The Rho/MRTF pathway inhibitor CCG-222740 reduces stellate cell activation and modulates immune cell populations in KrasG12D; Pdx1-Cre (KC) mice

The stromal reaction in pancreatic cancer creates a physical barrier that blocks therapeutic intervention and creates an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The Rho/myocardin-related transcription factor (MRTF) pathway is implicated in the hyper-activation of fibroblasts in fibrotic diseases and the activation of pancreatic stellate cells. In this study we use CCG-222740, a small molecule, designed as a Rho/MRTF pathway inhibitor. This compound decreases the activation of stellate cells in vitro and in vivo, by reducing the levels of alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression. CCG-222740 also modulates inflammatory components of the pancreas in KC mice (LSL-KrasG12D/+; Pdx-1-Cre) stimulated with caerulein. It decreases the infiltration of macrophages and increases CD4 T cells and B cells. Analysis of the pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDA) TCGA dataset revealed a correlation between elevated RhoA, RhoC and MRTF expression and decreased survival in PDA patients. Moreover, a MRTF signature is correlated with a Th2 cell signature in human PDA tumors.

Expression of orphan GPR56 correlates with tumor progression in human epithelial ovarian cancer

G protein-coupled receptor 56 (GPR56) has been demonstrated to be a significant prognostic predictor in several types of malignances, including melanoma, glioblastoma, breast cancer, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer. GPR56 has a putative mucin-like extracellular domain, indicating functions for this receptor in the cell-cell interactions and triggering different downstream signaling pathways responsible for regulating cell survival, proliferation, adhesion, and migration. But the expression and clinical significance of GPR56 has not been elucidated in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). We detected GPR56 expression by immunohistochemistry in 110 samples of ovarian serous carcinoma to explore the correlation between its expression and clinicopathologic characteristics and overall survival. As the result, we found that GPR56 expression is significantly associated with advanced FIGO stage (P = 0.01) and positive lymph node invasion (P = 0.016), and it serves as an independent unfavorable prognostic factor through univariate and multivariate analysis. GPR56 knockdown could dramatically decrease the proliferation and invasion of epithelial ovarian cancer cells through down-regulating the RhoA-GTP level and up-regulating the E-cadherin level, which indicates GPR56 could promote the progression and invasion of EOC. In conclusion, GPR56 expression was demonstrated as an independent prognostic factor in EOC, suggesting that GPR56 may play an oncogenic role through the Rho and E-cadherin pathway and GPR56 could be a novel potential drug target in EOC.

p190RhoGAPs, the ARHGAP35- and ARHGAP5-Encoded Proteins, in Health and Disease

Small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) gathered in the Rat sarcoma (Ras) superfamily represent a large family of proteins involved in several key cellular mechanisms. Within the Ras superfamily, the Ras homolog (Rho) family is specialized in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton-based mechanisms. These proteins switch between an active and an inactive state, resulting in subsequent inhibiting or activating downstream signals, leading finally to regulation of actin-based processes. The On/Off status of Rho GTPases implicates two subsets of regulators: GEFs (guanine nucleotide exchange factors), which favor the active GTP (guanosine triphosphate) status of the GTPase and GAPs (GTPase activating proteins), which inhibit the GTPase by enhancing the GTP hydrolysis. In humans, the 20 identified Rho GTPases are regulated by over 70 GAP proteins suggesting a complex, but well-defined, spatio-temporal implication of these GAPs. Among the quite large number of RhoGAPs, we focus on p190RhoGAP, which is known as the main negative regulator of RhoA, but not exclusively. Two isoforms, p190A and p190B, are encoded by ARHGAP35 and ARHGAP5 genes, respectively. We describe here the function of each of these isoforms in physiological processes and sum up findings on their role in pathological conditions such as neurological disorders and cancers.

PLK1 plays dual roles in centralspindlin regulation during cytokinesis

Cytokinesis begins upon anaphase onset. An early step involves local activation of the small GTPase RhoA, which triggers assembly of an actomyosin-based contractile ring at the equatorial cortex. Here, we delineated the contributions of PLK1 and Aurora B to RhoA activation and cytokinesis initiation in human cells. Knock-down of PRC1, which disrupts the spindle midzone, revealed the existence of two pathways that can initiate cleavage furrow ingression. One pathway depends on a well-organized spindle midzone and PLK1, while the other depends on Aurora B activity and centralspindlin at the equatorial cortex and can operate independently of PLK1. We further show that PLK1 inhibition sequesters centralspindlin onto the spindle midzone, making it unavailable for Aurora B at the equatorial cortex. We propose that PLK1 activity promotes the release of centralspindlin from the spindle midzone through inhibition of PRC1, allowing centralspindlin to function as a regulator of spindle midzone formation and as an activator of RhoA at the equatorial cortex.

Cytoskeletal alteration modulates cancer cell invasion through RhoA-YAP signaling in stromal fibroblasts

Cancer-associated fibroblasts(CAFs) participate in carcinogenesis through interaction with cancer cells. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of cytoskeletal alteration of CAFs and its role in invasion of oral squamous cell carcinoma(OSCC).Immortalized normal fibroblasts(hTERT-hNOFs) co-cultured with OSCC cells showed myofibroblastic and senescent phenotypes like CAFs. Thus, this study substituted hTERT-hNOFs for CAFs. Next, the cytoskeletal alteration and its molecular mechanism were investigated in hTERT-hNOFs co-cultured with OSCC. As results, we found that RhoA regulated cytoskeletal organization in fibroblasts surrounding OSCC cells. Furthermore, as a downstream transcriptional factor of RhoA, YAP was mainly localized in the nucleus of hTERT-hNOFs co-cultured with OSCC. Consequently, we examined whether nuclear YAP localization of fibroblasts could influence cancer progression. YAPS127A fibroblasts manifesting nuclear localization of YAP induced cytoskeletal alteration and increased gel contractility and matrix stiffness, and thereby enhances the invasiveness of OSCC cells. In conclusion, the modification of tumor microenvironment, such as cytoskeletal change and matrix remodeling via RhoA-YAP in CAFs, modulates OSCC invasion. These understandings will provide the development of novel approaches for CAFs-based cancer therapy.

Rewiring of RSK-PDZ Interactome by Linear Motif Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation of short linear peptide motifs is a widespread process for the dynamic regulation of protein-protein interactions. However, the global impact of phosphorylation events on the protein-protein interactome is rarely addressed. The disordered C-terminal tail of ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (RSK1) binds to PDZ domain-containing scaffold proteins, and it harbors a phosphorylatable PDZ-binding motif (PBM) responsive to epidermal growth factor stimulation. Here, we examined binding of two versions of the RSK1 PBM, either phosphorylated or unphosphorylated at position -3, to almost all (95%) of the 266 PDZ domains of the human proteome. PBM phosphorylation dramatically altered the PDZ domain-binding landscape of RSK1, by strengthening or weakening numerous interactions to various degrees. The RSK-PDZome interactome analyzed in this study reveals how linear motif-based phospho-switches convey stimulus-dependent changes in the context of related network components.

Hypoxia suppresses myofibroblast differentiation by changing RhoA activity

Fibroblasts show a high range of phenotypic plasticity, including transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts are responsible for generation of the contraction forces that are important for wound healing and scar formation. Overactive myofibroblasts, by contrast, are involved in abnormal scarring. Cell stretching and extracellular signals such as transforming growth factor β can induce the myofibroblastic program, whereas microenvironmental conditions such as reduced tissue oxygenation have an inhibitory effect. We investigated the effects of hypoxia on myofibroblastic properties and linked this to RhoA activity. Hypoxia reversed the myofibroblastic phenotype of primary fibroblasts. This was accompanied by decreased αSMA (ACTA2) expression, alterations in cell contractility, actin reorganization and RhoA activity. We identified a hypoxia-inducible induction of ARHGAP29, which is critically involved in myocardin-related transcription factor-A (MRTF-A) signaling, the differentiation state of myofibroblasts and modulates RhoA activity. This novel link between hypoxia and MRTF-A signaling is likely to be important for ischemia-induced tissue remodeling and the fibrotic response.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Influence of miR-26b on hepatic cirrhosis and portal pressure in rats with cirrhotic portal hypertension by targeting hENT1 depending on RhoA/ROCK-1 pathway

OBJECTIVE

To explore the regulatory effect of micro ribonucleic acid-26b (miR-26b) on rat models of cirrhotic portal hypertension and the underlying mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Common bile duct ligation (BDL) was applied to establish rat models. A total of 30 male Wistar rats were randomly divided into sham operation group (Sham group), operation group (BDL group) and miR-26b intervention group (miR-26b mimic group). Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining assay was performed to detect pathological characteristics of rat liver tissues in each group. The portal venous pressure in each group was then determined. The levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in rat serum were measured via serological test. Kits were used to detect serum levels of hyaluronic acid (HA), procollagen III peptide (PCIII) and laminin (LN) in rats. Western blotting was utilized to detect the protein levels of human equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (hENT1), ras homolog gene family, member A (RhoA) and Rho-associated coiled-coil-containing kinase protein-1 (Rock-1).

