Common cold viruses circulating in children threaten wild chimpanzees through asymptomatic adult carriers

Reverse zoonotic respiratory diseases threaten great apes across Sub-Saharan Africa. Studies of wild chimpanzees have identified the causative agents of most respiratory disease outbreaks as "common cold" paediatric human pathogens, but reverse zoonotic transmission pathways have remained unclear. Between May 2019 and August 2021, we conducted a prospective cohort study of 234 children aged 3-11 years in communities bordering Kibale National Park, Uganda, and 30 adults who were forest workers and regularly entered the park. We collected 2047 respiratory symptoms surveys to quantify clinical severity and simultaneously collected 1989 nasopharyngeal swabs approximately monthly for multiplex viral diagnostics. Throughout the course of the study, we also collected 445 faecal samples from 55 wild chimpanzees living nearby in Kibale in social groups that have experienced repeated, and sometimes lethal, epidemics of human-origin respiratory viral disease. We characterized respiratory pathogens in each cohort and examined statistical associations between PCR positivity for detected pathogens and potential risk factors. Children exhibited high incidence rates of respiratory infections, whereas incidence rates in adults were far lower. COVID-19 lockdown in 2020-2021 significantly decreased respiratory disease incidence in both people and chimpanzees. Human respiratory infections peaked in June and September, corresponding to when children returned to school. Rhinovirus, which caused a 2013 outbreak that killed 10% of chimpanzees in a Kibale community, was the most prevalent human pathogen throughout the study and the only pathogen present at each monthly sampling, even during COVID-19 lockdown. Rhinovirus was also most likely to be carried asymptomatically by adults. Although we did not detect human respiratory pathogens in the chimpanzees during the cohort study, we detected human metapneumovirus in two chimpanzees from a February 2023 outbreak that were genetically similar to viruses detected in study participants in 2019. Our data suggest that respiratory pathogens circulate in children and that adults become asymptomatically infected during high-transmission times of year. These asymptomatic adults may then unknowingly carry the pathogens into forest and infect chimpanzees. This conclusion, in turn, implies that intervention strategies based on respiratory symptoms in adults are unlikely to be effective for reducing reverse zoonotic transmission of respiratory viruses to chimpanzees.

Low early life socioeconomic status and susceptibility to the common cold in adulthood: The moderating role of negative affective reactivity

OBJECTIVE

Socioeconomic disadvantage during childhood and adolescence is associated with higher risk for many physical health problems, including infectious disease, throughout the lifespan. Greater negative affective (NA) reactivity has shown similar links to greater risk for physical health conditions and altered patterns of biological functioning associated with acute respiratory infection as socioeconomic disadvantage; yet their interactive effects on physical health outcomes have not been examined. Thus, the present study examined whether NA reactivity accentuated the link between early socioeconomic disadvantage and susceptibility to the common cold.

METHOD

Participants were 212 adults (42% female, 18-55 years old) who completed measures of childhood socioeconomic status (SES; parental home ownership) and were subsequently exposed to a virus that causes the common cold. Participants then remained quarantined for 5 days, during which multiple indicators of viral infection and clinical illness were assessed. Before and after quarantine, participants completed a laboratory stress task to assess NA reactivity.

RESULTS

NA reactivity moderated the relationship between parental home ownership and clinical cold diagnosis in adulthood (b = -0.11, p = .018), such that fewer years of parental home ownership was associated with increased odds for developing a cold only among adults who had greater NA reactivity (OR = 0.89, 95% confidence interval, CI [0.82, 0.96]), but not among those who had lower NA reactivity (OR = 1.01, 95% CI [0.94, 1.09]).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that how individuals negatively react to psychosocial stressors in adulthood may exacerbate the impact of childhood SES on acute infection susceptibility. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Estimating the incidence rate ratio of common cold among patients with non-apnea sleep disorders: a retrospective cohort study

The purpose was to explore the potential effects of nonapnea sleep disorders (NSDs) and hypnotic use on the incidence of common cold. This study adapted population-based retrospective cohort study designed. We used the data from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database between 1998 and 2011. In total, 59,476 patients with NSDs were included in the study cohort, and the reference cohort comprised 59,476 propensity score-matched patients. We conducted a Poisson regression analysis to assess the incidence of common cold. The overall incidence of common cold was significantly higher than that in the reference cohort. Compared with the patients of the reference cohort without hypnotic use, those of the NSDs cohort with benzodiazepines and zolpidem use had higher incidence of common cold. In conclusion, study cohort had a higher incidence of developing common cold, and particularly pronounced in NSDs with hypnotic use.

Coughs, colds and "freshers' flu" survey in the University of Cambridge, 2007-2008

Universities provide many opportunities for the spread of infectious respiratory illnesses. Students are brought together into close proximity from all across the world and interact with one another in their accommodation, through lectures and small group teaching and in social settings. The COVID-19 global pandemic has highlighted the need for sufficient data to help determine which of these factors are important for infectious disease transmission in universities and hence control university morbidity as well as community spillover. We describe the data from a previously unpublished self-reported university survey of coughs, colds and influenza-like symptoms collected in Cambridge, UK, during winter 2007-2008. The online survey collected information on symptoms and socio-demographic, academic and lifestyle factors. There were 1076 responses, 97% from University of Cambridge students (5.7% of the total university student population), 3% from staff and <1% from other participants, reporting onset of symptoms between September 2007 and March 2008. Undergraduates are seen to report symptoms earlier in the term than postgraduates; differences in reported date of symptoms are also seen between subjects and accommodation types, although these descriptive results could be confounded by survey biases. Despite the historical and exploratory nature of the study, this is one of few recent detailed datasets of influenza-like infection in a university context and is especially valuable to share now to improve understanding of potential transmission dynamics in universities during the current COVID-19 pandemic.

Burden and seasonality of primary and secondary symptomatic common cold coronavirus infections in Nicaraguan children

BACKGROUND

The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic highlights the need for an increased understanding of coronavirus epidemiology. In a pediatric cohort in Nicaragua, we evaluate the seasonality and burden of common cold coronavirus (ccCoV) infection and evaluate likelihood of symptoms in reinfections.

METHODS

Children presenting with symptoms of respiratory illness were tested for each of the four ccCoVs (NL63, 229E, OC43, and HKU1). Annual blood samples collected before ccCoV infection were tested for antibodies against each ccCoV. Seasonality was evaluated using wavelet and generalized additive model (GAM) analyses, and age-period effects were investigated using a Poisson model. We also evaluate the risk of symptom presentation between primary and secondary infections.

RESULTS

In our cohort of 2576 children from 2011 to 2016, we observed 595 ccCoV infections and 107 cases of ccCoV-associated lower respiratory infection (LRI). The overall incidence rate was 61.1 per 1000 person years (95% confidence interval (CI): 56.3, 66.2). Children under two had the highest incidence of ccCoV infections and associated LRI. ccCoV incidence rapidly decreases until about age 6. Each ccCoV circulated throughout the year and demonstrated annual periodicity. Peaks of NL63 typically occurred 3 months before 229E peaks and 6 months after OC43 peaks. Approximately 69% of symptomatic ccCoV infections were secondary infections. There was slightly lower risk (rate ratio (RR): 0.90, 95% CI: 0.83, 0.97) of LRI between secondary and primary ccCoV infections among participants under the age of 5.

CONCLUSIONS

ccCoV spreads annually among children with the greatest burden among ages 0-1. Reinfection is common; prior infection is associated with slight protection against LRI among the youngest children.

