Long Term High Fat Diet Treatment: An Appropriate Approach to Study the Sex-Specificity of the Autonomic and Cardiovascular Responses to Obesity in Mice

Time-restricted feeding reduces cardiovascular disease risk in obese mice

Disrupted feeding and fasting cycles as well as chronic high-fat diet-induced (HFD-induced) obesity are associated with cardiovascular disease risk factors. We designed studies that determined whether 2 weeks of time-restricted feeding (TRF) intervention in mice fed a chronic HFD would reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors. Mice were fed a normal diet (ND; 10% fat) ad libitum or HFD (45% fat) for 18 weeks ad libitum to establish diet-induced obesity. ND or HFD mice were continued on ad libitum diet or subjected to TRF (limiting food availability to 12 hours only during the dark phase) during the final 2 weeks of the feeding protocol. TRF improved whole-body metabolic diurnal rhythms without a change in body weight. HFD mice showed reduced blood pressure dipping compared with ND, which was restored by TRF. Further, TRF reduced aortic wall thickness, decreased aortic stiffness, as well as increased kidney tubular brush border integrity, decreased renal medullary fibrosis, and reduced renal medullary T cell inflammation in HFD mice. These findings indicate that TRF may be an effective intervention for improving vascular and kidney health in a model of established diet-induced obesity.

Diastolic Dysfunction with Normal Ejection Fraction and Reduced Heart Rate in Mice Expressing Human Growth Hormone and Displaying Signs of Growth Hormone Insufficiency

Growth hormone (GH) signaling is essential for heart development. Both GH deficiency and excess raise cardiovascular risk. Human (h) and mouse (m) GH differ structurally and functionally: hGH binds both the GH receptor (GHR) and prolactin receptor (PRLR), whereas mGH binds only GHR; thus, there is the potential for differential effects. We generated transgenic (hGH-TG) mice that produce pituitary hGH in response to hypothalamic signaling. These mice grow at the same rate as mGH-expressing wild-type (mGH-WT) mice but are smaller and have higher body fat. Echocardiography was used here to compare hGH-TG and mGH-WT mouse hearts. Male hGH-TG mice show a 48% lower left ventricular mass, 36% lower stroke volume, and 48% reduced cardiac output, resembling GH deficiency. Diastolic dysfunction, restrictive ventricular filling, and lower heart rate are suggested in hGH-TG mice. No significant differences in ejection fraction or fractional shortening were observed, even after high-fat diet (HFD) stress. HFD did not affect RNA markers of cardiac damage, although a possible association between B-type natriuretic peptide RNA levels and heart rate was detected. These observations suggest that diastolic dysfunction related to hGH and/or low GH might be offset by a lower heart rate, while structural changes precede functional effects.

Sex differentially affects pro-inflammatory cell subsets in adipose tissue depots in a diet induced obesity model

Obesity is a growing pandemic that increases the risk for cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and particularly in women also the risk of cancer and neurodegenerative disorders such as dementia and multiple sclerosis. Preclinical studies on obesity focus on male mice as they gain bodyweight faster and show a clear pro-inflammatory phenotype. Here, using male and female mice, we induced obesity by feeding a high fat diet (HFD), and compared adipose tissue (AT) inflammation at the same adiposity stage (% AT/bodyweight) between both sexes. Doing so, we identified that female mice show an increase in the number of pro-inflammatory immune cells in the visceral AT at a lower adiposity stage than male mice, but the effect of HFD is diminished with higher adiposity. Interestingly, only female mice showed an increase in immune cells in the subcutaneous AT after HFD feeding. Nonetheless, we found that pro-inflammatory cytokines in blood plasma mirror the inflammatory stage of the visceral AT in both male and female mice. Uniquely in male mice, myeloid cells in the visceral AT showed a higher inflammasome activation upon HFD. In summary, we showed that adiposity differentially affects immune cells in fat depots based on sex.

Age and duration of obesity modulate the inflammatory response and expression of neuroprotective factors in mammalian female brain

Obesity has become a global epidemic and is associated with comorbidities, including diabetes, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases, among others. While appreciable insight has been gained into the mechanisms of obesity-associated comorbidities, effects of age, and duration of obesity on the female brain remain obscure. To address this gap, adolescent and mature adult female mice were subjected to a high-fat diet (HFD) for 13 or 26 weeks, whereas age-matched controls were fed a standard diet. Subsequently, the expression of inflammatory cytokines, neurotrophic/neuroprotective factors, and markers of microgliosis and astrogliosis were analyzed in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex, along with inflammation in visceral adipose tissue. HFD led to a typical obese phenotype in all groups independent of age and duration of HFD. However, the intermediate duration of obesity induced a limited inflammatory response in adolescent females' hypothalamus while the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and visceral adipose tissue remained unaffected. In contrast, the prolonged duration of obesity resulted in inflammation in all three brain regions and visceral adipose tissue along with upregulation of microgliosis/astrogliosis and suppression of neurotrophic/neuroprotective factors in all brain regions, denoting the duration of obesity as a critical risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases. Importantly, when female mice were older (i.e., mature adult), even the intermediate duration of obesity induced similar adverse effects in all brain regions. Taken together, our findings suggest that (1) both age and duration of obesity have a significant impact on obesity-associated comorbidities and (2) early interventions to end obesity are critical to preserving brain health.

T cells in obesity-associated inflammation: The devil is in the details

Obesity presents a significant health challenge, affecting 41% of adults and 19.7% of children in the United States. One of the associated health challenges of obesity is chronic low-grade inflammation. In both mice and humans, T cells in circulation and in the adipose tissue play a pivotal role in obesity-associated inflammation. Changes in the numbers and frequency of specific CD4+ Th subsets and their contribution to inflammation through cytokine production indicate declining metabolic health, that is, insulin resistance and T2D. While some Th subset alterations are consistent between mice and humans with obesity, some changes mainly characterize male mice, whereas female mice often resist obesity and inflammation. However, protection from obesity and inflammation is not observed in human females, who can develop obesity-related T-cell inflammation akin to males. The decline in female sex hormones after menopause is also implicated in promoting obesity and inflammation. Age is a second underappreciated factor for defining and regulating obesity-associated inflammation toward translating basic science findings to the clinic. Weight loss in mice and humans, in parallel with these other factors, does not resolve obesity-associated inflammation. Instead, inflammation persists amid modest changes in CD4+ T cell frequencies, highlighting the need for further research into resolving changes in T-cell function after weight loss. How lingering inflammation after weight loss affecting the common struggle to maintain lower weight is unknown. Semaglutide, a newly popular pharmaceutical used for treating T2D and reversing obesity, holds promise for alleviating obesity-associated health complications, yet its impact on T-cell-mediated inflammation remains unexplored. Further work in this area could significantly contribute to the scientific understanding of the impacts of weight loss and sex/hormones in obesity and obesity-associated metabolic decline.