RESULTS

In comparison with Sham group, BDL group had significantly increased portal venous pressure and protein levels of hENT1, RhoA and ROCK-1, and elevated levels of AST, ALT, HA, PCIII and LN in rats. Compared with those in BDL group, the portal venous pressure and protein levels of hENT1, RhoA and ROCK-1 were overtly reduced, while the levels of AST, ALT, HA, PCIII and LN declined in miR-26b mimic group.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-26b mimics played a role in the treatment of rats with cirrhotic portal hypertension by targeting hENT1 to inhibit the RhoA/ROCK-1 signaling pathway.

RhoA Pathway and Actin Regulation of the Golgi/Centriole Complex

In vertebrate cells, the Golgi apparatus is located in close proximity to the centriole. The architecture of the Golgi/centriole complex depends on a multitude of factors, including the actin filament cytoskeleton. In turn, both the Golgi and centriole act as the actin nucleation centers. Actin organization and polymerization also depend on the small GTPase RhoA pathway. In this chapter, we summarize the most current knowledge on how the genetic, magnetic, or pharmacologic interference with RhoA pathway and actin cytoskeleton directly or indirectly affects architecture, structure, and function of the Golgi/centriole complex.

La-Related Protein 4 as a Suppressor for Motility of Ovarian Cancer Cells

The La-related proteins (LARPs) are a family of RNA binding proteins that control the degradation and stabilization of RNAs. As emerging research reveals the biology of each LARP, it is evident that LARPs are dysregulated in some types of cancer. Upregulation of cell motility potentiates the metastatic potential of ovarian cancer cells; however, the roles of LARPs in cell motility remain unknown. In the present study, we investigated the roles of LARPs in the progression of ovarian cancer using SKOV3 human ovarian cancer cells and a public database that integrates microarray-based gene expression data and clinical data. To explore the involvement of LARPs in the cell motility, we performed RNA interference screening for LARP mRNAs in SKOV3 cells. The screening identified LARP4 as a potential suppressor of the formation of lamellipodia. Conversely, enforced expression of LARP4 suppressed the formation of lamellipodia. Moreover, cell migration was significantly increased in LARP4-depleted SKOV3 cells. Mechanistically, LARP4 depletion was associated with the decrease in RhoA protein expression. These results suggest that LARP4 may limit RhoA-dependent cell motility. In a mouse xenograft model with SKOV3 cells, LARP4 depletion potentiated peritoneal metastasis. Upon analysis of a public database of patients with ovarian cancer, the LARP4 mRNA-high expression group (n = 166) showed longer overall survival compared with the LARP4 mRNA-low expression group (n = 489), implying a positive correlation of LARP4 mRNA levels in ovarian cancer tissues with patient prognosis. Taken together, we propose that LARP4 could suppress motility and metastatic potential of ovarian cancer cells.

Class II PI3Ks α and β Are Required for Rho-Dependent Uterine Smooth Muscle Contraction and Parturition in Mice

Class II phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks), PI3K-C2α and PI3K-C2β, are highly homologous and distinct from class I and class III PI3Ks in catalytic products and domain structures. In contrast to class I and class III PI3Ks, physiological roles of PI3K-C2α and PI3K-C2β are not fully understood. Because we previously demonstrated that PI3K-C2α is involved in vascular smooth muscle contraction, we studied the phenotypes of smooth muscle-specific knockout (KO) mice of PI3K-C2α and PI3K-C2β. The pup numbers born from single PI3K-C2α-KO and single PI3K-C2β-KO mothers were similar to those of control mothers, but those from double KO (DKO) mothers were smaller compared with control mice. However, the number of intrauterine fetuses in pregnant DKO mothers was similar to that in control mice. Both spontaneous and oxytocin-induced contraction of isolated uterine smooth muscle (USM) strips was diminished in DKO mice but not in either of the single KO mice, compared with control mice. Furthermore, contraction of USM of DKO mice was less sensitive to a Rho kinase inhibitor. Mechanistically, the extent of oxytocin-induced myosin light chain phosphorylation was greatly reduced in USM from DKO mice compared with control mice. The oxytocin-induced rise in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in USM was similar in DKO and control mice. However, Rho activation in the intracellular compartment was substantially attenuated in DKO mice compared with control mice, as evaluated by fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging technique. These data indicate that both PI3K-C2α and PI3K-C2β are required for normal USM contraction and parturition mainly through their involvement in Rho activation.

PKCε Inhibits Neuronal Dendritic Spine Development through Dual Phosphorylation of Ephexin5

Protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent mechanisms promote synaptic function in the mature brain. However, the roles of PKC signaling during synapse development remain largely unknown. Investigating each brain-enriched PKC isoform in early neuronal development, we show that PKCε acutely and specifically reduces the number of dendritic spines, sites of eventual synapse formation on developing dendrites. This PKCε-mediated spine suppression is temporally restricted to immature neurons and mediated through the phosphorylation and activation of Ephexin5, a RhoA guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) and inhibitor of hippocampal synapse formation. Our data suggest that PKCε acts as an early developmental inhibitor of dendritic spine formation, in contrast to its emerging pro-synaptic roles in mature brain function. Moreover, we identify a substrate of PKCε, Ephexin5, whose early-elevated expression in developing neurons may in part explain the mechanism by which PKCε plays seemingly opposing roles that depend on neuronal maturity.

TGF-β-induced IOP elevations are mediated by RhoA in the early but not the late fibrotic phase of open angle glaucoma

Purpose

Elevations in intraocular pressure (IOP) are associated with the development of glaucoma and loss of sight. High transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) 1 levels in the eye's anterior chamber can lead to dysfunctional contractions through RhoA signaling in trabecular meshwork (TM) cells and IOP spikes. Sustained high TGF-β levels leads to TM fibrosis and sustained increases in IOP. We investigated whether inhibiting RhoA, using a siRNA-mediated RhoA (siRhoA), controls IOP by altering TM expression of fibrosis and contractility-related proteins in a rodent model of glaucoma.

Methods

TGF-β was injected intracamerally twice a week into adult Sprague Dawley rats, and IOP was recorded with tonometry. Animals were euthanized on day 7 and 35 with TM expression of fibrosis and contractility-related proteins, as well as survival of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) assessed with immunohistochemistry. siRNA against RhoA or enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was also injected intracamerally into select animals. Successful RhoA knockdown was determined with quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry, and the effects of the knockdown on the parameters above analyzed.

Results

TGF-β caused increased TM contractile proteins and IOP spikes by day 7, sustained increases in IOP from day 15, and TM fibrosis at day 35. siRhoA abolished the transient 7 day IOP rise but not the later sustained IOP increase (due to fibrosis). At 35 days, TGF-β-related RGC loss was not prevented with siRhoA treatment.

Conclusions

We conclude that RhoA signaling mediates the early IOP rise induced by TM cellular changes associated with contractility but not the sustained IOP elevation caused by TM fibrosis. Thus, RhoA therapies offer a clinically relevant opportunity for IOP management, likely through the modulation of TM contractility, but appear to be ineffective in the amelioration of fibrosis.

Downregulation of C-Terminal Tensin-Like Protein (CTEN) Suppresses Prostate Cell Proliferation and Contributes to Acinar Morphogenesis

C-terminal tensin-like protein (CTEN) is a member of tensin family, which is crucial for the assembly of cell-matrix adhesome. Unlike other tensins, CTEN is selectively expressed only in a few tissues such as the prostate. However, the biological relevance of CTEN in normal prostate is poorly understood. In this study, we revealed that CTEN is selectively expressed in the prostate epithelial cells and enriched in the basal compartment. Knockdown of CTEN in RWPE-1 cells suppresses cell proliferation and results in G1/S cell cycle arrest as well as the accumulation of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, p21 and p27. Moreover, the expression of CTEN is decreased during acinar morphogenesis using Matrigel-based three-dimensional (3D) culture. In the course of acinar formation, induction of CTEN reactivates focal adhesion kinase (FAK) Y³⁹⁷ phosphorylation and disrupts the acini structure. This study, to our knowledge, is the first report demonstrating that downregulation of CTEN is required for luminal differentiation and acinar formation.