Immunological memory to common cold coronaviruses assessed longitudinally over a three-year period pre-COVID19 pandemic

The immune memory to common cold coronaviruses (CCCs) influences SARS-CoV-2 infection outcome, and understanding its effect is crucial for pan-coronavirus vaccine development. We performed a longitudinal analysis of pre-COVID19-pandemic samples from 2016-2019 in young adults and assessed CCC-specific CD4+ T cell and antibody responses. Notably, CCC responses were commonly detected with comparable frequencies as with other common antigens and were sustained over time. CCC-specific CD4+ T cell responses were associated with low HLA-DR+CD38+ signals, and their magnitude did not correlate with yearly CCC infection prevalence. Similarly, CCC-specific and spike RBD-specific IgG responses were stable in time. Finally, high CCC-specific CD4+ T cell reactivity, but not antibody titers, was associated with pre-existing SARS-CoV-2 immunity. These results provide a valuable reference for understanding the immune response to endemic coronaviruses and suggest that steady and sustained CCC responses are likely from a stable pool of memory CD4+ T cells due to repeated earlier exposures and possibly occasional reinfections.

Effect of prenatal and postnatal exposure to home renovation on the risk of common cold in preschool children

Common cold is usually considered to be associated with outdoor climate, but the evidence linking with indoor environmental factors is lacking. The role of indoor renovations during which critical timing window on childhood common cold remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effect of exposure to new furniture and/or redecoration during prenatal and postnatal periods on the occurrence and duration of common cold in preschool children. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 39 782 children aged 3-6 years in seven cities of China. The occurrence and duration of common cold in children, and their lifetime exposures to indoor new furniture and redecoration (including pregnancy, the first year of life, and after one year old) were assessed using a questionnaire administered by the parents. Associations between high frequency (>5 colds) and long duration (≥2 weeks per cold) of common cold during past 12 months and exposure to indoor new furniture/redecoration were examined by logistic regression models in terms of odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). We found that the prevalence of high frequency and long duration of common cold in preschool children in China were, respectively, 9.2% and 11.9%. Frequent common cold was significantly associated with exposure to indoor new furniture/redecoration during pregnancy, first year, and after 1 year old, respectively, with the ORs (95% CI) = 1.25 (1.12-1.39), 1.11 (1.00-1.25), and 1.09 (1.01-1.18). Furthermore, childhood long duration per cold was associated with exposure to indoor new furniture/redecoration during pregnancy with OR (95% CI) of 1.14 (1.03-1.25) but not with postnatal exposure. We identified that prenatal exposure to home renovation was more critical than postnatal exposure for an increased risk of high frequency and long duration of common cold. Sensitivity analysis showed that the association between prenatal exposure to indoor renovations and the risk of childhood common cold was consistent and robust, and the associations were modified by some personal and indoor environmental factors. Our findings indicated that prenatal and postnatal exposure to home renovation played an important role in the risk of childhood common cold, supporting the hypothesis of "fetal origin of childhood infection."

Survey of potentially inappropriate prescriptions for common cold symptoms in Japan: A cross-sectional study

Background

Common cold is among the main reasons patients visit a medical facility. However, few studies have investigated whether prescriptions for common cold in Japan comply with domestic and international evidence.

Objective

To determine whether prescriptions for common cold complied with domestic and international evidence.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted between October 22, 2020, and January 16, 2021. Patients with cold symptoms who visited the two dispensing pharmacies and met the eligibility criteria were interviewed.

Main outcome measure

The pharmacists at each store and a physician classified the patients into two groups: the potentially inappropriate prescribing group and the appropriate prescribing group.

Results

Of the 150 selected patients, 14 were excluded and 136 were included in the analysis. Males accounted for 44.9% of the total study population, and the median patient age was 34 years (interquartile range [IQR], 27–42). The prevalence rates of potentially inappropriate prescriptions and appropriate prescriptions were 89.0% and 11.0%, respectively and the median drug costs were 602.0 yen (IQR, 479.7–839.2) [$5.2 (IQR, 4.2–7.3)] and 406.7 yen (IQR, 194.5–537.2) [$3.5 (IQR, 1.7–4.7)], respectively. The most common potentially inappropriate prescriptions were the prescription of oral cephem antibacterial agents to patients who did not have symptoms of bacterial infections (50.4%) and β2 stimulants to those who did not have respiratory symptoms due to underlying disease or history (33.9%).

Conclusions

Approximately 90% of prescriptions for common cold symptoms in the area were potentially inappropriate. Our findings could contribute to the monitoring of the use of medicines for the treatment of common cold symptoms.

Rhinovirus Incidence Rates Indicate We Are Tired of Non-pharmacological Interventions Against Coronavirus Disease 2019

BACKGROUND

During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the incidence of rhinovirus (RV) is inversely related to the intensity of non-pharmacological interventions (NPIs), such as universal mask wearing and physical distancing.

METHODS

Using RV surveillance data, changes in the effect of NPIs were investigated in South Korea during the pandemic. The time to the first visible effect of NPIs after the onset of NPIs (T1), time to the maximum effect (T2), and duration of the maximum effect (T3) were measured for each surge. For each week, the RVdiff [(RV incidence during the pandemic) - (RV incidence within 5 years before the pandemic)] was calculated, and number of weeks for RVdiff to be below zero after NPIs (time to RVdiff ≤ 0) and number of weeks RVdiff remains below zero after NPIs (duration of RVdiff ≤ 0) were measured for each surge.

RESULTS

During the study period, four surges of COVID-19 were reported. As the pandemic progressed, T1 and T2 increased, but T3 decreased. Additionally, the "time to RVdiff of ≤ 0" increased and "duration of RVdiff of ≤ 0" decreased. These changes became more pronounced during the third surge (mid-November 2020), before the introduction of the COVID-19 vaccine, and from the emergence of the delta variant.

CONCLUSION

The effect of NPIs appears slower, the duration of the effect becomes shorter, and the intensity also decreases less than a year after the onset of the pandemic owing to people's exhaustion in implementing NPIs. These findings suggest that the COVID-19 response strategy must be completely overhauled.

Prescription pattern analysis for antibiotics in working-age workers diagnosed with common cold

Antimicrobial resistance is a major health concern. A primary cause is the inappropriate use of antimicrobials, particularly by patients with upper respiratory tract infection. However, baseline information for antibiotic use for common cold before being applied the National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance in Japan is lacking. Here, we analyzed the inappropriate use of antibiotics in the working-age workers. We used large claims data from an annual health check-up for at least 5 consecutive years. Among 201,223 participants, we included 18,659 working-age workers who were diagnosed with common cold at a clinic/hospital. We calculated the proportion of patients with common cold who were prescribed antibiotics and analyzed predictive factors associated with antibiotics prescription. Antibiotics were prescribed to 49.2% (n = 9180) of patients diagnosed with common cold. In the logistic regression analysis, the group taking antibiotics was predominantly younger, male, without chronic diseases, and diagnosed at a small hospital/clinic (where the number of beds was 0-19). Cephems accounted for the highest proportion of prescribed antibiotics, with 40-45% of patients being prescribed antibiotics. Our data may be applied to prioritize resources such as medical staff-intervention or education of working-age people without chronic diseases who visit clinics for common cold to avoid the potential inappropriate use of antibiotics and prevent antimicrobial resistance acceleration.

