Gender differential effect of college on political orientation over the last 40 years in the U.S.-A propensity score weighting approach

It is well-known that the more educated people are, the more liberal views they tend to express. However, it is unclear whether this is due to college attendance itself or because those who go to college differ from those who do not in ways (directly or indirectly) related to their later political identification. In this paper, we therefore attempt to estimate the effect of college on political identification net of people's tendencies to select into college using an inverse probability of treatment weighting approach. Based on data from the General Social Survey, we analyze how this effect has changed over time and whether college affects the political identification of women in the same ways as that of men. We find evidence consistent with the argument that college attendance politicizes both men and women. Moreover, we show that not only the general, but also the gender specific effects change markedly across the decades. This raises questions about the different mechanisms at play in how college mobilizes men and women politically.

Observing many researchers using the same data and hypothesis reveals a hidden universe of uncertainty

This study explores how researchers' analytical choices affect the reliability of scientific findings. Most discussions of reliability problems in science focus on systematic biases. We broaden the lens to emphasize the idiosyncrasy of conscious and unconscious decisions that researchers make during data analysis. We coordinated 161 researchers in 73 research teams and observed their research decisions as they used the same data to independently test the same prominent social science hypothesis: that greater immigration reduces support for social policies among the public. In this typical case of social science research, research teams reported both widely diverging numerical findings and substantive conclusions despite identical start conditions. Researchers' expertise, prior beliefs, and expectations barely predict the wide variation in research outcomes. More than 95% of the total variance in numerical results remains unexplained even after qualitative coding of all identifiable decisions in each team's workflow. This reveals a universe of uncertainty that remains hidden when considering a single study in isolation. The idiosyncratic nature of how researchers' results and conclusions varied is a previously underappreciated explanation for why many scientific hypotheses remain contested. These results call for greater epistemic humility and clarity in reporting scientific findings.

Computational Social Science and Sociology

The integration of social science with computer science and engineering fields has produced a new area of study: computational social science. This field applies computational methods to novel sources of digital data such as social media, administrative records, and historical archives to develop theories of human behavior. We review the evolution of this field within sociology via bibliometric analysis and in-depth analysis of the following subfields where this new work is appearing most rapidly: (a) social network analysis and group formation; (b) collective behavior and political sociology; (c) the sociology of knowledge; (d) cultural sociology, social psychology, and emotions; (e) the production of culture; (f) economic sociology and organizations; and (g) demography and population studies. Our review reveals that sociologists are not only at the center of cutting-edge research that addresses longstanding questions about human behavior but also developing new lines of inquiry about digital spaces as well. We conclude by discussing challenging new obstacles in the field, calling for increased attention to sociological theory, and identifying new areas where computational social science might be further integrated into mainstream sociology.

Boundary violations and adolescent drinking: Observational evidence that symbolic boundaries moderate social influence

Scholars of social influence can benefit from attending to symbolic boundaries. A common and influential way to understand symbolic boundaries is as widely shared understandings of what types of behaviors, tastes, and opinions are appropriate for different kinds of people. Scholars following this understanding have mostly focused on how people judge others and how symbolic boundaries align with and thus reproduce social differences. Although this work has been impressive, I argue that it might miss important ways in which symbolic boundaries become effective in everyday social life. I therefore develop an understanding of how symbolic boundaries affect people's ideas and decisions about themselves and their own behavior. Based on this, I argue that focusing on boundary violations-that is, what happens if people express opinions or enact behavior that contravenes what is considered (in)appropriate for people like them-might offer an important way to understand how symbolic boundaries initiate and shape cultural and social change. Using data from Add Health, I demonstrate the utility of this line of argument and show that boundary violations play an important role in channeling social influence. Conservative/Evangelical Protestants and to a lesser degree Catholics, but not Mainline Protestants are highly influenced by the drinking of co-religionists. I consider the implications for cultural sociology.

Brincidofovir clearance of acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus-1 and adenovirus infection after stem cell transplantation

Infections with adenovirus (AdV) and herpesviruses can result in considerable morbidity and mortality in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant (SCT) recipients. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) reactivations are usually prevented by acyclovir (ACV) prophylaxis, whereas cidofovir (CDV) has been used off indication to manage AdV infections. We report a child with myelodysplastic syndrome undergoing multiple SCT, who experienced HSV-1 disease including severe mucositis and herpetic whitlow, as well as high viral load AdV DNAemia. Both ACV and CDV were ineffective; however, viral loads were decreased with brincidofovir, resulting in viral clearance. A subsequent Epstein-Barr virus disease with relevant meningoencephalitis responded to rituximab.

