reported frequencies of consumption. Comments from the experts led to changes in the list of foods included in the questionnaire. The EFA revealed a two-factor structure for the questionnaire (i.e., savory and sweet foods) and led to the removal of nine items, resulting in a 32-item questionnaire. The two subscales revealed good internal consistency (Cronbach alphas: 0.85 and 0.89) and test-retest reliability (p = 0.84 and 0.86). The questionnaire demonstrated adequate concurrent validity, with moderate correlations between food liking and self-reported frequency of consumption (r = 0.19–0.39, ps < 0.05). This new Food Liking Questionnaire assessing liking of a variety of savory and sweet foods demonstrated good psychometric properties in every validation step. This questionnaire will be useful to explore the role of food liking and its interactions with other factors in predicting eating behaviors and energy intake.

Effect of Salt Reduction on Consumer Acceptance and Sensory Quality of Food

Reducing salt (NaCl) intake is an important public health target. The food industry and catering services are searching for means to reduce the salt content in their products. This review focuses on options for salt reduction in foods and the sensory evaluation of salt-reduced foods. Simple salt reduction, mineral salts and flavor enhancers/modifiers (e.g., umami compounds) are common options for salt reduction. In addition, the modification of food texture and odor-taste interactions may contribute to enhanced salty taste perception. Maintaining consumer acceptance of the products is a challenge, and recent examples of the consumer perception of salt-reduced foods are presented.

Associations between liking for fat, sweet or salt and obesity risk in French adults: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Individual sensory liking appears to be an important determinant of dietary intake and may consequently influence weight status. Cross-sectional studies have shown positive association between fat liking and weight status and equivocal results regarding salt and sweet liking. Moreover, the contribution of dietary intake to explain this relationship has not been studied yet. We investigated the prospective association between sensory liking for fat, sweet or salt and the onset of obesity over 5 years in adults, and the mediating effect of dietary intake.

METHODS

We prospectively examine the risk of obesity among 24,776 French adults participating in the NutriNet-Santé cohort study. Liking scores and dietary data were assessed at baseline using a validated web-based questionnaire and 24 h records, respectively. Self-reported anthropometric data were collected using web-based questionnaire, each year during 5 years. Associations between quartiles of liking for fat, sweet or salt and obesity risk, and the mediating effect of diet were assessed by multivariate Cox proportional hazards models stratified by gender, adjusted for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors.

RESULTS

In both genders, sensory liking for fat was associated with an increased risk of obesity (hazard ratios for quartile 4 compared to quartile 1, men: HR(Q4vs.Q1) = 2.39 (95% CI 1.39,4.11) P-trend = 0.0005, women: HR(Q4vs.Q1) = 2.02 (1.51,2.71) P-trend = <0.0001). Dietary intake explained 32% in men and 52% in women of the overall variation of liking for fat in obesity. Sensory liking for sweet was associated with a decreased risk of obesity (men: HR(Q4vs.Q1) = 0.51 (0.31,0.83) P-trend = 0.01, women: HR(Q4vs.Q1) = 0.72 (0.54,0.96) P-trend = 0.035). No significant association between salt liking and the risk of obesity was found.

CONCLUSIONS

Unlike sweet and salt liking, higher liking for fat appears to be a major risk factor of obesity, largely explained by dietary intake. Our findings emphasize the need to centrally position sensory liking in obesity prevention.

Genetic Variation in the TAS2R38 Bitter Taste Receptor and Gastric Cancer Risk in Koreans

The human TAS2R38 gene encodes a bitter taste receptor that regulates the bitterness perception and differentiation of ingested nutritional/poisonous compounds in the oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract. TAS2R38 gene variants are associated with alterations in individual sensitivity to bitter taste and food intake; hence, these genetic variants may modify the risk for diet-related diseases, including cancer. However, little is known about the association between TAS2R38 polymorphisms and gastric cancer susceptibility. The present case-control study examined the influence of TAS2R38 polymorphisms on food intake and determined whether they predict gastric cancer risk in Koreans. A total of 1,580 subjects, including 449 gastric cancer cases, were genotyped for TAS2R38 A49P, V262A, I296V and diplotypes. Dietary data were analysed to determine the total consumption of energy, fibre, vegetables, fruits, sweets, fats, alcohol and cigarettes. TAS2R38 diplotype was not associated with food, alcohol or cigarette consumption, either independent or dependent of gastric cancer phenotype. However, the PAV/AVI diplotype significantly increased gastric cancer risk (adjusted odds ratio: 1.513; 95% confidence interval: 1.148–1.994) independent of dietary intake. Findings suggest that TAS2R38 may be associated with the risk for gastric cancer in Koreans, although the TAS2R38 diplotype did not influence dietary intake.