A Mechanosensitive RhoA Pathway that Protects Epithelia against Acute Tensile Stress

Adherens junctions are tensile structures that couple epithelial cells together. Junctional tension can arise from cell-intrinsic application of contractility or from the cell-extrinsic forces of tissue movement. Here, we report a mechanosensitive signaling pathway that activates RhoA at adherens junctions to preserve epithelial integrity in response to acute tensile stress. We identify Myosin VI as the force sensor, whose association with E-cadherin is enhanced when junctional tension is increased by mechanical monolayer stress. Myosin VI promotes recruitment of the heterotrimeric Gα12 protein to E-cadherin, where it signals for p114 RhoGEF to activate RhoA. Despite its potential to stimulate junctional actomyosin and further increase contractility, tension-activated RhoA signaling is necessary to preserve epithelial integrity. This is explained by an increase in tensile strength, especially at the multicellular vertices of junctions, that is due to mDia1-mediated actin assembly.

Folic acid inhibits colorectal cancer cell migration

We recently showed that folic acid (FA) could decrease the proliferation rate of colorectal cancer cells in vitro and reduce the volume of COLO-205 tumor in vivo. Since cancer cell proliferation and migration are two major events during cancer development, we further examined whether FA could also affect the migration of colorectal cancer cells. Transwell invasion assays demonstrated that FA reduced the invasion ability of colorectal cancer cell lines, COLO-205, LoVo and HT-29. Using COLO-205 as a cell model, we further delineated the molecular mechanism underlying FA-inhibited colorectal cancer cell invasion. Western blot analyses showed that FA (10 μM) activated cSrc, ERK1/2, NFκB, and p27 at serine 10 (Ser10), and up-regulated p53, p27, and KIS protein. Subcellular fractionation illustrated that FA treatment increased cytosolic translocation of p27, formation of the p27-RhoA complex, and RhoA degradation. The FA-induced migration inhibition in COLO-205 was abolished by blockade of the cSrc or ERK1/2 activity, knockdown of p27 or KIS using the siRNA technique, or over-expression of a constitutive active RhoA cDNA. Our results suggest that FA up-regulated p27 through increasing the cSrc/ERK1/2/NFκB/p53-mediated pathway. In the nucleus, FA up-regulated KIS, which in turn increased p27 phosphorylation at serine 10 (Ser10), subsequently resulting in cytosolic translocation of p27 and forming the p27-RhoA complex, thereby causing RhoA degradation, and eventually inhibited COLO-205 cell migration. Together with our previous findings suggest that FA reduced colorectal cancer development through inhibiting colorectal cancer cell proliferation and migration.

CLOCK and BMAL1 stabilize and activate RHOA to promote F-actin formation in cancer cells

Circadian genes control most of the physiological functions in cancer cells, including cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. The CLOCK and BMAL1 complex plays a central role in circadian rhythms. Previous studies have shown that circadian genes may act as oncogenes or tumor-suppressor genes. In addition, F-actin, regulated by RHOA, has been shown to participate in tumor progression. However, the roles of the CLOCK and BMAL1 genes in the regulation of tumor progression via the RHOA-ROCK-CFL pathway remain largely unclear. Here we first indicate that the rearrangement of F-actin is regulated by CLOCK and BMAL1. We found that CLOCK and BMAL1 can upregulate RHOA expression by inhibiting CUL3-mediated ubiquitination and activate RHOA by reducing the interaction between RHOA and RhoGDI. Consequently, CLOCK and BMAL1 control the expression of the components of the RHOA-ROCK-CFL pathway, which alters the dynamics of F-actin/G-actin turnover and promotes cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. In conclusion, our research proposes a novel insight into the role of CLOCK and BMAL1 in tumor cells.

Nanofibers Regulate Single Bone Marrow Stem Cell Osteogenesis via FAK/RhoA/YAP1 Pathway

Understanding cell-material interactions is a prerequisite for the development of bio-inspired materials for tissue regeneration. While nanofibrous biomaterials have been widely used in tissue regeneration, the effects of nanofibrous architecture on stem cell behaviors are largely ambiguous because the previous biomaterial systems used for nanofiber-cell interactions could not exclude the interference of cell-cell interactions. In this study, we developed a unique micropatterning technology to confine one single stem cell in a microisland of the nanofibrous micropatterned matrix; therefore, eliminating any potential intercellular communications. The nanofibrous micropatterned matrix, which mimicked both the physical architecture and chemical composition of natural extracellular matrix, was fabricated by a combination of electrospinning, chemical crosslinking, and UV-initiated photolithography. Compared to the non-nanofibrous architecture, a bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) cultured on the nanofibrous microisland exhibited a more in vivo-like morphology, a smaller spreading area, less focal adhesion, and fewer stress fibers. The BMSC cultured on the nanofibrous microisland also had higher alkaline phosphatase activity, indicating nanofibrous architecture promoted BMSC differentiation. A mechanistic study reveals that nanofibers regulate single BMSC osteogenesis via the FAK/RhoA/YAP1 pathway. The nanofibrous micropatterned matrix developed in this study is an excellent platform to promote the fundamental understanding of cell-matrix interactions, ultimately provide valuable insights for the development of novel bio-inspired scaffolds for tissue regeneration.

RhoA/ROCK-2 Pathway Inhibition and Tight Junction Protein Upregulation by Catalpol Suppresses Lipopolysaccaride-Induced Disruption of Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability

Lipopolysaccaride (LPS) directly or indirectly injures brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) and damages the intercellular tight junction that gives rise to altered blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Catalpol plays a protective role in LPS-induced injury, but whether catalpol protects against LPS-caused damage of BBB permeability and the underlying mechanism remain to be delineated. Prophylactic protection with catalpol (5 mg/kg, i.v.) consecutively for three days reversed the LPS-induced damage of BBB by decreased Evans Blue (EB) leakage and restored tight junctions in C57 mice. Besides, catalpol co-administrated with LPS increased BMECs survival, decreased their endothelin-1, TNF-Α and IL-6 secretion, improved transmembrane electrical resistance in a time-dependent manner, and in addition increased the fluorescein sodium permeability coefficient of BMECs. Also, transmission electron microscopy showed catalpol protective effects on tight junctions. Fluorescence staining displayed that catalpol reversed the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton protein F-actin and upregulated the tight junction protein of claudin-5 and ZO-1, which have been further demonstrated by the mRNA and protein expression levels of ZO-1, ZO-2, ZO-3, claudin-5, and occludin. Moreover, catalpol concurrently downregulated the mRNA and protein levels of RhoA, and ROCK2, the critical proteins in the RhoA/ROCK2 signaling pathway. This study thus indicated that catalpol, via inhibition of the RhoA/ROCK2 signaling pathway, reverses the disaggregation of cytoskeleton actin in BMECs and prevents down-regulation of junctional proteins, such as claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1, and decreases endothelin-1 and inflammatory cytokine secretion, eventually alleviating the increase in LPS-induced BBB permeability.

Bone marrow stromal cells from low-turnover osteoporotic mouse model are less sensitive to the osteogenic effects of fluvastatin

This study aimed to investigate the effects of fluvastatin on the differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) into osteoblasts in senescence-accelerated mouse prone 6 (SAMP6) compared with that in the normal senescence-accelerated-resistant mouse (SAMR1) model. SAMP strains arose spontaneously from the AKR/J background and display shortened life span and an array of signs of accelerated aging, compared with control SAMR strains. The dose effects of fluvastatin were also evaluated. BMSCs were cultured with/without fluvastatin (0 μM, 0.1 μM, 0.5 μM, and 1.0 μM). WST-1-based colorimetry was performed to evaluate cell proliferation. To evaluate cell differentiation, gene expression levels of bmp2 and runx2 were determined by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and protein expression levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (BMP2) and immunofluorescence staining (BMP2 and Runx2). Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity assay and histochemical detection were determined; the effect of noggin, a BMP-specific antagonist, was examined using ALP histochemical detection. To assess for mature osteogenic marker, gene expression levels of bglap2 were determined by qRT-PCR and mineralization was determined by alizarin red staining. RhoA activity was also examined by Western blotting. In SAMP6, BMP2, Runx2 and Bglap2 mRNA and protein expressions were significantly increased by fluvastatin, and ALP activity was increased by BMP2 action. RhoA activity was also inhibited by fluvastatin. The concentration of fluvastatin sufficient to increase BMP2 and Runx2 expression and ALP activity was 0.5 μM in SAMP6 and 0.1 μM in SAMR1. In conclusion, the present study revealed that fluvastatin promoted BMSC differentiation into osteoblasts by RhoA-BMP2 pathway in SAMP6. BMSCs of SAMP6 are less sensitive to the osteogenic effects of fluvastatin than SAMR1.