Performance of the MagNA Pure 96 system for cytomegalovirus nucleic acid amplification testing in clinical samples

This report shows the performance of MagNA Pure 96 automated nucleic acid extraction for the quantitative detection of cytomegalovirus DNA in clinical samples by real-time PCR. The obtained results demonstrate that this workflow is characterized by high sensitivity and linearity and ensures reliable, reproducible clinical diagnostics.

Towards functional group-specific detection in high-performance liquid chromatography using mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers

A distributed feedback quantum cascade laser was applied for the first time as a powerful light source for mid-infrared (MIR) detection in liquid chromatography. Fructose and glucose in red wine were separated with an isocratic HPLC system, which was connected to a custom-made flow cell. This flow cell was constructed of two diamond windows with adjustable spacing and two hollow wave-guides for guiding the incoming and outgoing light. The HPLC column based on an ion-exchange resin with calcium(II) counter ion was run at 80 degrees C with 0.04% formic acid as the mobile phase. Under these conditions the carbohydrates could not be completely separated from the organic acids also present in wine. However, the emission of the laser at 1067 cm(-1) matches the absorption maximum of fructose and glucose, whereas the organic acids do not absorb appreciably at this wavenumber. Thus group-specific detection could be achieved. Additionally, the optical path length could be increased from 25 to 125 microm, which is very promising in gaining enhanced sensitivity compared to Fourier transform IR detection.

A DNA polymorphism specific to Candida albicans strains exceptionally successful as human pathogens

A large proportion of infection-causing isolates of the yeast Candida albicans belong to a general-purpose genotype, identifiable by fingerprinting with the moderately repetitive sequence Ca3. The high prevalence of this group -- up to 70% in some patient categories -- suggests that its members possess genetic determinants, which enhance their success as pathogens compared to other strains. To find such determinants we are comparing the genomes of representatives of the general-purpose genotype cluster with the genomes of other strains. In this paper we describe the identification of a 985 bp HpaII fragment (MU13-4) specific to general-purpose genotype strains. The fragment was present in 90% of these strains, but only in 10% of other strains. The fragment did not hybridize with probe Ca3, used to define the general-purpose cluster. It contains elevated levels of repetitive DNA. Sequences homologous to MU13-4 are dispersed throughout the chromosomes of general-purpose strains but are rarer or absent in other strains, as judged by Southern hybridization. Using the Stanford C. albicans genome database, we have placed the MU13-4 fragment next to a CARE-1 element. We also found 79 significant homologies between parts of MU13-4 and 19 other contigs. Attempts to amplify the region surrounding the polymorphic fragment in non-general-purpose genotype strains suggest, as do the hybridization data, that the polymorphism is created by a deletion in non-cluster strains. These results show that it is possible to identify polymorphisms specific to general-purpose genotype strains. Primers against the fragment will allow PCR-based discrimination between general-purpose genotype strains and other strains, facilitating investigations aimed at determining morbidity and mortality caused by general-purpose genotype strains compared to other strains.

Rapid method for the discrimination of red wine cultivars based on mid-infrared spectroscopy of phenolic wine extracts

Mid-infrared spectroscopy and UV-vis spectroscopy combined with multivariate data analysis have been applied for the discrimination of Austrian red wines, including the cultivars Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Blaufränkisch (Lemberger), St. Laurent, and Zweigelt. Both authentic wines and their phenolic extracts were investigated by attenuated total reflectance (ATR)-mid-infrared spectroscopy. Phenolic extracts were also investigated by UV-vis spectroscopy. The wine extracts were obtained by solid-phase extraction with C-18 columns and elution by methanol containing 0.01% hydrochloric acid. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed with mid-infrared spectra of both wines and extracts, as well as with UV-vis spectra of the phenolic extracts. Data processing involved vector normalization and derivation of the spectra. Due to varying concentrations of main components including sugar and organic acids, satisfactory classification of untreated wines was not achieved. However, when using mid-infrared spectra of the phenolic extracts, almost complete discrimination of all cultivars investigated was achieved. The use of UV-vis spectroscopy for cultivar discrimination was found to be limited to the authentication of the Burgundy species Pinot Noir. In addition, soft independent modeling of class analogy was applied to the mid-infrared spectra of the extracts. It was possible to establish class models for five different wine cultivars and to classify test samples correctly.