Potential roles of sex-linked differences in obesity and cancer immunotherapy: revisiting the obesity paradox

Obesity, a condition of excess adiposity usually defined by a BMI > 30, can have profound effects on both metabolism and immunity, connecting the condition with a broad range of diseases, including cancer and negative outcomes. Obesity and cancer have been associated with increased incidence, progression, and poorer outcomes of multiple cancer types in part due to the pro-inflammatory state that arises. Surprisingly, obesity has also recently been demonstrated in both preclinical models and clinical outcomes to be associated with improved response to immune checkpoint inhibition (ICI). These observations have laid the foundation for what has been termed the "obesity paradox". The mechanisms underlying these augmented immunotherapy responses are still unclear given the pleiotropic effects obesity exerts on cells and tissues. Other important variables such as age and sex are being examined as further affecting the obesity effect. Sex-linked factors exert significant influences on obesity biology, metabolism as well as differential effects of different immune cell-types. Age can be another confounding factor contributing to the effects on both sex-linked changes, immune status, and obesity. This review aims to revisit the current body of literature describing the immune and metabolic changes mediated by obesity, the role of obesity on cancer immunotherapy, and to highlight questions on how sex-linked differences may influence obesity and immunotherapy outcome.

Delivery by cesarean section leads to heavier adult bodyweight in prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster)

Delivery by cesarean section now makes up 32.1 % of all births in the United States. Meta-analyses have estimated that delivery by cesarean section is associated with a > 50 % increased risk for childhood obesity by 5 years of age. While this association is independent of maternal obesity, breastfeeding, and heritable factors, studies in humans have been unable to test for a causal role of cesarean delivery in this regard. Here, we set out to use an animal model to experimentally test whether delivery by cesarean section would increase offspring weight in adulthood. Delivery by cesarean section may exert neurodevelopmental consequences by impacting hormones that are important at birth as well as during metabolic regulation in later life, such as oxytocin and vasopressin. The prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) has long been studied to investigate the roles of oxytocin and vasopressin in brain development and social behavior. Here, we establish that prairie voles tolerate a range of ambient temperatures, including conventional 22° housing, which makes them translationally appropriate for studies of diet-induced obesity. We also studied vole offspring for their growth, sucrose preference, home cage locomotor activity, and food consumption after birth by either cesarean section or vaginal delivery. At sacrifice, we collected measures of weight, length, and adipose tissue to analyze body composition in adulthood. Voles delivered by cesarean section had consistently greater bodyweights than those born vaginally, despite having lower food consumption and greater locomotive activity. Cesarean-delivered animals were also longer, though this did not explain their greater body weights. While cesarean delivery had no effect on vasopressin, it resulted in less oxytocin immunoreactivity within the hypothalamus in adulthood. These results support the case that cesarean section delivery plays a causal role in increasing offspring body weight, potentially by affecting the oxytocin system.

Sex differences in systemic inflammation and immune function in diet-induced obesity rodent models: A systematic review

Understanding sex differences in immunological responses in the context of obesity is important to improve health outcomes. This systematic review aimed to investigate sex differences in systemic inflammation, immune cell phenotype, and function in diet-induced obesity (DIO) animal models. A systematic search in Medline, Embase, and CINAHL from inception to April 2023 was conducted, using a combination of the following concepts: sex, obesity, cytokines, and immune cell phenotypes/function. Forty-one publications reporting on systemic inflammation (61%), cell phenotype (44%), and/or function (7%) were included. Females had lower systemic inflammation compared with males in response to DIO intervention and a higher proportion of macrophage (M)2-like cells compared with males that had a higher proportion of M1-like in adipose tissue. Although there were no clear sex differences in immune function, high-fat DIO intervention remains an important factor in the development of immune dysfunction in both males and females, including disturbances in cytokine production, proliferation, and migration of immune cells. Yet, the mechanistic links between diet and obesity on such immune dysfunction remain unclear. Future studies should investigate the role of diet and obesity in the functionality of immune cells and employ adequate methods for a high-quality investigation of sex differences in this context.

Microbiota modulation by dietary oat beta-glucan prevents steatotic liver disease progression

Background & Aims

Changes in gut microbiota in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) are important drivers of disease progression towards fibrosis. Therefore, reversing microbial alterations could ameliorate MASLD progression. Oat beta-glucan, a non-digestible polysaccharide, has shown promising therapeutic effects on hyperlipidemia associated with MASLD, but its impact on gut microbiota and most importantly MASLD-related fibrosis remains unknown.

Methods

We performed detailed metabolic phenotyping, including assessments of body composition, glucose tolerance, and lipid metabolism, as well as comprehensive characterization of the gut-liver axis in a western-style diet (WSD)-induced model of MASLD and assessed the effect of a beta-glucan intervention on early and advanced liver disease. Gut microbiota were modulated using broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment.

Results

Oat beta-glucan supplementation did not affect WSD-induced body weight gain or glucose intolerance and the metabolic phenotype remained largely unaffected. Interestingly, oat beta-glucan dampened MASLD-related inflammation, which was associated with significantly reduced monocyte-derived macrophage infiltration and fibroinflammatory gene expression, as well as strongly reduced fibrosis development. Mechanistically, this protective effect was not mediated by changes in bile acid composition or signaling, but was dependent on gut microbiota and was lost upon broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment. Specifically, oat beta-glucan partially reversed unfavorable changes in gut microbiota, resulting in an expansion of protective taxa, including Ruminococcus, and Lactobacillus followed by reduced translocation of Toll-like receptor ligands.

Conclusions

Our findings identify oat beta-glucan as a highly efficacious food supplement that dampens inflammation and fibrosis development in diet-induced MASLD. These results, along with its favorable dietary profile, suggest that it may be a cost-effective and well-tolerated approach to preventing MASLD progression and should be assessed in clinical studies.