Associations Between Excessive Sodium Intake and Smoking and Alcohol Intake Among Korean Men: KNHANES V

In this study, we evaluated the associations of smoking and alcohol intake, both independently and collectively, with sodium intake in Korean men. Subjects (6340 men) were from the fifth Korean National Health Examination Survey (2010-2012). Smoking-related factors included smoking status, urinary cotinine level, and pack-years of smoking. Food intake was assessed using a 24-h recall. The odds of excessive sodium intake were estimated using survey logistic regression analysis. The smoking rate was 44.1%. The geometric mean of the urinary cotinine level was 0.05 µg/mL, and the median (min-max) pack-years of smoking was 13.2 (0-180). When adjusted for related factors, the odds (95% confidence interval) of excessive sodium intake were 1.54 (1.00, 2.37), 1.55 (1.23, 1.94), 1.44 (1.07, 1.95), and 1.37 (1.11, 1.68) times higher in the group exposed to smoking and drinking than in the group that never smoked nor drank, the group that never smoked and drank <5 times per month, the group that did not currently smoke and never drank, and the group that did not currently smoke or drink <5 times per month, respectively. There was an interaction effect between smoking and alcohol intake (p-interaction = 0.02). The results suggest that simultaneous exposure to smoking and alcohol intake is associated with increased odds of excessive sodium intake.

Liking, salt taste perception and use of table salt when consuming reduced-salt chicken stews in light of South Africa's new salt regulations

This study investigated the impact of salt reduction on liking, salt taste perception, and use of table salt when consuming chicken stew in light of South Africa's new salt recommendations. In total, 432 South-African consumers (aged 35.2 ± 12.3 years) consumed a full portion of a chicken stew meal once at a central location. Four stock cube powders varying in salt content were used to prepare chicken stews: 1) no reduction - 2013 Na level; regular salt level as currently available on the South African market (24473 mg Na/100 g), 2) salt reduction smaller than 2016 level, i.e. 10%-reduced (22025 mg Na/100 g), 3) 2016 salt level, as per regulatory prescriptions (18000 mg Na/100 g), 4) 2019 salt level, as per regulatory prescriptions (13000 mg Na/100 g). Consumers were randomly allocated to consume one of the four meals. Liking, salt taste perception, and use of table salt and pepper were measured. Chicken stews prepared with reduced-salt stock powders were equally well-liked as chicken stews with the current salt level. Moreover, a gradual reduction of the salt in the chicken stews resulted in a reduced salt intake, up to an average of 19% for the total group compared to the benchmark 2013 Na level stew. However, 19% of consumers compensated by adding salt back to full compensation in some cases. More salt was added with increased reductions of salt in the meals, even to the point of full compensation. Further investigation into the impacts of nutrition communication and education about salt reduction on salt taste perception and use is needed. This research provides new consumer insights on salt use and emphasises the need for consumer-focused behaviour change approaches, in addition to reformulation of products.

Salivary Composition Is Associated with Liking and Usual Nutrient Intake

Salivary flow and composition have an impact on flavor perception. However, very few studies have explored the relationship between saliva, individual liking and usual dietary intake. The aim of our study was to evaluate the association of salivary flow and composition with both a liking for fat, saltiness and sweetness and the usual nutrient intake in an adult French population. Liking for fat, saltiness, and sweetness were inferred from liking scores obtained during hedonic tests on 32 food products among 282 French adults participating in the Nutrinet-Santé Study. Before assessing liking, resting saliva was collected. Standard biochemical analyses were performed to assess specific component concentrations and enzymatic activities. Dietary data were collected using three web-based 24h records. Relationships between salivary flow and composition, sensory liking and nutrient intake were assessed using linear regression. Total antioxidant capacity was positively associated with simple carbohydrate intake (β = 31.3, 95% CI = 1.58; 60.99) and inversely related to complex carbohydrate consumption (β = -52.4, 95% CI = -87.51; -19.71). Amylolysis was positively associated with both total (β = 0.20, 95% CI = 0.01; 0.38) and simple carbohydrate intake (β = 0.21, 95% CI = 0.01; 0.39). Salivary flow was positively associated with liking for fat (β = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.03; 0.25). Proteolysis was positively associated with liking for saltiness and for fat (β = 0.31, 95% CI = 0.02; 0.59; β = 0.28, 95% CI = 0.01; 0.56, respectively). Amylolysis was inversely associated with liking for sweetness (β = -10.13, 95% CI = -19.51; -0.75). Carbonic anhydrase 6 was inversely associated with liking for saltiness (β = -46.77, 95% CI = -86.24; -7.30). Saliva does not substantially vary according to a usual diet, except for carbohydrate intake, whereas the specific association between salivary flow/composition and sensory liking suggests the influence of saliva characteristics in food acceptance.