Low circulation of Influenza A and coinfection with SARS-CoV-2 among other respiratory viruses during the COVID-19 pandemic in a region of southern Brazil

With the arrival of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Brazil in February 2020, several preventive measures were taken by the population aiming to avoid severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection including the use of masks, social distancing, and frequent hand washing then, these measures may have contributed to preventing infection also by other respiratory viruses. Our goal was to determine the frequencies of Influenza A and B viruses (FLUAV/FLUBV), human mastadenovirus C (HAdV-C), Enterovirus 68 (EV-68), and rhinovirus (RV) besides SARS-CoV-2 among hospitalized patients suspect of COVID-19 with cases of acute respiratory disease syndrome (ARDS) in the period of March to December 2020 and to detect possible coinfections among them. Nucleic acid detection was performed using reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) in respiratory samples using naso-oropharyngeal swabs and bronchoalveolar lavage. A total of 418 samples of the 987 analyzed (42.3%) were positive for SARS-CoV-2, 16 (1.62%) samples were positive for FLUAV, no sample was positive for FLUBV or EV-68, 67 (6.78%) samples were positive for HAdV-C, 55 samples were positive for RV 1/2 (26.3%) and 37 for RV 2/2 (13.6%). Coinfections were also detected, including a triple coinfection with SARS-CoV-2, FLUAV, and HAdV-C. In the present work, a very low frequency of FLUV was reported among hospitalized patients with ARDS compared to the past years, probably due to preventive measures taken to avoid COVID-19 and the high influenza vaccination coverage in the region in which this study was performed.

Comparison of the clinical differences between COVID-19, SARS, influenza, and the common cold: A systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

This review focuses on the frequency of symptoms in COVID-19 in comparison to SARS, influenza and common cold.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate and compare the knowledge about the clinical features, symptoms and differences between patients with COVID-19, SARS, influenza, and common cold. The research can help ear, nose and throat specialists and other health practitioners manage patients during the COVID-19 pandemic.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The biomedical databases used in the study included PubMed and MEDLINE. Statistical analysis using the Z-score test assessed which symptoms were more characteristic of COVID-19 than other viral diseases.

RESULTS

Among individuals with COVID-19, the most frequently reported symptoms were cough (70%), fever (45%), muscular pain (29%), and headache (21%), whereas sore throat (12%), and rhinorrhea (4%) were observed at lower rates. Fever was identified as most frequent in COVID-19 (74%), appearing at a higher rate in those cases than in influenza (68%) or the common cold (40%) (p < 0.05). In comparison to other viral diseases, sore throat was rarely reported in COVID-19 and SARS (12% and 18%, respectively) (p < 0.05). In influenza and common cold, a cough was identified in 93% and 80% of cases (p < 0.05). Headache, rhinorrhea, muscular pain, and sore throat were more common in influenza (91%, 91%, 94%, and 84%, respectively) and common cold (89%, 81%, 94%, and 84%, respectively) than in COVID-19 (21%, 4%, 29%, and 12%, respectively) and SARS (45%, 12%, 55%, and 18%, respectively) (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The results of the analysis show that a greater number of general symptoms should lead to a diagnosis of influenza or common cold rather than COVID-19.

Circulation of human coronaviruses OC43 and 229E in Córdoba, Argentina

This is the first study of respiratory infections in Córdoba, Argentina, caused by endemic human coronavirus (HCoV)-OC43 and HCOV-229E, which circulated during 2011-2012 at a 3% rate, either as single or multiple infections. They were detected mainly in children, but HCoV-229E was also found in adults. HCoV-229E was detected in five out of 631 samples (0.8%), and HCoV-OC43 was found in 14 out of 631 (2.2%) samples. Clinical manifestations ranged from fever to respiratory distress, and a significant association of HCoV-229E with asthma was observed. Further studies and surveillance are needed to provide better clinical insights, early diagnosis, and medical care of patients, as well as to contribute to epidemiology modeling and prevention.

Prior presumed coronavirus infection reduces COVID-19 risk: A cohort study

BACKGROUND

Immunological cross-reactivity between common cold coronaviruses (CCC) and SARS-CoV-2 might account for the reduced incidence of COVID-19 in children. Evidence to support speculation includes in vitro evidence for humoral and cellular cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV-2 in specimens obtained before the pandemic started.

METHOD

We used retrospective health insurance enrollment records, claims, and laboratory results to assemble a cohort of 869,236 insured individuals who had a PCR test for SARS-CoV-2. We estimated the effects of having clinical encounters for various diagnostic categories in the year preceding the study period on the risk of a positive test result.

FINDINGS

After adjusting for age, gender and care seeking behavior, we identified that individuals with diagnoses for common cold symptoms, including acute sinusitis, bronchitis, or pharyngitis in the preceding year had a lower risk of testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 (OR=0.76, 95%CI=0.75, 0.77). No reduction in the odds of a positive test for SARS-CoV-2 was seen in individuals under 18 years. The reduction in odds in adults remained stable for four years but was strongest in those with recent common cold symptoms.

INTERPRETATION

While this study cannot attribute this association to cross-immunity resulting from a prior CCC infection, it is one potential explanation. Regardless of the cause, the reduction in the odds of being infected by SARS-CoV-2 among those with a recent diagnosis of common cold symptoms may have a role in shifting future COVD-19 infection patterns from endemic to episodic.

The efficacy of a compounded micronutrient supplement on the incidence, duration, and severity of the common cold: A pilot randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial

Purpose

Viral upper respiratory infections are associated with significant health and economic impact. This study sought to determine the efficacy of routine immune system micronutrient supplementation on the incidence, duration and severity of common cold symptoms.

Methods

This pilot study was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of N = 259 with asymptomatic participants aged 18 to 65 in two cold seasons of 2016 and 2017. The treatment group received an immune system targeted micronutrient caplet, while the placebo group received a micronized cellulose caplet externally identical to the treatment caplet. Weekly surveys were sent electronically to participants to document common cold incidence, duration and severity. Primary statistical results were obtained using mixed-effects logistic regressions to account for longitudinal measurements for participants.

Results

The odds of acquiring an upper respiratory infection, adjusted for potential confounders, was estimated to be 0.74 times lower in the treatment group (p = 0.14). The odds of reporting specific symptoms were statistically lower in the treatment arm compared to the placebo arm for runny nose (OR = 0.53, p = 0.01) and cough (OR = 0.51, p = 0.04). Shorter durations of runny nose and cough were also observed in the treatment arm compared to placebo (both p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in severity of symptoms in either group. The observed proportion of reported cold symptoms in the treatment group was lower compared to the placebo group between late January and February in two consecutive cold seasons. Given the physical, workplace and economic impact of upper respiratory infections, this low cost and low risk intervention should be further studied with more robust investigation and meticulous experimental design.

Zinc Supplementation Reduces Common Cold Duration among Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials with Micronutrients Supplementation

The common cold had resulted in significant economic and social burden worldwide. The effect of vitamin C on preventing common cold in healthy adults has been investigated extensively, but not that of other micronutrients. Thus, we aim to assess the effects of providing micronutrients singly through oral means, on cold incidence, and/or management (in terms of cold duration and symptom severity) in healthy adults from systematically searched randomized controlled trials. From four electronic databases, 660 identified studies were screened and data were extracted from 20 studies (zinc, 10; vitamin D, 8; and vitamins A and E, 2). The quality of selected studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool and certainty in the outcomes was assessed with the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. The review found that micronutrients supplementation, except vitamin C, may not prevent cold incidence or reduce symptom severity among healthy adults. However, zinc supplementation was observed to potentially reduce cold duration by 2.25 days (when zinc is provided singly, 95% CI: -3.39, -1.12). This suggests that zinc supplementation may reduce the overall burden due to common cold among healthy adults.