Generation of catalytically active 6-phosphofructokinase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a cell-free system

PFK1 and PFK2 coding for the subunits of 6-phosphofructokinase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae were cloned into plasmids suitable for runoff transcription. In vitro translation products of both kinds of subunit were obtained using rabbit reticulocyte lysate as the synthesis and folding system. They were monitored by chemiluminescent Western-blot analysis. Folding and assembly of the alpha-subunit and beta-subunit of 6-phosphofructokinase were found to occur in the cell-free system resulting in an enzymatically active protein. The in vitro generated enzyme exhibits a folding state that is similar to that of the heterooctameric form of 6-phosphofructokinase in the presence of fructose 6-phosphate, ATP and ammonium sulfate, as demonstrated by size-exclusion HPLC followed by ELISA.

A single point mutation leads to an instability of the hetero-octameric structure of yeast phosphofructokinase

Yeast phosphofructokinase is an oligomeric enzyme whose detectable activity in vitro depends on its hetero-octameric structure. Here we provide data demonstrating that an alanine residue at positions 874 (for the PFK1-encoded alpha-subunit) or 868 (for the PFK2-encoded beta-subunit) is crucial to achieve this structure. Thus subunits carrying substitutions by either aspartate or lysine of this residue cause a lack of phosphofructokinase activity in vitro and signals of the subunits are poorly detectable in Western blots. Size-exclusion HPLC in conjunction with ELISA detection of the enzyme protein confirmed that no functional octamer is produced in such mutants. Our data suggest that the mutant subunits, not being assembled, tend to aggregate and subsequently become degraded. Substitution of the alanine by valine in either subunit leads to a reduction in specific activities, as expected from a conservative exchange. The kinetic data of the latter mutant revealed a higher affinity to the substrate fructose 6-phosphate, a lower extent of ATP inhibition and a lower degree of activation by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. In addition, the affinity of mutants carrying a valine instead of an alanine in either the alpha- or the beta-subunit to fructose 2, 6-bisphosphate was increased. As no X-ray data on eukaryotic phosphofructokinases are available yet, our data provide the first evidence that a non-charge amino acid at position 874 or 868 is essential for the formation of the functional oligomer. This conclusion is substantiated by comparison with the structure of the well-known prokaryotic enzyme.

Assembly of phosphofructokinase-1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in extracts of single-deletion mutants

Phosphofructokinase-1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an octameric enzyme comprising two non-identical subunits, alpha and beta, which are encoded by the unlinked genes PFK1 and PFK2. In this paper, assembly and reactivation of the enzyme have been studied in cell-free extracts of single-deletion mutants. In contrast to the previously described lack of phosphofructokinase-1 activity in cell-free extracts of these mutants, we could measure a temporary enzyme activity immediately after lysis of protoplasts. This result supports the assumption that each of the subunits forms an enzyme structure which is active in vivo but not stable after cell disruption. Upon mixing of separately prepared cell-free extracts of both deletion mutants very low activity could be measured. About 40% of the wild-type activity was regained when both mutants were mixed prior to disruption. The reactivation rate could be slightly increased by addition of ATP and fructose 6-phosphate and was found to be a function of the growth state, particularly of the beta-subunit-carrying cells. The individual subunits did not interact with Cibacron Blue F3G-A, a biomimetic ligand of phosphofructokinase-1. After reassembly of both subunits in vitro a strong affinity of the reconstituted phosphofructokinase-1 to the dye-ligand was observed. The inability of the subunits to reconstitute under certain conditions seems to result from alterations of the intracellular environment following disruption. These changes give rise to induce an unproductive side reaction like self-aggregation of the subunits. Because reconstitution of phosphofructokinase-1 from S. cerevisiae behaves in a similar way to that of hemoglobin and luciferase, we would speculate a general mechanism for assembly of oligomeric proteins in vivo.

DAZ (Deleted in AZoospermia) genes encode proteins located in human late spermatids and in sperm tails

We analysed the location of proteins encoded by the DAZ (Deleted in AZoospermia) genes in human testis tissue and in mature spermatozoa. The DAZ genes are known to be expressed exclusively in the human male germ line, and are candidate genes for the expression of the azoospermia factor AZFc mapped recently to distal Yq11. They encode testis-specific RNA binding proteins, the function of which is not yet known. Immunostaining experiments with antibodies prepared for the specific peptide domain encoded by the DAZ2 transcript (formerly SPGY1) revealed the presence of DAZ proteins in the innermost layer of the male germ cell epithelium and in the tails of spermatozoa. This suggests a function for DAZ proteins in the RNA metabolism of late spermatids, presumably in the storage or transport of testis-specific mRNA, the translation of which is repressed until the formation of mature spermatozoa. Deletion of DAZ genes is supposed not to interfere with human sperm maturation but to result in a gradual reduction of mature spermatozoa.