Impact and Implications

Herein, we investigated the effect of oat beta-glucan on the gut-liver axis and fibrosis development in a mouse model of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). Beta-glucan significantly reduced inflammation and fibrosis in the liver, which was associated with favorable shifts in gut microbiota that protected against bacterial translocation and activation of fibroinflammatory pathways. Together, oat beta-glucan may be a cost-effective and well-tolerated approach to prevent MASLD progression and should be assessed in clinical studies.

Obese Male Mice Exposed to Early Life Stress Display Sympathetic Activation and Hypertension Independent of Circulating Angiotensin II

BACKGROUND

We have previously reported that male mice exposed to maternal separation and early weaning (MSEW), a model of early life stress, show sympathetic activation and increased blood pressure in response to a chronic high-fat diet. The goal of this study was to investigate the contribution of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to the mechanism by which MSEW increases blood pressure and vasomotor sympathetic tone in obese male mice.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Mice were exposed to MSEW during postnatal life. Undisturbed litters served as controls. At weaning, both control and MSEW offspring were placed on a low-fat diet or a high-fat diet for 20 weeks. Angiotensin peptides in serum were similar in control and MSEW mice regardless of the diet. However, a high-fat diet induced a similar increase in angiotensinogen levels in serum, renal cortex, liver, and fat in both control and MSEW mice. No evidence of renin-angiotensin system activation was found in adipose tissue and renal cortex. After chronic treatment with enalapril (2.5 mg/kg per day, drinking water, 7 days), an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor that does not cross the blood-brain barrier, induced a similar reduction in blood pressure in both groups, while the vasomotor sympathetic tone remained increased in obese MSEW mice. In addition, acute boluses of angiotensin II (1, 10, 50 μg/kg s.c.) exerted a similar pressor response in MSEW and control mice before and after enalapril treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, elevated blood pressure and vasomotor sympathetic tone remained exacerbated in MSEW mice compared with controls after the peripheral inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme, suggesting a mechanism independent of angiotensin II.

Role Of The C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (CCL5) And Its Receptor, C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 5 (CCR5) In The Genesis Of Aldosterone-induced Hypertension, Vascular Dysfunction, And End-organ Damage

Background

Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid steroid hormone, has been described to initiate cardiovascular diseases by triggering exacerbated sterile vascular inflammation. The functions of C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (CCL5) and its receptor, C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 5 (CCR5), are well known in infectious diseases, but their roles in the genesis of aldosterone-induced vascular injury and hypertension are unknown.

Methods

We analyzed the vascular profile, blood pressure, and renal damage in wild-type (CCR5+/+) and CCR5 knockout (CCR5-/-) mice treated with aldosterone (600 μg/kg/day for 14 days) while receiving 1% saline to drink.

Results

Here, we show that CCR5 plays a central role in aldosterone-induced vascular injury, hypertension, and renal damage. Long-term infusion of aldosterone in CCR5+/+ mice resulted in exaggerated CCL5 circulating levels and vascular CCR5 expression. Aldosterone treatment also triggered vascular injury, characterized by endothelial dysfunction and inflammation, hypertension, and renal damage. Mice lacking CCR5 were protected from aldosterone-induced vascular damage, hypertension, and renal injury. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that CCL5 increased NADPH oxidase 1 (Nox1) expression, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, NFκB activation, and inflammation and reduced nitric oxide production in isolated endothelial cells. These effects were abolished by antagonizing CCR5 with Maraviroc. Finally, aortae incubated with CCL5 displayed severe endothelial dysfunction, which is prevented by blocking Nox1, NFκB, or with Maraviroc treatment.

Conclusions

Our data demonstrate that CCL5/CCR5, through activation of NFkB and Nox1, is critically involved in aldosterone-induced vascular and renal damage and hypertension. Our data place CCL5 and CCR5 as potential targets for therapeutic interventions in conditions with aldosterone excess.

Progranulin Maintains Blood Pressure and Vascular Tone Dependent on EphrinA2 and Sortilin1 Receptors and Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase Activation

Background The mechanisms determining vascular tone are still not completely understood, even though it is a significant factor in blood pressure management. Many circulating proteins have a significant impact on controlling vascular tone. Progranulin displays anti-inflammatory effects and has been extensively studied in neurodegenerative illnesses. We investigated whether progranulin sustains the vascular tone that helps regulate blood pressure. Methods and Results We used male and female C57BL6/J wild type (progranulin+/+) and B6(Cg)-Grntm1.1Aidi/J (progranulin-/-) to understand the impact of progranulin on vascular contractility and blood pressure. We found that progranulin-/- mice display elevated blood pressure followed by hypercontractility to noradrenaline in mesenteric arteries, which is restored by supplementing the mice with recombinant progranulin. In ex vivo experiments, recombinant progranulin attenuated the vascular contractility to noradrenaline in male and female progranulin+/+ arteries, which was blunted by blocking EphrinA2 or Sortilin1. To understand the mechanisms whereby progranulin evokes anticontractile effects, we inhibited endothelial factors. N(gamma)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (nitric oxide synthase inhibitor) prevented the progranulin effects, whereas indomethacin (cyclooxygenase inhibitor) affected only the contractility in arteries incubated with vehicle, indicating that progranulin increases nitric oxide and decreases contractile prostanoids. Finally, recombinant progranulin induced endothelial nitric oxide synthase phosphorylation and nitric oxide production in isolated mesenteric endothelial cells. Conclusions Circulating progranulin regulates vascular tone and blood pressure via EphrinA2 and Sortilin1 receptors and endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation. Collectively, our data suggest that deficiency in progranulin is a cardiovascular risk factor and that progranulin might be a new therapeutic avenue to treat high blood pressure.

Allium macrostemon whole extract ameliorates obesity-induced inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum stress in adipose tissue of high-fat diet-fed C57BL/6N mice

Background

Obesity is a major risk factor for metabolic syndrome and a serious health concern worldwide. Various strategies exist to treat and prevent obesity, including dietary approaches using bioactive ingredients from natural sources.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the anti-obesity effect of whole-plant Allium macrostemon (also called as long-stamen chive) extract (AME) as a potential new functional food.

Design

C57BL/6N mice were divided into three groups and fed either a control diet (CD), high-fat diet (HFD), or HFD with AME treatment (200 mg/kg BW daily) for 9 weeks. The mice in the CD and HFD groups were treated with vehicle control.