Dysregulation in Actin Cytoskeletal Organization Drives Increased Stiffness and Migratory Persistence in Polyploidal Giant Cancer Cells

Polyploidal giant cancer cells (PGCCs) have been observed by pathologists in patient tumor samples and are especially prominent in late stage, high grade disease or after chemotherapy. However, they are often overlooked due to their apparent dormancy. Recent research has shown PGCCs to be chemoresistant and express stem-like features, traits associated with disease progression and relapse. Here, we show the preferential survival of PGCCs during Paclitaxel (PTX) treatment and used multiple particle tracking analysis to probe their unique biophysical phenotype. We show that PGCCs have higher inherent cytoplasmic and nuclear stiffness in order to withstand the mechanical stress associated with their increased size and the chemical stress from PTX treatment. Inhibitor studies show the involvement of a dysregulated RhoA-Rock1 pathway and overall actin cytoskeletal network as the underlying mechanism for the altered biophysical phenotype of PGCCs. Furthermore, PGCCs exhibit a slow but persistent migratory phenotype, a trait commonly associated with metastatic dissemination and invasiveness. This work demonstrates the clinical relevance and the need to study this subpopulation, in order to devise therapeutic strategies to combat disease relapse. By highlighting the unique biophysical phenotype of PGCCs, we hope to provide unique avenues for therapeutic targeting of these cells in disease treatment.

The Gαq/11-provoked induction of Akr1c18 in murine luteal cells is mediated by phospholipase C

Towards the end of gestation prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) stimulates the expression of Akr1c18 in the murine corpus luteum. Akr1c18 codes for 20α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, an enzyme that precipitates parturition by catabolizing progesterone. Previous results from our laboratory have shown that this effect of PGF2α is mediated by the activation of Gα_q/11, but the downstream effector(s) of Gα_q/11 that elicit the increase in Akr1c18 expression have not been identified. The physiological effects of Gα_q/11 are mediated by its ability to interact with phospholipase Cβ, p63RhoGEF, and PKCζ. In the experiments described herein we used biochemical and pharmacological approaches, as well as adenoviral-mediated expression of a constitutively active form of Gα_q and mutants thereof, to examine the role of each of these effectors as potential mediators of the increased expression of luteal Akr1c18. By measuring the effects of PGF2α on the activation of RhoA (activated by p63RhoGEF) and the effects of activators and inhibitors of RhoA on the PGF2α-induced expression of luteal Akr1c18, we determined that RhoA is neither activated by PGF2α or involved in the PGF2α-induced expression of luteal Akr1c18. The potential involvement of PKCζ was ruled out by the inability of a mutant of a constitutively active Gα_q that prevents PKCζ binding to block the increased expression of Akr1c18. Furthermore, PGF2α does not increase the phosphorylation of ERK-5, the only known downstream target of PKCζ. On the other hand, three different mutants of a constitutively active Gα_q that prevent phospholipase C activation blocked the induction of luteal Akr1c18. We conclude that the induction of luteal Akr1c18 by Gα_q/11 is mediated by the activation of phospholipase C.

Simulated Microgravity Reduces Focal Adhesions and Alters Cytoskeleton and Nuclear Positioning Leading to Enhanced Apoptosis via Suppressing FAK/RhoA-Mediated mTORC1/NF-κB and ERK1/2 Pathways

Simulated-microgravity (SMG) promotes cell-apoptosis. We demonstrated that SMG inhibited cell proliferation/metastasis via FAK/RhoA-regulated mTORC1 pathway. Since mTORC1, NF-κB, and ERK1/2 signaling are important in cell apoptosis, we examined whether SMG-enhanced apoptosis is regulated via these signals controlled by FAK/RhoA in BL6-10 melanoma cells under clinostat-modelled SMG-condition. We show that SMG promotes cell-apoptosis, alters cytoskeleton, reduces focal adhesions (FAs), and suppresses FAK/RhoA signaling. SMG down-regulates expression of mTORC1-related Raptor, pS6K, pEIF4E, pNF-κB, and pNF-κB-regulated Bcl2, and induces relocalization of pNF-κB from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In addition, SMG also inhibits expression of nuclear envelope proteins (NEPs) lamin-A, emerin, sun1, and nesprin-3, which control nuclear positioning, and suppresses nuclear positioning-regulated pERK1/2 signaling. Moreover, rapamycin, the mTORC1 inhibitor, also enhances apoptosis in cells under 1 g condition via suppressing the mTORC1/NF-κB pathway. Furthermore, the FAK/RhoA activator, toxin cytotoxic necrotizing factor-1 (CNF1), reduces cell apoptosis, restores the cytoskeleton, FAs, NEPs, and nuclear positioning, and converts all of the above SMG-induced changes in molecular signaling in cells under SMG. Therefore, our data demonstrate that SMG reduces FAs and alters the cytoskeleton and nuclear positioning, leading to enhanced cell apoptosis via suppressing the FAK/RhoA-regulated mTORC1/NF-κB and ERK1/2 pathways. The FAK/RhoA regulatory network may, thus, become a new target for the development of novel therapeutics for humans under spaceflight conditions with stressed physiological challenges, and for other human diseases.

Interplay of cell-cell contacts and RhoA/MRTF-A signaling regulates cardiomyocyte identity

Cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions guide organ development and homeostasis by controlling lineage specification and maintenance, but the underlying molecular principles are largely unknown. Here, we show that in human developing cardiomyocytes cell-cell contacts at the intercalated disk connect to remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton by regulating the RhoA-ROCK signaling to maintain an active MRTF/SRF transcriptional program essential for cardiomyocyte identity. Genetic perturbation of this mechanosensory pathway activates an ectopic fat gene program during cardiomyocyte differentiation, which ultimately primes the cells to switch to the brown/beige adipocyte lineage in response to adipogenesis-inducing signals. We also demonstrate by in vivo fate mapping and clonal analysis of cardiac progenitors that cardiac fat and a subset of cardiac muscle arise from a common precursor expressing Isl1 and Wt1 during heart development, suggesting related mechanisms of determination between the two lineages.

Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of the genes encoding the small GTPases RhoA, RhoB, and RhoC: implications for the pathogenesis of human diseases

Rho GTPases are highly conserved proteins that play critical roles in many cellular processes including actin dynamics, vesicular trafficking, gene transcription, cell-cycle progression, and cell adhesion. The main mode of regulation of Rho GTPases is through guanine nucleotide binding (cycling between an active GTP-bound form and an inactive GDP-bound form), but transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational modes of Rho regulation have also been described. In the present review, we summarize recent progress on the mechanisms that control the expression of the three members of the Rho-like subfamily (RhoA, RhoB, and RhoC) at the level of gene transcription as well as their post-transcriptional regulation by microRNAs. We also discuss the progress made in deciphering the mechanisms of cross-talk between Rho proteins and the transforming growth factor β signaling pathway and their implications for the pathogenesis of human diseases such as cancer metastasis and fibrosis.