A SPGY copy homologous to the mouse gene Dazla and the Drosophila gene boule is autosomal and expressed only in the human male gonad

We have isolated a series of human testis poly(A) cDNA clones by cross-hybridization to SPGY1, a Y gene homologous to DAZ. Their sequence analysis revealed an identical nucleotide composition in different 'full-length' clones, suggesting that all were encoded by the same gene. We mapped this gene to the short arm of chromosome 3 and designated it SPGYLA (SPGY like autosomal). Comparison of the SPGYLA cDNA sequence with the cDNA sequences of DAZ and SPGY1 revealed two prominent differences. The tandem repetitive structure of 72 bp sequence units (DAZ repeats) is absent. SPGYLA contains only one 72 bp sequence unit. Downstream of it, a specific 130 bp sequence domain is present which is absent in DAZ and SPGY1 but present in the mouse gene Dazla and in the Drosophila gene boule. SPGYLA encodes an RNA binding protein expressed only in the human male gonad. The data presented give strong evidence that not DAZ but SPGYLA is the functional human homologue of Dazla and boule.

Human Y chromosome azoospermia factors (AZF) mapped to different subregions in Yq11

In a large collaborative screening project, 370 men with idiopathic azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia were analysed for deletions of 76 DNA loci in Yq11. In 12 individuals, we observed de novo microdeletions involving several DNA loci, while an additional patient had an inherited deletion. They were mapped to three different subregions in Yq11. One subregion coincides to the AZF region defined recently in distal Yq11. The second and third subregion were mapped proximal to it, in proximal and middle Yq11, respectively. The different deletions observed were not overlapping but the extension of the deleted Y DNA in each subregion was similar in each patient analysed. In testis tissue sections, disruption of spermatogenesis was shown to be at the same phase when the microdeletion occurred in the same Yq11 subregion but at a different phase when the microdeletion occurred in a different Yq11 subregion. Therefore, we propose the presence of not one but three spermatogenesis loci in Yq11 and that each locus is active during a different phase of male germ cell development. As the most severe phenotype after deletion of each locus is azoospermia, we designated them as: AZFa, AZFb and AZFc. Their probable phase of function in human spermatogenesis and candidate genes involved will be discussed.

Molecular analysis of the genomic structure of the human Y chromosome in the euchromatic part of its long arm (Yq11)

Conventional methods of long range restriction mapping for analysis of the genomic DNA structure failed in Yq11, because single-copy DNA probes for blot hybridization analyses are rare and the rate of DNA methylation is high in this Y region. Numerous repetitive sequence blocks of unknown extensions are scattered throughout Yq11 and a patchwork of X-Y homologous DNA blocks were found by different investigators. Therefore, our approach towards a molecular analysis of this Y region reduced this complexity by performing first its molecular analysis in YAC clones mapping to Yq11. YACs contain only a part of the whole Yq11 DNA structure. In this paper, we present our first results of this approach based on quantitative blot analysis of 51 DNA loci in 67 YAC clones. The YACs were isolated from the three CEPH libraries and mapped to a contig of 13 Mb from proximal to distal Yq11 with aid of a detailed interval map. In distal Yq11, our analysis revealed the presence of local amplification events of different DNA domains. A model of their possible arrangement is presented.

The azoospermia factor (AZF) of the human Y chromosome in Yq11: function and analysis in spermatogenesis

Different Y mutations in Yq11 occurring de novo in sterile males were first described 19 years ago. Since the phenotype of the patients was always associated with azoospermia or severe oligospermia, it was postulated that these mutations interrupt a Y spermatogenesis locus in the euchromatic Y region (Yq11) called azoospermia factor (AZF). Recently, it became possible to map AZF mutations to different subregions in Yq11 by molecular deletion mapping. This indicated that azoospermia is possibly caused by more than one Y gene in Yq11 and the Yq11 chromatin structure. The frequency of AZF mutations in idiopathic sterile males (5-20%) may indicate a need for a general screening programme for its analysis in infertility clinics.