Results

AME supplementation reduced HFD-induced body weight gain, fat mass, and adipocyte size. AME suppressed peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and fatty acid synthase mRNA expression, indicating reduced adipogenesis and lipogenesis in adipose tissue. In addition, AME lowered inflammation in adipose tissue, as demonstrated by the lower number of crown-like structures, mRNA, and/or protein expression of macrophage filtration markers, as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines, including F4/80 and IL-6. Endoplasmic reticulum stress was also alleviated by AME administration in adipose tissue. Several phenolic acids known to have anti-obesity effects, including ellagic acid, protocatechuic acid, and catechin, have been identified in AME.

Conclusion

By suppressing adipose tissue expansion and inflammation, AME is a potential functional food for the prevention and/or treatment of obesity and its complications.

Early central cardiovagal dysfunction after high fat diet in a murine model

High fat diet (HFD) promotes cardiovascular disease and blunted cardiac vagal regulation. Temporal onset of loss of cardiac vagal control and its underlying mechanism are presently unclear. We tested our hypothesis that reduced central vagal regulation occurs early after HFD and contributes to poor cardiac regulation using cardiovascular testing paired with pharmacology in mice, molecular biology, and a novel bi-transgenic mouse line. Results show HFD, compared to normal fat diet (NFD), significantly blunted cardio/pulmonary chemoreflex bradycardic responses after 15 days, extending as far as tested (> 30 days). HFD produced resting tachycardia by day 3, reflected significant loss of parasympathetic tone. No differences in bradycardic responses to graded electrical stimulation of the distal cut end of the cervical vagus indicated diet-induced differences in vagal activity were centrally mediated. In nucleus ambiguus (NA), surface expression of δ-subunit containing type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABAA(δ)R) increased at day 15 of HFD. Novel mice lacking δ-subunit expression in vagal motor neurons (ChAT-δnull) failed to exhibit blunted reflex bradycardia or resting tachycardia after two weeks of HFD. Thus, reduced parasympathetic output contributes to early HFD-induced HR dysregulation, likely through increased GABAA(δ)Rs. Results underscore need for research on mechanisms of early onset increases in GABAA(δ)R expression and parasympathetic dysfunction after HFD.

Obesity and cancer: Mouse models used in studies

There is increasing evidence that obesity is associated with the occurrence and development of malignant tumors. When studying the relationship between obesity and malignant tumors, it is very important to choose an appropriate animal model. However, BALB/c nude mice and other animals commonly used to study tumor xenograft (human-derived tumor cell lines) transplantation models are difficult to induce obesity, while C57BL/6 mice and other model animals commonly used for obesity research are not suitable for tumor xenograft transplantation. Therefore, it is difficult to replicate both obesity and malignancy in animal models at the same time. This review summarizes several experimental animal models and protocols that can simultaneously induce obesity and tumor xenografts.

A comprehensive approach to modeling maternal immune activation in rodents

Prenatal brain development is a highly orchestrated process, making it a very vulnerable window to perturbations. Maternal stress and subsequent inflammation during pregnancy leads to a state referred to as, maternal immune activation (MIA). If persistent, MIA can pose as a significant risk factor for the manifestation of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) such as autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia. To further elucidate this association between MIA and NDD risk, rodent models have been used extensively across laboratories for many years. However, there are few uniform approaches for rodent MIA models which make not only comparisons between studies difficult, but some established approaches come with limitations that can affect experimental outcomes. Here, we provide researchers with a comprehensive review of common experimental variables and potential limitations that should be considered when designing an MIA study based in a rodent model. Experimental variables discussed include: innate immune stimulation using poly I:C and LPS, environmental gestational stress paradigms, rodent diet composition and sterilization, rodent strain, neonatal handling, and the inclusion of sex-specific MIA offspring analyses. We discuss how some aspects of these variables have potential to make a profound impact on MIA data interpretation and reproducibility.

Endothelial leptin receptor is dispensable for leptin-induced sympatho-activation and hypertension in male mice

Leptin plays a crucial role in blood pressure (BP) regulation, notably in the context of obesity through central sympatho-mediated pressor effects. Leptin also relaxes arteries via endothelial (EC) leptin receptor (LepREC)-mediated increases in nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability. Herein, we investigated whether leptin-mediated increases in NO bioavailability represent a buffering mechanism against leptin-induced sympatho-activation. We tested the direct contribution of LepREC to BP regulation in physiological conditions and in response to chronic leptin infusion using mice deficient in LepREC. LepREC deficiency did not alter baseline metabolic profile nor leptin-induced reduction in adiposity and increases in energy expenditure. LepREC-/- mice demonstrated no increase in baseline BP and heart rate (HR) (MAP: LepREC+/+:94.7 ± 1.6, LepREC-/-:95.1 ± 1.8 mmHg; HR:LepREC+/+:492.4 ± 11.7, LepREC-/-:509.5 ± 13.4 bpm) nor in response to leptin (MAP, LepREC+/+:101.1 ± 1.7, LepREC-/-:101.7 ± 1.8 mmHg; HR, LepREC+/+:535.6 ± 11.1, LepREC-/-:539.3 ± 14.2 bpm). Moreover, baseline neurogenic control of BP and HR was preserved in LepREC-/- mice as well as leptin-mediated increases in sympathetic control of BP and HR and decreases in vagal tone. Remarkably, LepREC deficiency did not alter endothelium-dependent relaxation in resistance vessels, nor NO contribution to vasodilatation. Lastly, leptin induced similar increases in adrenergic contractility in mesenteric arteries from both LepREC+/+ and LepREC-/- mice. Collectively, these results demonstrate that the NO buffering effects of leptin are absent in resistance arteries and do not contribute to BP regulation. We provide further evidence that leptin-mediated hypertension involves increased vascular sympatho-activation and extend these findings by demonstrating for the first time that increased cardiac sympatho-activation and reduced vagal tone also contribute to leptin-mediated hypertension.