Effect of diurnal temperature range on outpatient visits for common cold in Shanghai, China

To evaluate the correlations between diurnal temperature range (DTR) and the number of outpatient visits for common cold from Jan. 1, 2008, to Dec. 31, 2010, in the Shanghai metro area; we used a distributed lag non-linear model together with a Poisson regression model. The controlling factors included long-term trends and day of the week in outpatient visits for common cold and the selected weather elements. The entire study group was divided into three different age subgroups, including ≤ 15, 15-65, and ≥ 65 years old. We found some non-linear J-patterns between DTR and daily outpatient visits for common cold. At lag 0 day, the number of outpatient visits for common cold would increase by 11.1% per 1 °C increase in DTR. The greater the DTR, the more it affects outpatient visits for common cold, especially for the ≥ 65 years age group. In addition, DTR plays a more important role in outpatient visits for common cold in spring and winter compared with other seasons of the year. Our study showed that DTR is a risk factor that contributes to common cold. Results in this study can provide scientific evidence for the local authorities in improving preventive measures of the healthcare system.

The relation between serum vitamin D levels, viral infections and severity of attacks in children with recurrent wheezing

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased susceptibility to infections and wheezing. We aimed to evaluate the relation between vitamin D levels, viral infections and severity of attacks in children with recurrent wheezing.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 52 patients who applied with wheezing, at the ages of 12-60 months with a history of three or more wheezing attacks in the last year and 54 healthy children were included. Sociodemographic data, risk factors for recurrent wheezing, and the severity of the wheezing attacks were recorded. 25(OH)D3, calcium, phosphor, alkaline phosphatase and parathormone levels of all children were measured. Nasopharyngeal samples of the patients for viruses were studied by multiplex polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

For the patient group, being breastfed for six months or less, history of cesarean section, cigarette exposure, humid home environment, and family history of allergic disease were significantly higher compared with the control group. Serum vitamin D levels in the patient group were significantly lower compared to the control group. There was no significant relationship between vitamin D levels and hospitalization, oxygen or steroid therapy. Virus was detected in 38 patients (73%). Rhinovirus (63.2%) was the most frequently detected virus. Coinfection was found in 14 (36.8%) patients. There was no statistically significant difference between detection of virus and vitamin D levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Cigarette exposure, being breastfed six months or less, humid home environment, history of cesarean section, family history of allergic disease and vitamin D deficiency might be risk factors for recurrent wheezing.

An Intensive, Active Surveillance Reveals Continuous Invasion and High Diversity of Rhinovirus in Households

We report on infection patterns in 5 households (78 participants) delineating the natural history of human rhinovirus (HRV). Nasopharyngeal collections were obtained every 3-4 days irrespective of symptoms, over a 6-month period, with molecular screening for HRV and typing by sequencing VP4/VP2 junction. Overall, 311/3468 (8.9%) collections were HRV positive: 256 were classified into 3 species: 104 (40.6%) HRV-A; 14 (5.5%) HRV-B, and 138 (53.9%) HRV-C. Twenty-six known HRV types (13 HRV-A, 3 HRV-B, and 10 HRV-C) were identified (A75, C1, and C35 being most frequent). We observed continuous invasion and temporal clustering of HRV types in households (range 5-13 over 6 months). Intrahousehold transmission was independent of clinical status but influenced by age. Most (89.0%) of HRV infection episodes were limited to <14 days. Individual repeat infections were frequent (range 1-7 over 6 months), decreasing with age, and almost invariably heterotypic, indicative of lasting type-specific immunity and low cross-type protection.

Determinants of inter-practice variation in childhood asthma and respiratory infections: cross-sectional study of a national sentinel network

OBJECTIVES

Respiratory infections are associated with acute exacerbations of asthma and accompanying morbidity and mortality. In this study we explore inter-practice variations in respiratory infections in children with asthma and study the effect of practice-level factors on these variations.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

We analysed data from 164 general practices in the Royal College of General PractitionersResearch and Surveillance Centresentinel network in England.

PARTICIPANTS

Children 5-12 years.

INTERVENTIONS

None. In this observational study, we used regression analysis to explore the impact of practice-level determinants on the number of respiratory infections in children with asthma.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

We describe the distribution of childhood asthma and the determinants of upper/lower respiratory tract infections in these children.

RESULTS

83.5% (137/164) practices were in urban locations; the mean number of general practitioners per practice was 7; and the mean duration since qualification 19.7 years. We found almost 10-fold difference in the rate of asthma (1.5-11.8 per 100 children) and 50-fold variation in respiratory infection rates between practices. Larger practices with larger lists of asthmatic children had greater rates of respiratory infections among these children.

CONCLUSION

We showed that structural/environmental variables are consistent predictors of a range of respiratory infections among children with asthma. However, contradictory results between measures of practice clinical care show that a purely structural explanation for variability in respiratory infections is limited. Further research is needed to understand how the practice factors influence individual risk behaviours relevant to respiratory infections.

Seasonality of respiratory viruses causing hospitalizations for acute respiratory infections in children in Nha Trang, Vietnam

•

Hospitalizations for respiratory viruses are seasonal in Vietnam

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Respiratory syncytial virus peaks in the late summer months, and inuenza A in April to June

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No clear seasonality is seen for human rhinovirus

•

Human parainuenza 3 and human rhinovirus are positively associated with dew point

•

This work can inform the timing of inuenza and RSV vaccination and the judicious use of antibiotics in Vietnam

Background

Acute respiratory infections (ARIs) are the most common causes of death in children under 5 years of age. While the etiology of most pneumonia and ARI episodes is undiagnosed, a broad range of ARI-causing viruses circulate widely in South East Asia. However, the patterns and drivers of the seasonal transmission dynamics are largely unknown. Here we identify the seasonal patterns of multiple circulating viruses associated with hospitalizations for ARIs in Nha Trang, Vietnam.

Methods

Hospital based enhanced surveillance of childhood ARI is ongoing at Khanh Hoa General Hospital in Nha Trang. RT-PCR was performed to detect 13 respiratory viruses in nasopharyngeal samples from enrolled patients. Seasonal patterns of childhood ARI hospital admissions of various viruses were assessed, as well as their association with rainfall, temperature, and dew point.

Results

Respiratory syncytial virus peaks in the late summer months, and influenza A in April to June. We find significant associations between detection of human parainfluenza 3 and human rhinovirus with the month's mean dew point. Using a cross-wavelet transform we find a significant out-of-phase relationship between human parainfluenza 3 and temperature and dew point.

Conclusions

Our results are important for understanding the temporal risk associated with circulating pathogens in Southern Central Vietnam. Specifically, our results can inform timing of routing seasonal influenza vaccination and for when observed respiratory illness is likely viral, leading to judicious use of antibiotics in the region.

Effect of Tea Catechins on Influenza Infection and the Common Cold with a Focus on Epidemiological/Clinical Studies

Influenza and the common cold are acute infectious diseases of the respiratory tract. Influenza is a severe disease that is highly infectious and can progress to life-threating diseases such as pneumonia or encephalitis when aggravated. Due to the fact that influenza infections and common colds spread easily via droplets and contact, public prevention measures, such as hand washing and facial masks, are recommended for influenza prophylaxis. Experimental studies have reported that tea catechins inhibited influenza viral adsorption and suppressed replication and neuraminidase activity. They were also effective against some cold viruses. In addition, tea catechins enhance immunity against viral infection. Although the antiviral activity of tea catechins has been demonstrated, the clinical evidence to support their utility remains inconclusive. Since the late 1990s, several epidemiological studies have suggested that the regular consumption of green tea decreases influenza infection rates and some cold symptoms, and that gargling with tea catechin may protect against the development of influenza infection. This review briefly summarizes the effect of tea catechins on influenza infection and the common cold with a focus on epidemiological/clinical studies, and clarifies the need for further studies to confirm their clinical efficacy.