TGF-β1 Evokes Human Airway Smooth Muscle Cell Shortening and Hyperresponsiveness via Smad3

Transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), a cytokine whose levels are elevated in the airways of patients with asthma, perpetuates airway inflammation and modulates airway structural cell remodeling. However, the role of TGF-β1 in excessive airway narrowing in asthma, or airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), remains unclear. In this study, we set out to investigate the direct effects of TGF-β1 on human airway smooth muscle (HASM) cell shortening and hyperresponsiveness. The dynamics of AHR and single-cell excitation-contraction coupling were measured in human precision-cut lung slices and in isolated HASM cells using supravital microscopy and magnetic twisting cytometry, respectively. In human precision-cut lung slices, overnight treatment with TGF-β1 significantly augmented basal and carbachol-induced bronchoconstriction. In isolated HASM cells, TGF-β1 increased basal and methacholine-induced cytoskeletal stiffness in a dose- and time-dependent manner. TGF-β1-induced single-cell contraction was corroborated by concomitant increases in myosin light chain and myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 phosphorylation levels, which were attenuated by small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of Smad3 and pharmacological inhibition of Rho kinase. Strikingly, these physiological effects of TGF-β1 occurred through a RhoA-independent mechanism, with little effect on HASM cell [Ca2+]i levels. Together, our data suggest that TGF-β1 enhances HASM excitation-contraction coupling pathways to induce HASM cell shortening and hyperresponsiveness. These findings reveal a potential link between airway injury-repair responses and bronchial hyperreactivity in asthma, and define TGF-β1 signaling as a potential target to reduce AHR in asthma.

RhoA activation in axotomy-induced neuronal death

After spinal cord injury (SCI) in mammals, severed axons fail to regenerate, due to both extrinsic inhibitory factors, e.g., the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) and myelin-associated growth inhibitors (MAIs), and a developmental loss of intrinsic growth capacity. The latter is suggested by findings in lamprey that the 18 pairs of individually identified reticulospinal neurons vary greatly in their ability to regenerate their axons through the same spinal cord environment. Moreover, those neurons that are poor regenerators undergo very delayed apoptosis, and express common molecular markers after SCI. Thus the signaling pathways for retrograde cell death might converge with those inhibiting axon regeneration. Many extrinsic growth-inhibitory molecules activate RhoA, whereas inhibiting RhoA enhances axon growth. Whether RhoA also is involved in retrograde neuronal death after axotomy is less clear. Therefore, we cloned lamprey RhoA and correlated its mRNA expression and activation state with apoptosis signaling in identified reticulospinal neurons. RhoA mRNA was expressed widely in normal lamprey brain, and only slightly more in poorly-regenerating neurons than in good regenerators. However, within a day after spinal cord transection, RhoA mRNA was found in severed axon tips. Beginning at 5 days post-SCI RhoA mRNA was upregulated selectively in pre-apoptotic neuronal perikarya, as indicated by labelling with fluorescently labeled inhibitors of caspase activation (FLICA). After 2 weeks post-transection, RhoA expression decreased in the perikarya, and was translocated anterogradely into the axons. More striking than changes in RhoA mRNA levels, RhoA was continuously active selectively in FLICA-positive neurons through 9 weeks post-SCI. At that time, almost no neurons whose axons had regenerated were FLICA-positive. These findings are consistent with a role for RhoA activation in triggering retrograde neuronal death after SCI, and suggest that RhoA may be a point of convergence for inhibition of both axon regeneration and neuronal survival after axotomy.

Calsenilin, a Presenilin Interactor, Regulates RhoA Signaling and Neurite Outgrowth

Calsenilin modulates A-type potassium channels, regulates presenilin-mediated γ-secretase activity, and represses prodynorphin and c-fos genes expression. RhoA is involved in various cellular functions including proliferation, differentiation, migration, transcription, and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. Although recent studies demonstrate that calsenilin can directly interact with RhoA and that RhoA inactivation is essential for neuritogenesis, it is uncertain whether there is a link between calsenilin and RhoA-regulated neuritogenesis. Here, we investigated the role of calsenilin in RhoA-regulated neuritogenesis using in vitro and in vivo systems. We found that calsenilin induced RhoA inactivation, which accompanied RhoA phosphorylation and the reduced phosphorylation levels of LIM kinase (LIMK) and cofilin. Interestingly, PC12 cells overexpressing either full-length (FL) or the caspase 3-derived C-terminal fragment (CTF) of calsenilin significantly inactivated RhoA through its interaction with RhoA and p190 Rho GTPase-activating protein (p190RhoGAP). In addition, cells expressing FL and the CTF of calsenilin had increased neurite outgrowth compared to cells expressing the N-terminal fragment (NTF) of calsenilin or vector alone. Moreover, Tat-C3 and Y27632 treatment significantly increased the percentage of neurite-bearing cells, neurite length, and the number of neurites in cells. Finally, calsenilin deficiency in the brains of calsenilin-knockout mice significantly interfered with RhoA inactivation. These findings suggest that calsenilin contributes to neuritogenesis through RhoA inactivation.

Fasudil improves endothelial dysfunction in rats exposed to chronic intermittent hypoxia through RhoA/ROCK/NFATc3 pathway

Endothelial dysfunction is one of the main pathological changes in Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). The Rho kinase (ROCK) pathway is associated with endothelial dysfunction. However, the interaction between ROCK and nuclear factor of activated T cells isoform c3 (NFATc3) in the development of this pathological response under chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) is unclear. To simulate the OSA model, we established a moderate CIH rat model by administering the fraction of inspired O2 (FiO2) from 21% to 9%, 20 times/h, 8 h/day for 3 weeks. Fasudil (ROCK inhibitor, 8 mg/kg/d, i.p.) was administrated in the rats exposed to CIH for 3 weeks. Our results demonstrated that CIH caused significantly endothelial dysfunction, accompanying with increased ET-1 level, decreased eNOS expression and NO production, which reduced ACh-induced vascular relaxation responses. Moreover, RhoA/ROCK-2/NFATc3 expressions were up-regulated. Fasudil significantly improved CIH induced endothelial dysfunction. Data suggested that the ROCK activation is necessary for endothelial dysfunction during CIH.

Direct regulation of p190RhoGEF by activated Rho and Rac GTPases

Rho family GTPases regulate a wide range of cellular processes. This includes cellular dynamics where three subfamilies, Rho, Rac, and Cdc42, are known to regulate cell shape and migration though coordinate action. Activation of Rho proteins largely depends on Rho Guanine nucleotide Exchange Factors (RhoGEFs) through a catalytic Dbl homology (DH) domain linked to a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain that subserves various functions. The PH domains from Lbc RhoGEFs, which specifically activate RhoA, have been shown to bind to activated RhoA. Here, p190RhoGEF is shown to also bind Rac1·GTP. Crystal structures reveal that activated Rac1 and RhoA use their effector-binding surfaces to associate with the same hydrophobic surface on the PH domain. Both activated RhoA and Rac1 can stimulate exchange of nucleotide on RhoA by localization of p190RhoGEF to its substrate, RhoA·GDP, in vitro. The binding of activated RhoA provides a mechanism for positive feedback regulation as previously proposed for the family of Lbc RhoGEFs. In contrast, the novel interaction between activated Rac1 and p190RhoGEF reveals a potential mechanism for cross-talk regulation where Rac can directly effect stimulation of RhoA. The greater capacity of Rac1 to stimulate p190RhoGEF among the Lbc RhoGEFs suggests functional specialization.

Dissection of Glomerular Transcriptional Profile in Patients With Diabetic Nephropathy: SRGAP2a Protects Podocyte Structure and Function

Podocytes play a pivotal role in maintaining glomerular filtration function through their interdigitated foot processes. However, the mechanisms that govern the podocyte cytoskeletal rearrangement remain unclear. Through analyzing the transcriptional profile of renal biopsy specimens from patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN) and control donors, we identify SLIT-ROBO ρGTPase-activating protein 2a (SRGAP2a) as one of the main hub genes strongly associated with proteinuria and glomerular filtration in type 2 DN. Immunofluorescence staining and Western blot analysis revealed that human and mouse SRGAP2a is primarily localized at podocytes and largely colocalized with synaptopodin. Moreover, podocyte SRGAP2a is downregulated in patients with DN and db/db mice at both the mRNA and the protein level. SRGAP2a reduction is observed in cultured podocytes treated with tumor growth factor-β or high concentrations of glucose. Functional and mechanistic studies show that SRGAP2a suppresses podocyte motility through inactivating RhoA/Cdc42 but not Rac1. The protective role of SRGAP2a in podocyte function also is confirmed in zebrafish, in which knockdown of SRGAP2a, a SRGAP2 ortholog in zebrafish, recapitulates podocyte foot process effacement. Finally, increasing podocyte SRGAP2a levels in db/db mice through administration of adenovirus-expressing SRGAP2a significantly mitigates podocyte injury and proteinuria. The results demonstrate that SRGAP2a protects podocytes by suppressing podocyte migration.