The impact of maternal high-fat diet on offspring neurodevelopment

A maternal high-fat diet affects offspring neurodevelopment with long-term consequences on their brain health and behavior. During the past three decades, obesity has rapidly increased in the whole human population worldwide, including women of reproductive age. It is known that maternal obesity caused by a high-fat diet may lead to neurodevelopmental disorders in their offspring, such as autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. A maternal high-fat diet can affect offspring neurodevelopment due to inflammatory activation of the maternal gut, adipose tissue, and placenta, mirrored by increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in both maternal and fetal circulation. Furthermore, a maternal high fat diet causes gut microbial dysbiosis further contributing to increased inflammatory milieu during pregnancy and lactation, thus disturbing both prenatal and postnatal neurodevelopment of the offspring. In addition, global molecular and cellular changes in the offspring's brain may occur due to epigenetic modifications including the downregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and the activation of the endocannabinoid system. These neurodevelopmental aberrations are reflected in behavioral deficits observed in animals, corresponding to behavioral phenotypes of certain neurodevelopmental disorders in humans. Here we reviewed recent findings from rodent models and from human studies to reveal potential mechanisms by which a maternal high-fat diet interferes with the neurodevelopment of the offspring.

Obesity-related vascular dysfunction persists after weight loss and is associated with decreased vascular glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) receptor in female rats

Obesity-related cardiovascular complications are a major health problem worldwide. Overconsumption of the Western diet is a well-known culprit for the development of obesity. While short-term weight loss through switching from a Western diet to a normal diet is known to promote metabolic improvement, its short-term effects on vascular parameters are not well-characterized. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), an incretin with vasculo-protective properties, is decreased in plasma from obese patients. We hypothesize that obesity causes persistent vascular dysfunction in association with downregulation of vascular GLP-1R. Female Wistar rats were randomized into three groups: lean received a chow diet for 28 weeks, obese received a Western diet for 28 weeks, and reverse obese received a Western diet for 18 weeks followed by 12 weeks of standard chow diet. The obese group exhibited increased body weight and body mass index, while the reverse obese group lost weight. Weight loss failed to reverse impaired vasodilation and high systolic blood pressure in obese rats. Strikingly, our results show that obese rats exhibit decreased serum levels of GLP-1 accompanied by decreased vascular GLP-1R expression. Weight loss recovered GLP-1 serum levels, however GLP-1R expression remained downregulated. Decreased Akt phosphorylation was observed in the obese and reverse obese group, suggesting that GLP-1/Akt signaling is persistently downregulated. Our results support that GLP-1 signaling is associated with obesity-related vascular dysfunction in females and short-term weight loss does not guarantee recovery of vascular function. This study suggests that GLP-1R may be a potential target for therapeutic intervention in obesity-related hypertension in females.

Intracellular Redistribution of Left Ventricular Connexin 43 Contributes to the Remodeling of Electrical Properties of the Heart in Insulin-resistant Elderly Rats

The correlation between long-QT and connexin 43 (Cx43) status and localization in elderly rats was determined to demonstrate a correlation between insulin resistance (I-R), ischemia-reperfusion, aging, and heart dysfunction. Male Wistar rats are grouped as 24-month-old rats (Aged-group), those with metabolic syndrome (8 months old; MetS-group), or controls (8 months old; Con-group). Both experimental groups have long-QT and low heart rate. Immunohistochemical imaging and quantification showed marked decreases in Cx43 staining of intercalated disc with less localizations in the Aged-group and MetS-group. The lateralization of Cx43 on longitudinal cell membrane was significantly high in the MetS-group than in the Con-group with no significant change in the Aged-group. Its significant cytoplasmic internalization was higher in the Aged-group than in the MetS-group. There were marked decreases in phospho-Cx43 (pCx43) staining of intercalated disc with less localizations in both groups than in the Con-group. Furthermore, lateralization of pCx43 was significantly low in the Aged-group and MetS-group, whereas there were no significant changes in the cytoplasmic internalization of both groups compared with the Con-group. Furthermore, the ratio of pCx43 to Cx43 was significantly small in both groups. We determined increases in RhoA and endothelin-1 in both groups, further supporting decreases in pCx43. Our data indicate the important role of I-R on long-QT in aging heart through alterations in both Cx43 protein level and localizations, leading to an abnormal spreading of ventricular repolarization in I-R heart.

Activity-Based NIR Bioluminescence Probe Enables Discovery of Diet-Induced Modulation of the Tumor Microenvironment via Nitric Oxide

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a critical role in acute and chronic inflammation. NO's contributions to cancer are of particular interest due to its context-dependent bioactivities. For example, immune cells initially produce cytotoxic quantities of NO in response to the nascent tumor. However, it is believed that this fades over time and reaches a concentration that supports the tumor microenvironment (TME). These complex dynamics are further complicated by other factors, such as diet and oxygenation, making it challenging to establish a complete picture of NO's impact on tumor progression. Although many activity-based sensing (ABS) probes for NO have been developed, only a small fraction have been employed in vivo, and fewer yet are practical in cancer models where the NO concentration is <200 nM. To overcome this outstanding challenge, we have developed BL₆₆₀-NO, the first ABS probe for NIR bioluminescence imaging of NO in cancer. Owing to the low intrinsic background, high sensitivity, and deep tissue imaging capabilities of our design, BL₆₆₀-NO was successfully employed to visualize endogenous NO in cellular systems, a human liver metastasis model, and a murine breast cancer model. Importantly, its exceptional performance facilitated two dietary studies which examine the impact of fat intake on NO and the TME. BL₆₆₀-NO provides the first direct molecular evidence that intratumoral NO becomes elevated in mice fed a high-fat diet, which became obese with larger tumors, compared to control animals on a low-fat diet. These results indicate that an inflammatory diet can increase NO production via recruitment of macrophages and overexpression of inducible nitric oxide synthase which in turn can drive tumor progression.

Repeated glucose spikes and insulin resistance synergistically deteriorate endothelial function and bardoxolone methyl ameliorates endothelial dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Both insulin resistance and postprandial glucose spikes are known for their potential to induce vascular endothelial dysfunction in individuals with metabolic syndrome. However, these factors are inextricable, and therefore, their relative contributions to inducing endothelial dysfunction remain elusive. In this study, we aimed to disentangle the effects of these factors and clarify whether bardoxolone methyl (CDDO-Me), a novel nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activator, protects against glucose spike-induced endothelial dysfunction.

METHODS

We induced glucose spikes twice daily for a duration of 1 week to rats fed a standard/control diet (CD) and Western-type diet (WTD). Endothelium-dependent relaxation (EDR) was evaluated using isolated thoracic aortas. Gene expression and dihydroethidium (DHE)-fluorescence studies were carried out; the effect of CDDO-Me on aortic endothelial dysfunction in vivo was also evaluated.