Prenatal exposure to ambient temperature variation increases the risk of common cold in children

BACKGROUND

Common cold is a frequent upper respiratory tract infection, but the role of ambient temperature in the infection is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the role of prenatal exposure to diurnal temperature variation (DTV), the difference between the daily maximal and minimal temperatures, in the risk of common cold in children.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study of 2598 preschool children in Changsha, China. Occurrence of common cold during the past year was surveyed using questionnaire. We then estimated each child's prenatal exposure to DTV during pregnancy. Multivariate logistic regression model was used to examine the association between occurrence of common cold and prenatal exposure to DTV in terms of odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

About 45% children have common cold (≥3 times) during the past year. We found that common cold in children was associated with maternal DTV exposure during pregnancy, particularly during the first trimester with adjusted OR (95% CI) = 1.27 (1.10-1.46). Male and atopic children were more susceptible to the effect of DTV during pregnancy. The risk of common cold due to DTV is higher in children living in the suburban areas and the bigger houses and in those exposed to environmental tobacco smoke, mold/dampness, new furniture and redecoration. We observed that the risk of common cold in children has been increased in recent years due to increasing DTV.

CONCLUSIONS

Common cold in children was associated with maternal exposure to temperature variation during pregnancy, suggesting that the risk of common cold may originate in pregnancy.

Potential common factors associated with predisposition to common cold in middle-aged and elderly Japanese: A community-based cross-sectional study

People worldwide frequently catch a common cold, which occasionally develops into secondary severe conditions such as pneumonia. However, it is unclear whether predisposition to the common cold is associated with the individual's characteristics including age, body weight, lifestyles, diets, and intestinal functions, besides exposure to a responsible pathogen. We addressed this issue epidemiologically considering many relevant clinical factors.We reviewed data from a cross-sectional study consisting of 39,524 apparently healthy Japanese aged 40 to 79 years (26,975 men and 12,549 women) who underwent a checkup in 2007. Self-reported predisposition to common cold (SPCC) and relevant clinical conditions and parameters were considered.We observed no significant difference in most clinical parameters including age, body mass index (BMI), glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and prevalence of men and current smokers between subjects with and without SPCC. In univariate analysis, circulating white blood cell (WBC) count and serum alanine-aminotransferase (ALT) were significantly higher in subjects with SPCC than in those without, whereas serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and duration of sleep were lower. In logistic regression analysis after full adjustment for relevant confounding factors, BMI categories except BMI of ≥27.0 kg/m were significantly associated with SPCC compared with BMI of 23.0 to 24.9 kg/m. Short duration of sleep (≤5 hours), occasional alcohol drinking, and no-exercise were significantly associated with SPCC compared with 7 hours sleep duration, no-drinking alcohol, and low frequent exercise (twice per month), respectively. All gastrointestinal disorders (gastric complaints, constipation, and diarrhea) were independently associated with SPCC. Imbalanced diet and taking a snack were also associated with SPCC in a degree dependent manner. Furthermore, WBC count, serum ALT, and HDL-C (as continuous variables) were associated with SPCC (HDL-C was inversely), whereas no significant association was observed between SPCC and age, smoking, HbA1c, and pharmacotherapy for diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia.Our results demonstrated that multifactorial conditions and parameters might be simultaneously associated with the predisposition to common cold. Prospective studies including detailed common cold questionnaire and measurements are needed to confirm currently suspected causative and protective factors.

[Effect of Air Pollution on the Cold Disease in Shanghai]

This study discusses the changes in the daily average concentrations of the main air pollutants, such as PM₁₀, PM_2.5, O₃, and NO₂, in Shanghai, and the effects of air pollution on cold in Shanghai. For this study, data on air pollutants, meteorological factors, and the number of daily hospital visits from cold in Shanghai were collected from January 1, 2008 to December 31, 2010. Using the time series Poisson semi-parametric generalized additive model, and controlling for the long-term trend, "week" effect, and meteorological factors by smoothing the spline function, the exposure-response relationship between air pollution and human health in Shanghai was analyzed. The study sets up the model according to age, evaluating the impact and the lag effect of air pollution on the number of daily hospital visits. Results show that when PM₁₀, NO₂, O₃, and PM_2.5 increase by an IQR, the relative risk of cold disease is 1.0240 (1.0233-1.0246), 1.0206 (1.0201-1.0212), 0.9393 (0.9384-0.9402), and 1.0080 (1.0069-1.0086), and when PM₁₀, NO₂, O₃, and PM_2.5 increase by 10 μg·m^-3, the daily hospital visits increase by 0.5%, 1.0%, -2.0%, and 0.2%. In the multi-polluted model, the results of NO₂ and PM_2.5 are basically lower compared to the results of the single-pollutant model, the results of PM₁₀ and O₃are higher. Air pollution in Shanghai has an impact on the incidence of cold disease.

A case series on common cold to severe bronchiolitis and pneumonia in children following human metapneumovirus infection in Sri Lanka

OBJECTIVES

The prevalence of hMPV infections in Sri Lanka has not been reported and here we report a case series of hMPV infection in children less than 5 years. Patients with ARTI were included from Teaching Hospital, Anuradhapura from March 2013 to August 2014. Indirect fluorescence assay was performed on nasopharyngeal aspirates for the identification of respiratory viruses [respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza virus 1, 2 and 3, influenza A and B and hMPV]. Moreover, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction was done to further confirm the hMPV infection.

RESULTS

In this case series, hMPV infection showed a range of respiratory symptoms from common cold to life threatening lower respiratory tract infections with varying severity. In some cases, the clinical presentation of hMPV infection was similar to the ARTI caused by RSV. hMPV co-infections with of RSV have also been seen in some cases of ARTI. A child delivered through cesarean section and birth order > 3 has an Odds ratio of 3.5 and 4.3 (95% CI) for developing co-infection with RSV compared to hMPV mono-infections. Lack of diagnostic facilities to identify the viral aetiology has contributed to the use of antibiotics indicating the need for establishing viral diagnostic facilities in the country.

Rhinovirus - not just the common cold

Rhinoviruses (RV) are ubiquitous respiratory tract pathogens. They affect both the upper and lower respiratory tract and cause colds but have also been associated with wheezing, asthma exacerbations and pneumonia. New blood transcription profiling techniques of the host immune response are becoming available to characterise the pathogenesis of RV in humans. This review will outline the clinical impact of RVs in children.

Common cold among pre-school children in China - associations with ambient PM10 and dampness, mould, cats, dogs, rats and cockroaches in the home environment

BACKGROUND

There is some evidence that dampness, mould and cockroaches can increase the risk of respiratory infections in children but few studies exist from China on this topic. Aim To study associations between domestic early life exposure to biological indoor factors (dampness, mould, cats, dogs, rats, cockroaches), cleaning habits and common cold among pre-school children across China.