Attenuation of TNF-induced neutrophil adhesion by simvastatin is associated with the inhibition of Rho-GTPase activity, p50 activity and morphological changes

Neutrophil adhesion to the vasculature in response to potent inflammatory stimuli, such as TNF-α (TNF), can contribute to atheroprogression amongst other pathophysiological mechanisms. Previous studies have shown that simvastatin, a statin with known pleiotropic anti-inflammatory properties, can partially abrogate the effects of TNF-induced neutrophil adhesion, in association with the modulation of β₂-integrin expression. We aimed to further characterize the effects of this statin on neutrophil and leukocyte adhesive mechanisms in vitro and in vivo. A microfluidic assay confirmed the ability of simvastatin to inhibit TNF-induced human neutrophil adhesion to fibronectin ligand under conditions of shear stress, while intravital imaging microscopy demonstrated an abrogation of leukocyte recruitment by simvastatin in the microvasculature of mice that had received a TNF stimulus. This inhibition of neutrophil adhesion was accompanied by the inhibition of TNF-induced RhoA activity in human neutrophils, and alterations in cell morphology and β₂-integrin activity. Additionally, TNF augmented the activity of the p50 NFκB subunit in human neutrophils and TNF-induced neutrophil adhesion and β₂-integrin activity could be abolished using pharmacological inhibitors of NFκB translocation, BAY11-7082 and SC514. Accordingly, the TNF-induced elevation of neutrophil p50 activity was abolished by simvastatin. In conclusion, our data provide further evidence of the ability of simvastatin to inhibit neutrophil adhesive interactions in response to inflammatory stimuli, both in vivo and in vitro. Simvastatin appears to inhibit neutrophil adhesion by interfering in TNF-induced cytoskeletal rearrangements, in association with the inhibition of Rho A activity, NFκB translocation and, consequently, β₂-integrin activity.

1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Ameliorates Seawater Aspiration-Induced Lung Injury By Inhibiting The Translocation Of NF-κB and RhoA

Our previous study have reported that 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) suppresses seawater aspiration-induced ALI in vitro and in vivo. We also have confirmed that treatment with calcitriol ameliorates seawater aspiration-induced inflammation and pulmonary edema via the inhibition of NF-κB and RhoA/Rho kinase pathway activation. In our further work, we investigated the effect of calcitriol on nuclear translocation of NF-κB and membrane translocation of RhoA in vitro. A549 cells and rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (RPMVECs) were cultured with calcitriol or not for 48 h and then stimulated with 25% seawater for 40 min. After these treatments, cells were collected and performed with immunofluorescent staining to observe the translocation of NF-κB and RhoA and the cytoskeleton remodeling. In vitro, seawater stimulation activates nuclear translocation of NF-κB and membrane translocation of RhoA in A549 cells. In addition, seawater administration also induced cytoskeleton remodeling in A549 cells and RPMVECs. However, pretreatment with calcitriol significantly inhibited the activation of NF-κB and RhoA/Rho kinase pathways, as demonstrated by the reduced nuclear translocation of NF-κB and membrane translocation of RhoA in A549 cells. Meanwhile, treatment of calcitriol also regulated the cytoskeleton remodeling in both A549 cells and RPMVECs. These results demonstrated that treatment with calcitriol ameliorates seawater aspiration-induced ALI via inhibition of nuclear translocation of NF-κB and membrane translocation of RhoA and protection of alveolar epithelial and pulmonary microvascular endothelial barrier.

Gαq/p63RhoGEF interaction in RhoA/Rho kinase signaling: investigation in Gitelman's syndrome and implications with hypertension

PURPOSE

Gitelman's syndrome (GS) presents normo-hypotension and absence of cardiovascular-renal remodeling despite high angiotensin II (Ang II), activation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and is a human model of endogenous antagonism of Ang II signaling, opposite to hypertension. GS's clinical presentation leads to questions regarding what features might be responsible. One area of investigation involves Ang II signaling. In hypertensive patients, RhoA/Rho kinase (RhoA/ROCK) pathway activation by Ang II is involved in hypertension development/maintenance and induction of long-term consequences (cardiovascular-renal remodeling), while GS has reduced p63RhoGEF gene and protein levels and ROCK activity. Ang II signaling is mediated by Gαq, which interacts with p63RhoGEF via the α6-αN linker connecting p63RhoGEF's DH and PH domains acting as a conformational switch to activate RhoA/ROCK signaling.

METHODS

We have investigated in GS patients, the presence of mutations in either p63RhoGEF's α6-αN linker domain and in Gαq's Ala253, Trp263, and Tyr356 residues, crucial for p63RhoGEF-Gαq interplay.

RESULTS

No mutations have been found in specific aminoacids of p63RhoGEF α6-αN linker and Gαq, key for p63RhoGEF/Gαq interplay.

CONCLUSIONS

Gitelman's syndrome normo/hypotension and lack of cardiovascular-renal remodeling are not due to mutations of p63RhoGEF α6-αN linker and Gαq interactions. This opens the way for investigations on different coding and no-coding regions (p63RhoGEF and Gαq promoters) and on altered transcriptional/post-transcriptional regulation. Clarification of how these biochemical/molecular mechanisms work/interact would provide insights into mechanisms involved in the GS's Ang II signaling fine tuning, in human physiology/pathophysiology in general and could also identify significant targets for intervention in the treatments of hypertension.

Loss of RhoA promotes skin tumor formation and invasion by upregulation of RhoB

Cellular movement is controlled by small GTPases, such as RhoA. Although migration is crucial for cancer cell invasion, the specific role of RhoA in tumor formation is unclear. Inducing skin tumors in mice with a keratinocyte-restricted loss of RhoA, we observed increased tumor frequency, growth and invasion. In vitro invasion assays revealed that in the absence of RhoA cell invasiveness is increased in a Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) activation and cell contraction-dependent manner. Surprisingly, loss of RhoA causes increased Rho signaling via overcompensation by RhoB because of reduced lysosomal degradation of RhoB in Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor-associated protein (GABARAP)+ autophagosomes and endosomes. In the absence of RhoA, RhoB relocalized to the plasma membrane and functionally replaced RhoA with respect to invasion, clonogenic growth and survival. Our data demonstrate for the first time that RhoA is a tumor suppressor in 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate skin carcinogenesis and identify Rho signaling dependent on RhoA and RhoB as a potent driver of tumor progression.

RHOA G17V Induces T Follicular Helper Cell Specification and Promotes Lymphomagenesis

Angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma (AITL) is an aggressive tumor derived from malignant transformation of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. AITL is characterized by loss-of-function mutations in Ten-Eleven Translocation 2 (TET2) epigenetic tumor suppressor and a highly recurrent mutation (p.Gly17Val) in the RHOA small GTPase. Yet, the specific role of RHOA G17V in AITL remains unknown. Expression of Rhoa G17V in CD4⁺ T cells induces Tfh cell specification; increased proliferation associated with inducible co-stimulator (ICOS) upregulation and increased phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. Moreover, RHOA G17V expression together with Tet2 loss resulted in development of AITL in mice. Importantly, Tet2^-/-RHOA G17V tumor proliferation in vivo can be inhibited by ICOS/PI3K-specific blockade, supporting a driving role for ICOS signaling in Tfh cell transformation.

Isoprenoids and tau pathology in sporadic Alzheimer's disease

The mevalonate pathway has been described to play a key role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) physiopathology. Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) are nonsterol isoprenoids derived from mevalonate, which serve as precursors to numerous human metabolites. They facilitate protein prenylation; hFPP and hGGPP synthases act as gateway enzymes to the prenylation of the small guanosine triphosphate (GTP)ase proteins such as RhoA and cdc42 that have been shown to facilitate phospho-tau (p-Tau, i.e., protein tau phosphorylated) production in the brain. In this study, a significant positive correlation was observed between the synthases mRNA prevalence and disease status (FPPS, p < 0.001, n = 123; GGPPS, p < 0.001, n = 122). The levels of mRNA for hFPPS and hGGPPS were found to significantly correlate with the amount of p-Tau protein levels (p < 0.05, n = 34) and neurofibrillary tangle density (p < 0.05, n = 39) in the frontal cortex. Interestingly, high levels of hFPPS and hGGPPS mRNA prevalence are associated with earlier age of onset in AD (p < 0.05, n = 58). Together, these results suggest that accumulation of p-Tau in the AD brain is related, at least in part, to increased levels of neuronal isoprenoids.