RESULTS

Neither WTD-induced insulin resistance nor pure glucose spikes significantly deteriorated EDR. However, under high-glucose (20 mM) conditions, the EDR of thoracic aortas of WTD-fed rats subjected to glucose spikes was significantly impaired. In this group of rats, we observed significantly enhanced DHE fluorescence as a marker of reactive oxygen species, upregulation of an oxidative stress-related gene (NOX2), and downregulation of an antioxidant gene (SOD2) in the thoracic aortas. As expected, treatment of the thoracic aorta of this group of rats with antioxidant agents significantly improved EDR. We also noted that pretreatment of aortas from the same group with CDDO-Me attenuated endothelial dysfunction, accompanied by a correction of the redox imbalance, as observed in gene expression and DHE fluorescence studies.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, we showed that insulin resistance and glucose spikes exert a synergistic effect on aortic endothelial dysfunction. Furthermore, our study reveals that CDDO-Me ameliorates endothelial dysfunction caused by glucose spikes in a rat model of metabolic syndrome.

Insulin Resistance in the Brain: Evidence Supporting a Role for Inflammation, Reactive Microglia, and the Impact of Biological Sex

Increased intake of highly processed, energy-dense foods combined with a sedentary lifestyle are helping fuel the current overweight and obesity crisis, which is more prevalent in women than in men. Although peripheral organs such as adipose tissue contribute to the physiological development of obesity, emerging work aims to understand the role of the central nervous system to whole-body energy homeostasis and development of weight gain and obesity. The present review discusses the impact of insulin, insulin resistance, free fatty acids, and inflammation on brain function and how these differ between the males and females in the context of obesity. We highlight the potential of microglia, the resident immune cells in the brain, as mediators of neuronal insulin resistance that drive reduced satiety, increased food intake, and thus, obesity.

The use of mice in diabetes research: The impact of physiological characteristics, choice of model and husbandry practices

Diabetes mellitus is characterised by hyperglycaemia, which results from an absolute or relative lack of insulin. Chronic and acute hyperglycaemia are associated with a range of health complications and an overall increased risk of mortality. Mouse models are vital in understanding the pathogenesis of this disease and its complications, as well as for developing new diabetes therapeutics. However, for experimental questions to be suitably tested, it is critical that factors inherent to the animal model are considered, as these can have profound impacts on experimental outcome, data reproducibility and robustness. In this review, we discuss key considerations relating to model choice, physiological characteristics (such as age, sex and genetic background) and husbandry practices and explore the impact of these on common experimental readouts used in preclinical diabetes research.

Effects of High-Fat and High-Fat/High-Sucrose Diet-Induced Obesity on PVAT Modulation of Vascular Function in Male and Female Mice

Increased adiposity in perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) has been related to vascular dysfunction. High-fat (HF) diet-induced obesity models are often used to analyze the translational impact of obesity, but differences in sex and Western diet type complicate comparisons between studies. The role of PVAT was investigated in small mesenteric arteries (SMAs) of male and female mice fed a HF or a HF plus high-sucrose (HF + HS) diet for 3 or 5 months and compared them to age/sex-matched mice fed a chow diet. Vascular responses of SMAs without (PVAT-) or with PVAT (PVAT+) were evaluated. HF and HF + HS diets increased body weight, adiposity, and fasting glucose and insulin levels without affecting blood pressure and circulating adiponectin levels in both sexes. HF or HF + HS diet impaired PVAT anticontractile effects in SMAs from females but not males. PVAT-mediated endothelial dysfunction in SMAs from female mice after 3 months of a HF + HS diet, whereas in males, this effect was observed only after 5 months of HF + HS diet. However, PVAT did not impact acetylcholine-induced relaxation in SMAs from both sexes fed HF diet. The findings suggest that the addition of sucrose to a HF diet accelerates PVAT dysfunction in both sexes. PVAT dysfunction in response to both diets was observed early in females compared to age-matched males suggesting a susceptibility of the female sex to PVAT-mediated vascular complications in the setting of obesity. The data illustrate the importance of the duration and composition of obesogenic diets for investigating sex-specific treatments and pharmacological targets for obesity-induced vascular complications.

Glutaredoxin1 knockout promotes high-fat diet-induced obesity in male mice but not in female ones

This study aims to explore how a high-fat diet and glutaredoxin1 (Glrx1) deficiency affect the development of obesity in male and female mice. A high-fat diet induced great differences in calorie intake and body weight gain between male and female mice; furthermore, the Glrx1 deficiency made male mice more sensitive to a high-fat diet than females. Male mice had higher glucose intolerance, and Glrx1 deficiency aggravated gender differences in glucose intolerance. Glrx1 deficiency aggravated high-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia. The mRNA levels of HMGCR, Srebf-1c, Srebf-2, CD36, FASN and SCD1 were consistently lower in females than in males. Glrx1 deficiency exacerbated high-fat diet induced liver injury and oxidative stress. Diet but not gender or genotype altered the composition of gut microbiota. These findings provide a new insight into the different susceptibilities to obesity caused by a high-fat diet between males and females.

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction in humans and mice: embracing clinical complexity in mouse models

Heart failure (HF) with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a multifactorial disease accounting for a large and increasing proportion of all clinical HF presentations. As a clinical syndrome, HFpEF is characterized by typical signs and symptoms of HF, a distinct cardiac phenotype and raised natriuretic peptides. Non-cardiac comorbidities frequently co-exist and contribute to the pathophysiology of HFpEF. To date, no therapy has proven to improve outcomes in HFpEF, with drug development hampered, at least partly, by lack of consensus on appropriate standards for pre-clinical HFpEF models. Recently, two clinical algorithms (HFA-PEFF and H₂FPEF scores) have been developed to improve and standardize the diagnosis of HFpEF. In this review, we evaluate the translational utility of HFpEF mouse models in the context of these HFpEF scores. We systematically recorded evidence of symptoms and signs of HF or clinical HFpEF features and included several cardiac and extra-cardiac parameters as well as age and sex for each HFpEF mouse model. We found that most of the pre-clinical HFpEF models do not meet the HFpEF clinical criteria, although some multifactorial models resemble human HFpEF to a reasonable extent. We therefore conclude that to optimize the translational value of mouse models to human HFpEF, a novel approach for the development of pre-clinical HFpEF models is needed, taking into account the complex HFpEF pathophysiology in humans.