METHODS

Children aged 3-6years (n=39,782) were recruited from randomly selected day care centres in seven cities in China. Data on common cold and prenatal and postnatal exposure to dampness, mould, windowpane condensation in wintertime (WPC), cats, dogs, cockroaches and rats were assessed by a parentally administered questionnaire. Data on annual ambient temperature and PM₁₀ was assessed on city level. Associations between high frequency (>5 colds per year) and long duration (≥2weeks) of common colds in the past year and exposure were calculated by multilevel logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 9.2% had a high frequency and 11.9% had long duration of common cold. Exposure to mould (OR=1.38, 95% CI 1.24-1.53) and WPC (OR 1.23, 95%CI 1.13-1.33) at birth was associated with frequent common cold. Exposure to dogs at birth was associated with long duration of common cold. (OR=1.22, 95% CI 1.06-1.41). Exposure to mould (OR=1.36, 95% CI 1.22-1.54), WPC (OR=1.27, 95%CI 1.17-1.39) and water leakage (OR 1.34, 95% CI 1.20-1.49) in the current home was associated with frequent common cold. Presence of cockroaches were positively (OR=1.12, 95% CI 1.02-1.24) and presence of rats (OR=0.86, 95% CI 0.77-0.96) negatively associated with high frequency of common cold. Daily cleaning was negatively associated with frequent common cold (OR=0.89, 95% CI 0.81-0.97). Similar associations for mould, WPC, cockroaches and rats were found for long duration. Ambient PM₁₀ (OR=1.21, 95% CI 1.21-1.35 per 10μg/m³) and temperature (OR=1.13, 95% CI 1.06-1.35 °C) on city level were associated with high frequency of common cold. Associations between cat keeping and high frequency of common cold were found only in southern China. Associations with cockroaches were stronger in northern China. Associations with dampness and mould were the same in the north and south.

CONCLUSIONS

Indoor mould, water damage, windowpane condensation, cockroaches and keeping cats or dogs as pets can be risk factors for common cold while daily cleaning can be protective factor. PM₁₀ and a warmer climate zone can be other risk factors for common cold.

Presence of Household Mold, Children's Respiratory Health, and School Absenteeism: Cause for Concern

A study examining the relationship between housing conditions, respiratory health, and school absenteeism was conducted in the city of Winnipeg in Manitoba, Canada. As part of this study, a survey was completed by 3,424 parents of children in grades 3 and 4 to determine the a) relationship between self-reported visible mold in homes and tested airborne mold; b) relationships of self-reported visible mold, tested airborne mold, and asthma and/or persistent colds; c) school absenteeism rates due to asthma and/or persistent colds; and d) children’s socioeconomic status (SES) and incidence of asthma and/or persistent colds. In addition, a complete inspection of a subset of 715 homes was conducted, including the collection of over 1,400 indoor and 500 outdoor air samples for mold analysis. Results indicate a significant association between self-reported visible mold and airborne mold. Additionally, a significant association was found between Cladosporium levels from air samples (the most common genus type found) and children’s asthma in combination with persistent colds. Children with persistent colds in combination with asthma miss significantly more school than children who have only asthma or only persistent colds. Children from poorer families reported more persistent colds than children from high-income families. No association was found between income and asthma. Furthermore, SES was not a significant factor for number of school days missed.

A Decrease in Temperature and Humidity Precedes Human Rhinovirus Infections in a Cold Climate

Both temperature and humidity may independently or jointly contribute to the risk of human rhinovirus (HRV) infections, either through altered survival and spread of viruses in the environment or due to changes in host susceptibility. This study examined the relationship between short-term variations in temperature and humidity and the risk of HRV infections in a subarctic climate. We conducted a case-crossover study among conscripts (n = 892) seeking medical attention due to respiratory symptoms during their military training and identified 147 HRV cases by real-time PCR. An average temperature, a decline in daily ambient temperature and absolute humidity (AH) during the three preceding days of the onset (hazard period) and two reference periods (a week prior and after the onset) were obtained. The average daily temperature preceding HRV infections was −9.9 ± 4.9 °C and the average AH was 2.2 ± 0.9 g/m³. An average (odds ratios (OR) 1.07 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00–1.15)) and maximal (OR 1.08 (1.01–1.17)) change in temperature increased the risk of HRV infections by 8% per 1 °C decrease. An average (OR 1.20 (CI 1.03–1.40)) and maximal decrease (OR 1.13 (CI 0.96–1.34)) in AH increased the risk of HRV infection by 13% and 20% per 0.5 g/m³ decrease. A higher average temperature during the three preceding days was positively associated with HRV infections (OR 1.07 (CI 1.00–1.15)). A decrease rather than low temperature and humidity per se during the preceding few days increases the risk of HRV infections in a cold climate. The information is applicable to populations residing in cold climates for appropriate personal protection and prevention of adverse health effects.

The natural history of community-acquired common colds symptoms assessed over 4-years

BACKGROUND

The common cold is the most frequently experienced infection among humans, but limited data exist to characterize the onset, duration, severity and intersection of symptoms in community-acquired colds. A more complete understanding of the symptom frequency and burden in naturally occurring colds is needed.

METHODOLOGY

We characterized common cold symptoms from 226 cold episodes experienced by 104 male or female subjects. Subjects were enrolled in the work environment in an attempt to start symptom evaluation (frequency and severity) at the earliest sign of their cold. We also assessed the symptom that had the greatest impact on the subject by asking them to identify their single most bothersome symptom.

RESULTS

Symptom reporting started within 24 hours of cold onset for most subjects. Sore throat was a harbinger of the illness but was accompanied by multiple symptoms, including nasal congestion, runny nose and headache. Cough was not usually the most frequent symptom, but was present throughout the cold, becoming most bothersome later in the cold. Nasal congestion, pain (eg, sore throat, headache, muscle pains) or feverishness and secretory symptoms (eg, runny nose, sneezing), and even cough, were simultaneously experienced with high incidence over the first 4 days of illness. The single most bothersome symptom was sore throat on day 1, followed by nasal congestion on days 2-5 and cough on days 6 and 7.

CONCLUSION

There is substantial overlap in the appearance of common cold symptoms over the first several days of the common cold. Nasal congestion, secretory and pain symptoms frequently occur together, with cough being somewhat less prominent, but quite bothersome when present. These data establish the typical symptomatology of a common cold and provide a foundation for the rational treatment of cold symptoms typically experienced by cold sufferers.

Consumer attitudes on cough and cold: US (ACHOO) survey results

OBJECTIVE

The Attitudes of Consumers Toward Health, Cough, and Cold (ACHOO) survey was developed to better inform health care providers on the natural history and impact of common cold and cough, and related consumer experience and behaviors.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Randomly selected US Internet/mobile device users were invited to participate in an online survey (N = 3333) in October 2012. Response quotas modeled upon 2010 US Census data ensured a demographically representative sample. To reduce potential bias from the quota design, 75% of the completed surveys were randomly selected as the primary analysis pool.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Survey questions assessed participant demographics, frequency and duration of cough/cold symptoms, impact of symptoms on daily life, treatment preferences, and knowledge about cough/cold pathophysiology.