Stress-activated MAPKs and CRM1 regulate the subcellular localization of Net1A to control cell motility and invasion

The neuroepithelial cell transforming gene 1A (Net1A, an isoform of Net1) is a RhoA subfamily guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that localizes to the nucleus in the absence of stimulation, preventing it from activating RhoA. Once relocalized in the cytosol, Net1A stimulates cell motility and extracellular matrix invasion. In the present work, we investigated mechanisms responsible for the cytosolic relocalization of Net1A. We demonstrate that inhibition of MAPK pathways blocks Net1A relocalization, with cells being most sensitive to JNK pathway inhibition. Moreover, activation of the JNK or p38 MAPK family pathway is sufficient to elicit Net1A cytosolic localization. Net1A relocalization stimulated by EGF or JNK activation requires nuclear export mediated by CRM1. JNK1 (also known as MAPK8) phosphorylates Net1A on serine 52, and alanine substitution at this site prevents Net1A relocalization caused by EGF or JNK activation. Glutamic acid substitution at this site is sufficient for Net1A relocalization and results in elevated RhoA signaling to stimulate myosin light chain 2 (MLC2, also known as MYL2) phosphorylation and F-actin accumulation. Net1A S52E expression stimulates cell motility, enables Matrigel invasion and promotes invadopodia formation. These data highlight a novel mechanism for controlling the subcellular localization of Net1A to regulate RhoA activation, cell motility, and invasion.

An AKAP-Lbc-RhoA interaction inhibitor promotes the translocation of aquaporin-2 to the plasma membrane of renal collecting duct principal cells

Stimulation of renal collecting duct principal cells with antidiuretic hormone (arginine-vasopressin, AVP) results in inhibition of the small GTPase RhoA and the enrichment of the water channel aquaporin-2 (AQP2) in the plasma membrane. The membrane insertion facilitates water reabsorption from primary urine and fine-tuning of body water homeostasis. Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) interact with RhoA, catalyze the exchange of GDP for GTP and thereby activate the GTPase. However, GEFs involved in the control of AQP2 in renal principal cells are unknown. The A-kinase anchoring protein, AKAP-Lbc, possesses GEF activity, specifically activates RhoA, and is expressed in primary renal inner medullary collecting duct principal (IMCD) cells. Through screening of 18,431 small molecules and synthesis of a focused library around one of the hits, we identified an inhibitor of the interaction of AKAP-Lbc and RhoA. This molecule, Scaff10-8, bound to RhoA, inhibited the AKAP-Lbc-mediated RhoA activation but did not interfere with RhoA activation through other GEFs or activities of other members of the Rho family of small GTPases, Rac1 and Cdc42. Scaff10-8 promoted the redistribution of AQP2 from intracellular vesicles to the periphery of IMCD cells. Thus, our data demonstrate an involvement of AKAP-Lbc-mediated RhoA activation in the control of AQP2 trafficking.

Neural Crest Stem-Like Cells Non-genetically Induced from Human Gingiva-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Promote Facial Nerve Regeneration in Rats

Non-genetic induction of somatic cells into neural crest stem-like cells (NCSCs) is promising for potential cell-based therapies for post-traumatic peripheral nerve regeneration. Here, we report that human gingiva-derived mesenchymal stem cells (GMSCs) could be reproducibly and readily induced into NCSCs via non-genetic approaches. Compared to parental GMSCs, induced NCSC population had increased expression in NCSC-related genes and displayed robust differentiation into neuronal and Schwann-like cells. Knockdown of the expression of Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1), a critical mechanosensor and mechanotransducer, attenuated the expression of NCSC-related genes; specific blocking of RhoA/ROCK activity and non-muscle myosin II (NM II)-dependent contraction suppressed YAP1 and NCSC-related genes and concurrently abolished neural spheroid formation in NCSCs. Using a rat model of facial nerve defect, implantation of NCSC-laden nerve conduits promoted functional regeneration of the injured nerve. These promising findings demonstrate that induced NCSCs derived from GMSCs represent an easily accessible and promising source of neural stem-like cells for peripheral nerve regeneration.

Zerumbone targets the CXCR4-RhoA and PI3K-mTOR signaling axis to reduce motility and proliferation of oral cancer cells

BACKGROUND

The CXCR4-RhoA and PI3K-mTOR signaling pathways play crucial roles in the dissemination and tumorigenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Activation of these pathways have made them promising molecular targets in the treatment of OSCC. Zerumbone, a bioactive monocyclic sesquiterpene isolated from the rhizomes of tropical ginger, Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. has displayed promising anticancer properties with the ability to modulate multiple molecular targets involved in carcinogenesis. While the anticancer activities of zerumbone have been well explored across different types of cancer, the molecular mechanism of action of zerumbone in OSCC remains largely unknown.

PURPOSE

Here, we investigated whether OSCC cells were sensitive towards zerumbone treatment and further determined the molecular pathways involved in the mechanism of action.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity, anti-proliferative, anti-migratory and anti-invasive effects of zerumbone were tested on a panel of OSCC cell lines. The mechanism of action of zerumbone was investigated by analysing the effects on the CXCR4-RhoA and PI3K-mTOR pathways by western blotting.

RESULTS

Our panel of OSCC cells was broadly sensitive towards zerumbone with IC₅₀ values of less than 5 µM whereas normal keratinocyte cells were less responsive with IC₅₀ values of more than 25 µM. Representative OSCC cells revealed that zerumbone inhibited OSCC proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In addition, zerumbone treatment inhibited migration and invasion of OSCC cells, with concurrent suppression of endogenous CXCR4 protein expression in a time and dose-dependent manner. RhoA-pull down assay showed reduction in the expression of RhoA-GTP, suggesting the inactivation of RhoA by zerumbone. In association with this, zerumbone also inhibited the PI3K-mTOR pathway through the inactivation of Akt and S6 proteins.

CONCLUSION

We provide evidence that zerumbone could inhibit the activation of CXCR4-RhoA and PI3K-mTOR signaling pathways leading to the reduced cell viability of OSCC cells. Our results suggest that zerumbone is a promising phytoagent for development of new therapeutics for OSCC treatment.

Assessment of Basilar Artery Reactivity in Stroke and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Using Wire Myograph

Blood flow regulation of normal cerebral arteries is a critical and important factor to supply the brain tissue with nutrients and oxygen. Stroke insult results in a disruption or reduction in cerebral arteries' blood flow with subsequent brain tissue damage. Hemorrhagic stroke is one type of stroke and accounts for about 13 % of all of stroke insults. In this type of stroke, the cerebral artery breaks open and causes bleeding in or surrounding the brain. Subsequently, this bleeding causes blood vessels to constrict in a process called vasospasm, in which the vessels narrow and impede the blood flow to brain tissue. Hemorrhagic stroke is the major cause of prolonged constriction of cerebral arteries. This leads to partial brain damage and sometimes death in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Among the key delicate techniques to assess small blood vessel functionality is the wire myograph, which can be utilized in several cerebral injury models including stroke. The wire myograph is a device that provides information about the reactivity, stiffness, and elasticity of small blood vessels under isometric conditions. In this book chapter, we describe the techniques involved in wire myography assessment and the different measures and parameters recorded; we describe the utility of this technique in evaluating the effects of subarachnoid hemorrhage on basilar artery sensitivity to different agonists.

Identification and characterization of arginine finger-like motifs, and endosome-lysosome basolateral sorting signals within the Coxiella burnetii type IV secreted effector protein CirA

Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular pathogen that replicates in an endolysosome-like compartment termed the Coxiella-containing vacuole (CCV). Formation of this unique replicative niche requires delivery of bacterial effector proteins into the host cytosol where they mediate crucial interactions with the host. We previously identified an essential Dot/Icm effector, CirA that is required for intracellular replication and CCV formation. Furthermore, CirA was shown to stimulate the GTPase activity of RhoA in vitro. In the current study, we used a bioinformatics-guided approach and identified three arginine finger-like motifs, often found in Rho GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) and endosome-lysosome basolateral sorting signals associated with vesicle trafficking. When expressed in mammalian cells, mutation of either endosome-lysosome-basolateral sorting signals or the arginine finger-like motifs rescued stress phenotypes and decreased plasma membrane localization of ectopically expressed CirA. We further demonstrate that endosome-lysosome sorting signals are required for co-localization with Rab5 and Rab7. Collectively our data indicate that arginine finger-like motifs and endosome-lysosome-basolateral sorting signals within CirA are essential for interaction with the host cytoskeleton.