Sex- and age-dependent outcomes of 9-hour time-restricted feeding of a Western high-fat high-sucrose diet in C57BL/6J mice

Time-restricted feeding (TRF) is a nutritional intervention wherein food intake is limited to a consistent 8- to 10-h daily window without changes in nutritional quality or quantity. TRF can prevent and treat diet-induced obesity (DIO) and associated metabolic disease in young male mice fed an obesogenic diet, the gold standard preclinical model for metabolic disease research. Because age and sex are key biological variables affecting metabolic disease pathophysiology and response to therapies, we assessed their impact on TRF benefits by subjecting young 3-month-old or middle-aged 12-month-old male and female mice to ad libitum or TRF of a Western diet. We show that most of the benefits of TRF are age-independent but are sex-dependent. TRF protects both sexes against fatty liver and glucose intolerance while body weight benefits are observed only in males. We also find that TRF imparts performance benefits and increases survival to sepsis in both sexes.

High-fat diet induces obesity in adult mice but fails to develop pre-penile and penile vascular dysfunction

Obesity can lead to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and erectile dysfunction (ED) which decreases overall quality of life. Mechanisms responsible for obesity induced ED are unknown. Current mouse models of high fat diet (HFD) induced obesity yield conflicting results. Genetic variants among common “wild type” strains may explain contradictory data. Adult male C57BL/6N and 6J mice were fed a 45% HFD for 12 weeks. Weekly food intake, weight gain, and body fat percentage were measured. After 12 weeks, ex vivo vascular reactivity was measured in aortas, internal pudendal arteries, and penises. We assessed smooth muscle contractility, endothelial-dependent and -independent relaxation, and penile neurotransmitter mediated relaxation. C57BL/6N mice developed greater obesity and glucose sensitivity compared to C57BL/6J mice. Aortas from both strains fed a HFD had decreased contraction, yet contraction was unchanged in HFD pudendal arteries and penises. Interestingly, endothelial-dependent and -independent relaxation was unchanged in both systemic and penile vasculature. Likewise, HFD did not impair penile neurotransmitter mediated relaxation. Both strains fed 12 weeks of HFD developed obese phenotypes. However, HFD did not impair pre-penile or penile smooth muscle vasoreactivity as demonstrated in previous studies, suggesting this preclinical model does not accurately represent the clinical phenotype of obesity induced ED.

Sex differences in insulin resistance, but not peripheral neuropathy, in a diet-induced prediabetes mouse model

Peripheral neuropathy (PN) is a common complication of prediabetes and diabetes and is an increasing problem worldwide. Existing PN treatments rely solely on glycemic control, which is effective in type 1 but not type 2 diabetes. Sex differences in response to anti-diabetic drugs further complicate the identification of effective PN therapies. Preclinical research has been primarily carried out in males, highlighting the need for increased sex consideration in PN models. We previously reported PN sex dimorphism in obese leptin-deficient ob/ob mice. This genetic model is inherently limited, however, owing to leptin's role in metabolism. Therefore, the current study goal was to examine PN and insulin resistance in male and female C57BL6/J mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD), an established murine model of human prediabetes lacking genetic mutations. HFD mice of both sexes underwent longitudinal phenotyping and exhibited expected metabolic and PN dysfunction compared to standard diet (SD)-fed animals. Hindpaw thermal latencies to heat were shorter in HFD females versus HFD males, as well as SD females versus males. Compared to HFD males, female HFD mice exhibited delayed insulin resistance, yet still developed the same trajectory of nerve conduction deficits and intraepidermal nerve fiber density loss. Subtle differences in adipokine levels were also noted by sex and obesity status. Collectively, our results indicate that although females retain early insulin sensitivity upon HFD challenge, this does not protect them from developing the same degree of PN as their male counterparts. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Interplay Between Systemic Metabolic Cues and Autonomic Output: Connecting Cardiometabolic Function and Parasympathetic Circuits

There is consensus that the heart is innervated by both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system. However, the role of the parasympathetic nervous system in controlling cardiac function has received significantly less attention than the sympathetic nervous system. New neuromodulatory strategies have renewed interest in the potential of parasympathetic (or vagal) motor output to treat cardiovascular disease and poor cardiac function. This renewed interest emphasizes a critical need to better understand how vagal motor output is generated and regulated. With clear clinical links between cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, addressing this gap in knowledge is undeniably critical to our understanding of the interaction between metabolic cues and vagal motor output, notwithstanding the classical role of the parasympathetic nervous system in regulating gastrointestinal function and energy homeostasis. For this reason, this review focuses on the central, vagal circuits involved in sensing metabolic state(s) and enacting vagal motor output to influence cardiac function. It will review our current understanding of brainstem vagal circuits and their unique position to integrate metabolic signaling into cardiac activity. This will include an overview of not only how metabolic cues alter vagal brainstem circuits, but also how vagal motor output might influence overall systemic concentrations of metabolic cues known to act on the cardiac tissue. Overall, this review proposes that the vagal brainstem circuits provide an integrative network capable of regulating and responding to metabolic cues to control cardiac function.

Cardiac Remodeling During Pregnancy With Metabolic Syndrome: Prologue of Pathological Remodeling

BACKGROUND

The heart undergoes physiological hypertrophy during pregnancy in healthy individuals. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is now prevalent in women of child-bearing age and might add risks of adverse cardiovascular events during pregnancy. The present study asks if cardiac remodeling during pregnancy in obese individuals with MetS is abnormal and whether this predisposes them to a higher risk for cardiovascular disorders.

METHODS

The idea that MetS induces pathological cardiac remodeling during pregnancy was studied in a long-term (15 weeks) Western diet-feeding animal model that recapitulated features of human MetS. Pregnant female mice with Western diet (45% kcal fat)-induced MetS were compared with pregnant and nonpregnant females fed a control diet (10% kcal fat).

RESULTS

Pregnant mice fed a Western diet had increased heart mass and exhibited key features of pathological hypertrophy, including fibrosis and upregulation of fetal genes associated with pathological hypertrophy. Hearts from pregnant animals with WD-induced MetS had a distinct gene expression profile that could underlie their pathological remodeling. Concurrently, pregnant female mice with MetS showed more severe cardiac hypertrophy and exacerbated cardiac dysfunction when challenged with angiotensin II/phenylephrine infusion after delivery.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that preexisting MetS could disrupt physiological hypertrophy during pregnancy to produce pathological cardiac remodeling that could predispose the heart to chronic disorders.