RESULTS

In the past year, 84.6% of respondents had experienced at least one cold. Colds typically started with sore/scratchy throat (39.2%), nasal congestion (9.8%), and runny nose (9.3%) and lasted 3-7 days. Cough, the most common cold symptom (73.1%), had a delayed onset (typically 1-5 days after cold onset) and a long duration (>6 days in 35.2%). Nasal congestion and cough were the most bothersome symptoms. Many respondents waited until symptoms were 'bad enough' (42.6%) or multiple symptoms were present (20.2%) before using nonprescription medications. Drivers of choice included effectiveness in relieving symptoms, safety, and past experience. Respondents rarely consulted clinicians regarding treatment, and more than three-quarters had never received instructions from a clinician on how to choose a nonprescription cough/cold medication. Misperceptions regarding etiology and treatment of the common cold were prevalent. The main limitation is potential recall bias, since respondents had to recall cough/cold episodes over the prior year.

CONCLUSIONS

The ACHOO survey confirms that cold is a common, bothersome experience and that there are gaps in consumers' knowledge of pathophysiology and appropriate management of cough/cold.

Western Cold and Flu (WeCoF) aerosol study--preliminary results

BACKGROUND

Influenza virus is responsible for annual deaths due to seasonal epidemics and is the cause of major pandemics which have claimed millions of human lives over the last century. Knowledge about respiratory virus transmission is advancing. Spread is likely through the air, but much work remains to be done to characterize the aerosols produced by infected individuals, including viral particle survival and infectivity. Although coughs have been characterized, little work has been done to examine coughs from infected individuals. The WeCoF project aims at providing evidence to support prevention measures to mitigate person-to-person influenza transmission in critical locations, such as hospitals, and during pandemics.

FINDINGS

A novel experimental cough chamber facility - the FLUGIE - has been developed to study the far-field aerodynamics and aerosol transport of droplets produced by the coughs from humans naturally-infected with influenza. The flow field of each cough is measured using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). A preliminary study involving 12 healthy individuals has been carried out in order to quantify the strengths of their coughs at a distance of 1 m from the mouth. The spatially averaged maximum velocity was determined and the average value was 0.41 m/s across 27 coughs of good data quality. The peak value of velocity was also extracted and compared with the average velocity.

CONCLUSIONS

Preliminary results show that there is significant air motion associated with a cough (on the order of 0.5 m/s) as far away as 1 m from the mouth of the healthy person who coughs. The results from this pilot study provide the framework for a more extensive participant recruitment campaign that will encompass a statistically-significant cohort.

Chinese patent medicines for the treatment of the common cold: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials

BACKGROUND

Many Chinese patent medicines (CPMs) have been authorized by the Chinese State of Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of the common cold. A number of clinical trials have been conducted and published. However, there is no systematic review or meta-analysis on their efficacy and safety for the common cold to justify their clinical use.

METHODS

We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, SinoMed, CNKI, VIP, China Important Conference Papers Database, China Dissertation Database, and online clinical trial registry websites for published and unpublished randomized clinical trials (RCTs) of CPMs for the common cold till 31 March 2013. Revman 5.2 software was used for data analysis with effect estimate presented as relative risk (RR) and mean difference (MD) with a 95% confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

A total of five RCTs were identified. All of the RCTs were of high risk of bias with flawed study design and poor methodological quality. All RCTs included children aged between 6 months to 14 years. Results of individual trials showed that Shuanghuanglian oral liquid (RR 4.00; 95% CI: 2.26 to 7.08), and Xiaoer Resuqing oral liquid (RR 1.43; 95% CI: 1.15 to 1.77) had higher cure rates compared with antivirus drugs. Most of the trials did not report adverse events, and the safety of CPMs was still uncertain.

CONCLUSIONS

Some CPMs showed a potential positive effect for the common cold on cure rate. However, due to the poor methodology quality and the defects in the clinical design of the included RCTs, such as the lack of placebo controlled trials, the inappropriate comparison intervention and outcome measurement, the confirmative conclusions on the beneficial effect of CPMs for the common cold could not be drawn.

Human rhino- and enteroviruses in children with respiratory symptoms in Luanda, Angola

OBJECTIVES

The role of human rhinoviruses (HRV) and human enteroviruses (HEV) in common colds, as well as their seasonality, remains largely unknown in tropical environments. The study aimed to define the frequency and clinical features of HRV and HEV in children with respiratory symptoms in tropical Africa during autumn and winter.

METHODS

Clinical data and PCR assays of nasopharyngeal swabs (NPS) were collected from 67 (66%) children with and 35 (34%) children without chronic illnesses who were attending different outpatient clinics at a paediatric tertiary-care hospital in Luanda, Angola.

RESULTS

Thirty-six (35%) children had HIV infection, and 27 (26%) were malnourished. Thirty-seven (36%) out of 102 NPS specimens were virus-positive: 34 (33%) for HRV and 10 (10%) for HEV. Seven (7%) had co-infection. The highest HRV-positivity rate (47%) occurred in July (P = 0·02), a mid-winter month with high relative humidity but no precipitation. Virus positivity was associated with younger age (median 36 vs 52 months, P = 0·02) but not with specific symptoms or findings.

CONCLUSIONS

HRVs play a major role in young children's respiratory infections in urban tropical Angola during autumn and winter. A better understanding is required of the seasonality and clinical outcomes of these viruses in children living in resource-poor tropical countries.

[Human rhinovirus diseases--epidemiology, treatment and prevention]

Human rhinoviruses (HRV) are non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses of the genus Rhinovirus in the family Picornaviridae. They are the most common causative agents of acute diseases of the upper respiratory tract (e. g., common cold), but they also cause acute lower respiratory tract illness, including bronchiolitis and pneumonia. In addition, human rhinoviruses are known to cause exacerbations of bronchial asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The treatment of HRV-induced diseases is usually symptomatic and supportiv, a generally recommended antiviral therapy does not exist. For the treatment of the common cold, there are numerous preparations and applications. However, only a few of these agents and measures have been shown to be suitable to reduce the severity of symptoms or to shorten the duration of illness. The risk of acquiring an HRV infection can be reduced by strict adherence to suitable hygiene measures. An effective vaccine is not yet available.

Male facial masculinity as a cue to health outcomes

Evolutionary theories of human attraction draw heavily upon nonhuman literature, and currently the Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis dominates research into female attraction to male facial masculinity. Although some studies have shown links between masculinity and some measures of health, other data have failed to support the Immunocompetence Hypothesis as applied to human face preferences. Here we summarize that literature and present new data regarding links between masculinity and multiple measures of health condition in human males. Undergraduate males were photographed and their faces were assessed for sexual dimorphism using multiple methods and rated for apparent healthiness and attractiveness. Participants also reported recent health experiences both prior to being photographed and then again 10 weeks later. Although both attractiveness and rated health were associated with better actual health in the past and future (mainly indexed by lower antibiotic use), results were mixed for masculinity. With respect to respiratory illnesses, facial masculinity (assessed using morphometric techniques) was associated with better past health but with worse future health. Possible reasons for the complex and inconsistent findings are discussed and some potentially fruitful avenues of future research are outlined.

[IMCI and the maternal practice of African descendants' living on the Colombian Caribbean coast regarding the common cold and diarrhea]

OBJECTIVE

Evaluating maternal practice regarding diarrhoea and the common cold.

METHOD

This was a cross-sectional descriptive study which was conducted on the island of Barú, near Cartagena, Colombia. It involved 127 mothers of African descent and their 138 children aged less than 5 years of age; convenience sampling was used. The Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) instrument was used for the survey during a one-day healthcare session. The prevalence of diarrhoea and the common cold during the 7 days immediately before the survey were estimated, as were maternal practice regarding these and the occurrence of other risks and protective factors; a history of breastfeeding, complementary feeding and vaccination was compiled. Descriptive statistics were used and the χ² test was used for ascertaining the significance of the relationships between variables.