Modeling Rho GTPase Dynamics Using Boolean Logic

Rho GTPases such as the canonical Rac1 and RhoA are embedded within complex networks requiring the precise spatiotemporal balance of GEFs, GAPs, upstream regulators, growth factors, and downstream effectors. A modeling approach based on Boolean logical networks is becoming an increasingly relied-upon tool to harness this complexity and elucidate further details regarding Rho GTPase signaling. In this methods chapter we describe how to initially create appropriately sized networks based on literature evidence; formalize these networks with reactions based on Boolean logical operators; implement the network into appropriate simulation software (CellNetAnalyzer); and finally perform simulations and make novel, testable predictions via in silico knockouts. Given this predictive power, the Boolean approach may ultimately help to highlight potential future avenues of experimental research.

Hypoxia Suppresses TGF-B1-Induced Cardiac Myocyte Myofibroblast Transformation by Inhibiting Smad2/3 and Rhoa Signaling Pathways

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Hypoxia modulation of transforming growth factor (TGF)- β-induced signaling during myofibroblast transformation is dependent on the specific cell type. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of hypoxia on myofibroblast transformation of TGF-β1-induced cardiomyocyte H9c2 cells.

METHODS

H9c2 cells were cultured for intermittent hypoxia treatment and TGF-β1 treatment. α-Smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression was examined by western blotting and immunofluorescence after treatment. To further explore the possible mechanism for this effect, the effects of hypoxia on three early TGF-β-dependent signaling pathways, i.e. the Smad2/3, RhoA and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, were screened by western blotting.

RESULTS

Intermittent hypoxia induced TGF-β1 expression, but had no effect on α-SMA expression. Exogenous TGF-β1 alone upregulated α-SMA expression in H9c2 cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. α-SMA expression declined with the duration of hypoxia after intermittent hypoxia and exogenous TGF-β1 co-treatment. Phospho-JNK and phospho-p38 levels were not significantly altered after TGF-β1 and hypoxia treatment. However, levels of phospho-ERK increased after TGF-β1 treatment and continued to increase after hypoxia co-treatment. The activation of phospho-Smad2/3 and phospho-RhoA induced by TGFβ1 was significantly reduced after hypoxia co-treatment.

CONCLUSION

Hypoxia can inhibit TGF-β1-induced H9c2 myofibroblast transformation, based on inhibition of α-SMA expression by suppressing signaling downstream of TGF-β1, Smad2/3 and RhoA. It suggested that TGF-β-mediated cardiomyocyte transformation is not involved in hypoxia-mediated fibrosis.

Mechanisms of inactivation of the tumour suppressor gene RHOA in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Reduced RHOA signalling has been shown to increase the growth/metastatic potential of colorectal tumours. However, the mechanisms of inactivation of RHOA signalling in colon cancer have not been characterised.

METHODS

A panel of colorectal cancer cell lines and large cohorts of primary tumours were used to investigate the expression and activity of RHOA, as well as the presence of RHOA mutations/deletions and promoter methylation affecting RHOA. Changes in RHOA expression were assessed by western blotting and qPCR after modulation of microRNAs, SMAD4 and c-MYC.

RESULTS

We show here that RHOA point mutations and promoter hypermethylation do not significantly contribute to the large variability of RHOA expression observed among colorectal tumours. However, RHOA copy number loss was observed in 16% of colorectal tumours and this was associated with reduced RHOA expression. Moreover, we show that miR-200a/b/429 downregulates RHOA in colorectal cancer cells. In addition, we found that TGF-β/SMAD4 upregulates the RHOA promoter. Conversely, RHOA expression is transcriptionally downregulated by canonical Wnt signalling through the Wnt target gene c-MYC that interferes with the binding of SP1 to the RHOA promoter in colon cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate a complex pattern of inactivation of the tumour suppressor gene RHOA in colon cancer cells through genetic, transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms.

Pravastatin reduces thrombogenicity by mechanisms beyond plasma cholesterol lowering

Inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase are widely used in the management and prevention of cardiovascular disease. In addition to its major activity, plasma lipid lowering, statins have shown a wide spectrum of additional effects that may contribute to their benefits in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Our objective was to study whether treatment with a statin, pravastatin, could reduce thrombosis triggered by damaged vessels without changing plasma cholesterol levels. A cholesterol-clamp animal model was developed by feeding swine for 100 days on an hypercholesterolemic (HL) diet; in the last 50 days, they were randomly assigned to receive either placebo (HLC) or pravastatin (5mg . kg−1. day−1) (HLP) in addition to the hypercholesterolemic diet. A normocholesterolemic control group (NLC) was simultaneously studied. There were no significant differences in total cholesterol, LDL and HDL plasma levels between the two groups; however, mural thrombosis triggered by both an eroded and disrupted vessel wall was significantly inhibited by pravastatin (P<0.05). Axial dependence analysis of platelet deposition revealed that pravastatin treatment reduced the increase in platelet deposition associated to the shear rate increase at the stenosis. Additionally, pravastatin treatment significantly reduced platelet membrane RhoA expression (P <0.05) and vascular wall tissue factor (TF) protein expression (P <0.05). In addition to its lipid lowering effects, pravastatin can reduce blood thrombogenicity by mechanisms independent of plasma cholesterol lowering.

Simvastatin Inhibits Cell Proliferation and Migration in Human Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer

Malignant human anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) is pertinacious to conventional therapies. The present study investigated the anti-cancer activity of simvastatin and its underlying regulatory mechanism in cultured ATC cells. Simvastatin (0–20 μM) concentration-dependently reduced cell viability and relative colony formation. Depletions of mevalonate (MEV) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) by simvastatin induced G1 arrest and increased apoptotic cell populations at the sub-G1 phase. Adding MEV and GGpp prevented the simvastatin-inhibited cell proliferation. Immunoblotting analysis illustrated that simvastatin diminished the activation of RhoA and Rac1 protein, and this effect was prevented by pre-treatment with MEV and GGpp. Simvastatin increased the levels of p21^cip and p27^kip proteins and reduced the levels of hyperphosphorylated-Rb, E2F1 and CCND1 proteins. Adding GGpp abolished the simvastatin-increased levels of p27^kip protein, and the GGpp-caused effect was abolished by Skp2 inhibition. Introduction of Cyr61 siRNA into ATC cells prevented the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-enhanced cell migration. The EGF-induced increases of Cyr61 protein expression and cell migration were prevented by simvastatin. Taken together, these results suggest that simvastatin induced ATC proliferation inhibition through the deactivation of RhoA/Rac1 protein and overexpression of p21^cip and p27^kip, and migration inhibition through the abrogation of Cyr61 protein expression.

Neurodevelopmental disease-associated de novo mutations and rare sequence variants affect TRIO GDP/GTP exchange factor activity

Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, autism and intellectual disability are complex neurodevelopmental disorders, debilitating millions of people. Therapeutic progress is limited by poor understanding of underlying molecular pathways. Using a targeted search, we identified an enrichment of de novo mutations in the gene encoding the 330-kDa triple functional domain (TRIO) protein associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. By generating multiple TRIO antibodies, we show that the smaller TRIO9 isoform is the major brain protein product, and its levels decrease after birth. TRIO9 contains two guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domains with distinct specificities: GEF1 activates both Rac1 and RhoG; GEF2 activates RhoA. To understand the impact of disease-associated de novo mutations and other rare sequence variants on TRIO function, we utilized two FRET-based biosensors: a Rac1 biosensor to study mutations in TRIO (T)GEF1, and a RhoA biosensor to study mutations in TGEF2. We discovered that one autism-associated de novo mutation in TGEF1 (K1431M), at the TGEF1/Rac1 interface, markedly decreased its overall activity toward Rac1. A schizophrenia-associated rare sequence variant in TGEF1 (F1538Intron) was substantially less active, normalized to protein level and expressed poorly. Overall, mutations in TGEF1 decreased GEF1 activity toward Rac1. One bipolar disorder-associated rare variant (M2145T) in TGEF2 impaired inhibition by the TGEF2 pleckstrin-homology domain, resulting in dramatically increased TGEF2 activity. Overall, genetic damage to both TGEF domains altered TRIO catalytic activity, decreasing TGEF1 activity and increasing TGEF2 activity. Importantly, both GEF changes are expected to decrease neurite outgrowth, perhaps consistent with their association with neurodevelopmental disorders.