Prolactin lowering activity of the retinoid Ro 14-9706 affecting lactation and pup survival

The arotinoid Ro 14-9706, though devoid of any teratogenic potential, was found to reduce dose dependently the survival of pups when their mothers were treated with toxic doses during days 6-15 of gestation. The increased mortality was primarily seen during early lactation. When pups derived from treated mothers were nursed by control foster mothers unexposed to the drug, their survival was significantly improved indicating that the increased mortality was not solely due to fetal drug exposure. When pups derived from untreated mothers were fostered by dams that were exposed to the arotinoid during pregnancy, a significant pup mortality (p < 0.01) was observed, suggesting that the nursing behaviour of lactating dams was seriously affected. This impairment could be linked to a prolactin-suppressive activity of the arotinoid during lactation which was also seen during pregnancy. Other pituitary hormones, however, were not affected by the compound. Although the drug induced pronounced structural alterations in mitochondria of adrenocortical cells, visualized by light microscopy as extended vacuolization in the zona fasciculata and reticularis, this pathological finding did not translate into functional impairment of steroidogenesis. Thus, the arotinoid Ro 14-9706 exhibits in rats a prolactin-suppressive activity which affects lactation and subsequently pup survival. This particular endocrinological interference is a new phenomenon and uncommon for retinoids.

Ultrastructure as a basis for dating of rat endometrium

Studies on the endometrial cycle depend upon the precise dating of the cycle stage. In the present paper the generally applied method of vaginal smear was carefully verified through the measurement of the hormones relevant to the endometrial cycle. From rats predated through vaginal smear cytology, the hormone levels of estradiol-17-beta (E2) and progesterone (P), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) were measured. The values obtained were then compared to the standardized values of our reference curve. Animals with values that did not fit within the standard deviation of our reference curve were excluded from this investigation. Thus, for the first time exactly dated rat endometrial morphology was studied with electron microscopy. The morphology of the surface epithelium of rat endometrium from all four stages of the cycle is described in detail. In addition a semiquantitative morphometric analysis of the following parameters was performed: cell volume, nuclear volume, the volume density of secretory granules, digestive vacuoles, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and lipid vacuoles as well as the size of lipid vacuoles. With the cellular content of lipid vacuoles and their diameter, it is possible to differentiate between proestrus/estrus and diestrus I/diestrus II, the latter possessing definitely more and larger lipid vacuoles. During estrus the greatest cytoplasmic volume develops. In addition to this, secretory granules are only present during estrus. Finally, diestrus I can be well differentiated from diestrus II, because diestrus I exhibits more digestive vacuoles and during diestrus II a high percentage of free ribosomes is present. On the basis of distinct morphological features, described in this paper, it is now clearly possible to distinguish between the four different cycle stages.

Chromatographic measurement of mucin production in cultures of gastric mucous cells

The use of a miniature column chromatographic assay (using Sepharose CL-4B columns) for measuring mucin production in guinea pig gastric mucous cell cultures is described. The assay was based upon the ability of radiolabelled precursors ([14C]serine and [3H]galactose) to incorporate with high specificity into mucins which thereby appeared in the excluded material. Rates of excluded material radiolabelling by both precursors were constant for incubations up to 24 hours, and substantially reduced by cycloheximide co-incubation (25 microM). Labelled excluded material was completely degraded by mild alkaline borohydride treatment, only partially degraded by HNO2 (pH 1.5), and not degraded by chondroitinase ABC. Thus the major radiolabelled product measured in this system was mucin, although we found that it was less glycosylated than gastric mucins obtained from other sources. In addition, the technique employed to separate and measure mucin production proved rapid and consistent.

Suppression of plasma prolactin in a patient with a pinealocytoma

Plasma growth hormone (HGH), prolactin (PRL), luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), cortisol and melatonin were determined during a 24 h period in a pubertal boy with a pinealocytoma. All hormone concentrations were normal with respect to age and time of day, with the exception of PRL which was undetectable. After subtotal removal of the tumor, basal PRL was still undetectable, but could be stimulated moderately by insulin-induced hypoglycaemia or TRH.

Free insulin, bound insulin, C-peptide and the metabolic control in juvenile onset diabetics: comparison of C-peptide secretors and non-secretors during 24 hours conventional insulin therapy

In two groups of juvenile onset diabetics similar in age, weight, diet and daily insulin dosage (eight without C-peptide, group I; eight with C-peptide, group II) the serum levels of free and antibody bound insulin, C-peptide, glucose, lactate, alanine and FFA were determined over 24 h. In addition the affinity and binding capacity of the insulin antibodies were determined in vitro. No correlation was found between free or bound insulin and glucose. This holds true for the individual profiles as well as for the averaged profiles of the two groups. Free insulin and lactate or alanine were positively correlated in the C-peptide secreting group. C-peptide secretion followed the flucturations of the glucose level during 24 h in each individual patient. As a group, C-peptide secretors were better controlled than non-secretors with respect to mean blood glucose, M-value and the lability index and showed higher free insulin levels despite a similar daily insulin dosage. The possible reasons for this fact are discussed. No correlation was found between the affinity characteristics of the insulin antibodies and the degree of metabolic control or the daily insulin dosage.