RESULTS

Diarrhoea prevalence was 71.7 % (64-79 95 % CI), this being lower for girls aged 2 months to 5 years-old (p = 0,02) and common cold prevalence was 99.2 % (97-100 95 % CI), this being higher in girls aged older than 2 months (p=0.004). 86.9 % (81-92 95 % CI) of the mothers did not know how to identify warning signs for these diseases, 84.9 % (78-90 95 % CI) of the practices were inadequate and 73.3% of the mothers took their children to a doctor as their first line medical practice (p=0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Efforts must be increased regarding the implementation of the IMCI strategy in vulnerable communities, through effective channels of communication and innovative ways to reduce child morbidity and mortality indices, thereby promoting the island's social development.

Larch arabinogalactan effects on reducing incidence of upper respiratory infections

OBJECTIVE

Larch arabinogalactan (ResistAid * ) may prevent cold infections due to its immune-stimulatory properties. In a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized clinical trial, the effect of a proprietary larch arabinogalactan preparation on the incidences of common colds and its effect on cold symptoms, as a well established model for immune function, was compared to placebo.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 199 healthy participants who had a self reported cold infection rate of three in 6 months were randomly assigned to receive a total of either 4.5 g of an arabinogalactan preparation (n = 101) or placebo (n = 98) over a period of 12 weeks.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The participants documented each common cold episode in a diary, and rated 10 predefined infection symptoms on a 4 point rating scale during an infection period, resulting in an infection score. The common cold episodes were confirmed by medical doctors.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN41183655.

RESULTS

In the full analysis set (FAS), arabinogalactan tended to decrease the incidence of common cold (p = 0.055). The number of participants affected by a cold was significantly reduced by arabinogalactan supplementation (p = 0.038). Concerning the per protocol (PP) collective, the incidences of common cold (p = 0.040) and the number of participants affected by the infection (p = 0.033) were significantly fewer after arabinogalactan compared to placebo consumption. The severity of symptoms at episode start as experienced by the participants was significantly higher after arabinogalactan supplementation (p = 0.028). The treatment was well tolerated with no significant differences between the study groups.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that larch arabinogalactan increased the body's potential to defend against common cold infection. While the immunomodulatory effect of arabinogalactan can be assumed, its mechanism of action remains to be elucidated.

Frequent alcohol drinking is associated with lower prevalence of self-reported common cold: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Alcohol intake has been associated with reduced incidence of common cold symptoms in 2 European studies. However, no study has addressed the association between the frequency of alcohol intake and the incidence of common cold. This study aimed to investigate the association between the amount and frequency of alcohol drinking and the retrospective prevalence of common cold in Japanese men.

METHODS

This retrospective study included men who participated in an annual health examination conducted in Sendai, Japan. The frequency of common cold episodes in the previous year was self-reported. The weekly frequency and amount of alcohol consumed, as well as the type of alcoholic drink, were reported by a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire. Logistic regression models were used to analyze the association between the amount and frequency of alcohol intake and the retrospective prevalence of common cold.

RESULTS

Among 899 men, 83.4% of the subjects reported drinking alcohol, and 55.4% of the subjects reported having experienced at least one episode of common cold in the previous year. Compared with non-drinkers, the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for having had 1 or more episodes of common cold during the past year across categories of alcohol intake frequency of 3 or less, 4-6, and 7 days/week were 0.827 (0.541-1.266), 0.703 (0.439-1.124), and 0.621 (0.400-0.965), respectively (P for trend = 0.025); the adjusted ORs with 95% CIs for having had of 2 or more episodes of common cold across the same categories were 0.642 (0.395-1.045), 0.557 (0.319-0.973), and 0.461 (0.270-0.787), respectively (P for trend = 0.006). Compared with subjects who consumed 11.5-35.8 g of alcohol per day, the non-drinkers were significantly more likely to experience 2 or more episodes of common cold (OR, 1.843; 95% CI, 1.115-3.047).

CONCLUSION

The frequency, not the amount, of alcohol intake was significantly related to lower prevalence of self-reported common cold episodes in Japanese men.

Colds & cough

The common cold leads to approximately 75 to 100 million physician visits annually. An estimated 22 to 189 million school days are missed annually due to a cold, which affects working parents with approximately 126 million workdays staying home to care for their children. Add this to the approximately 150 million workdays missed by employees suffering from a cold, which accounts for approximately 40% of time lost from work in the U.S., and you can see why the "common" cold is referred to as the most "common" human disease. Common colds are not a trivial health problem, as these statistics indicate, and that can be attributed to the fact that there simply is no cure for the common cold and the fact that it is highly contagious. However, the symptoms can be treated, and compounding pharmacists can work with the patient and the physician in this endeavor.

Inhibition of common cold-induced aggravation of childhood asthma by leukotriene receptor antagonists

BACKGROUND

Virus infection is an important risk factor for aggravation of childhood asthma. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of drugs on aggravation of asthma induced by a common cold.

METHODS

Asthma control was examined in a survey of 1,014 Japanese pediatric patients with bronchial asthma. The occurrence of common cold, asthma control, and drugs used for asthma control were investigated using a modified Childhood Asthma Control Test (C-ACT) for patients aged <4 years old and 4 to 11 years old, and an Asthma Control Test (ACT) for patients aged 12 to 15 years old.

RESULTS

The status of asthma control did not differ among the age groups. The prevalence of common cold and aggravation of asthma were significantly higher in patients aged <4 years old. Control of asthma following common cold-induced aggravation was significantly less effective in patients aged <4 years old compared to those aged ≥4 years old. In patients aged <4 years old with a common cold, asthma control was significantly more effective for those treated with leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRAs) compared to treatment without LTRAs. Asthma control did not differ between patients who did or did not take inhaled corticosteroids or long-acting β2 stimulants.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings showed a high prevalence of common cold in younger patients with childhood asthma and indicated that common cold can induce aggravation of asthma. LTRAs are useful for long-term asthma control in very young patients who develop an asthma attack due to a common cold.

[A survey of knowledge on common cold in outpatient clinics]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate outpatients' cognition towards common cold and their habituated medication so as to provide evidence for future public healthcare education.

METHODS

Patients who attended hospital for diagnosis and treatment of common cold at least within past three months were asked to fill a questionnaire independently so as to learn their cognition towards common cold and medication habit.

RESULTS

Among the patients underwent survey, 52.21% had incorrect knowledge about common cold; 12.99% didn't know about the hazards of common cold; 34.80% couldn't distinguish common cold from influenza; 30.07% considered common cold couldn't get relief without treatment; 68.24% didn't know about the proper effects of influenza vaccination; 61.14% often took oral medicine even intravenous injection when they caught a common cold; 59.77% often took medication from drugstore without prescription by doctor, and a few asked doctors to prescribe medicine on their request; 19.42% didn't know about the side effects of drug for cold treatment; and 19.72% didn't know about the active ingredients of drug for cold treatment. There were significant differences in the common cold cognition among population of different ages and education background. The older or the higher education status patients had a better cognition (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

There exist a certain degree of wrong cognition towards common cold among patients of different literacy degree and different age. Public health education on common cold need to be further strengthened.

Clinical and molecular features of human rhinovirus C

A newly discovered group of human rhinoviruses (HRVs) has been classified as the HRV-C species based on distinct genomic features. HRV-Cs circulate worldwide, and are important causes of upper and lower respiratory illnesses. Methods to culture and produce these viruses have recently been developed, and should enable identification of unique features of HRV-C replication and biology.