Deletion of Orphan G Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR37L1 in Mice Alters Cardiovascular Homeostasis in a Sex-Specific Manner

GPR37L1 is a family A orphan G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) with a putative role in blood pressure regulation and cardioprotection. In mice, genetic ablation of Gpr37l1 causes sex-dependent effects; female mice lacking Gpr37l1 (GPR37L1^-/-) have a modest but significant elevation in blood pressure, while male GPR37L1^-/- mice are more susceptible to cardiovascular dysfunction following angiotensin II-induced hypertension. Given that this receptor is highly expressed in the brain, we hypothesize that the cardiovascular phenotype of GPR37L1^-/- mice is due to changes in autonomic regulation of blood pressure and heart rate. To investigate this, radiotelemetry was employed to characterize baseline cardiovascular variables in GPR37L1^-/- mice of both sexes compared to wildtype controls, followed by power spectral analysis to quantify short-term fluctuations in blood pressure and heart rate attributable to alterations in autonomic homeostatic mechanisms. Additionally, pharmacological ganglionic blockade was performed to determine vasomotor tone, and environmental stress tests were used to assess whether cardiovascular reactivity was altered in GPR37L1^-/- mice. We observed that mean arterial pressure was significantly lower in female GPR37L1^-/- mice compared to wildtype counterparts, but was unchanged in male GPR37L1^-/- mice. GPR37L1^-/- genotype had a statistically significant positive chronotropic effect on heart rate across both sexes when analyzed by two-way ANOVA. Power spectral analysis of these data revealed a reduction in power in the heart rate spectrum between 0.5 and 3 Hz in female GPR37L1^-/- mice during the diurnal active period, which indicates that GPR37L1^-/- mice may have impaired cardiac vagal drive. GPR37L1^-/- mice of both sexes also exhibited attenuated depressor responses to ganglionic blockade with pentolinium, indicating that GPR37L1 is involved in maintaining sympathetic vasomotor tone. Interestingly, when these mice were subjected to aversive and appetitive behavioral stressors, the female GPR37L1^-/- mice exhibited an attenuation of cardiovascular reactivity to aversive, but not appetitive, environmental stimuli. Together, these results suggest that loss of GPR37L1 affects autonomic maintenance of blood pressure, giving rise to sex-specific cardiovascular changes in GPR37L1^-/- mice.

Delayed Exercise Training Improves Obesity-Induced Chronic Kidney Disease by Activating AMPK Pathway in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice

Exercise training is now recognized as an interesting therapeutic strategy in managing obesity and its related disorders. However, there is still a lack of knowledge about its impact on obesity-induced chronic kidney disease (CKD). Here, we investigated the effects of a delayed protocol of endurance exercise training (EET) as well as the underlying mechanism in obese mice presenting CKD. Mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or a low-fat diet (LFD) for 12 weeks were subsequently submitted to an 8-weeks EET protocol. Delayed treatment with EET in obese mice prevented body weight gain associated with a reduced calorie intake. EET intervention counteracted obesity-related disorders including glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia and hepatic steatosis. Moreover, our data demonstrated for the first time the beneficial effects of EET on obesity-induced CKD as evidenced by an improvement of obesity-related glomerulopathy, tubulo-interstitial fibrosis, inflammation and oxidative stress. EET also prevented renal lipid depositions in the proximal tubule. These results were associated with an improvement of the AMPK pathway by EET in renal tissue. AMPK-mediated phosphorylation of ACC and ULK-1 were particularly enhanced leading to increased fatty acid oxidation and autophagy improvement with EET in obese mice.

Castanea sativa Mill. bark extract cardiovascular effects in a rat model of high-fat diet

Ellagitannins may have a beneficial impact in cardiovascular diseases. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of high-fat diet (HFD) and the efficacy of Castanea sativa Mill. bark extract (ENC) on cardiac and vascular parameters. Rats were fed with regular diet, (RD, n = 15), HFD (n = 15), RD + ENC (20 mg/kg/day by gavage, n = 15), and HFD + ENC (same dose, n = 15) and the effects on body weight, biochemical serum parameters, and inflammatory cytokines determined. Cardiac functional parameters and aorta contractility were also assessed on isolated atria and aorta. Results showed that ENC reduced weight gain and serum lipids induced by HFD. In in vitro assays, HFD decreased the contraction force of left atrium, increased right atrium chronotropy, and decreased aorta K⁺ -induced contraction; ENC induced transient positive inotropic and negative chronotropic effects on isolated atria from RD and HFD rats and a spasmolytic effect on aorta. In ex vivo experiments, ENC reverted inotropic and chronotropic changes induced by HFD and enhanced Nifedipine effect more on aorta than on heart. In conclusion, ENC restores metabolic dysfunction and cardiac cholinergic muscarinic receptor function, and exerts spasmolytic effect on aorta in HFD rats, highlighting its potential as nutraceutical tool in obesity.

Estrogen and gut satiety hormones in vagus-hindbrain axis

Estrogens modulate different physiological functions, including reproduction, inflammation, bone formation, energy expenditure, and food intake. In this review, we highlight the effect of estrogens on food intake regulation and the latest literature on intracellular estrogen signaling. In addition, gut satiety hormones, such as cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide 1 and leptin are essential to regulate ingestive behaviors in the postprandial period. These peripheral signals are sensed by vagal afferent terminals in the gut wall and transmitted to the hindbrain axis. Here we 1. review the role of the vagus-hindbrain axis in response to gut satiety signals and 2. consider the potential synergistic effects of estrogens on gut satiety signals at the level of vagal afferent neurons and nuclei located in the hindbrain. Understanding the action of estrogens in gut-brain axis provides a potential strategy to develop estrogen-based therapies for metabolic diseases and emphasizes the importance of sex difference in the treatment of obesity.

Knockout of vascular smooth muscle EGF receptor in a mouse model prevents obesity-induced vascular dysfunction and renal damage in vivo

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Obesity causes type 2 diabetes leading to vascular dysfunction and finally renal end-organ damage. Vascular smooth muscle (VSM) EGF receptor (EGFR) modulates vascular wall homeostasis in part via serum response factor (SRF), a major regulator of VSM differentiation and a sensor for glucose. We investigated the role of VSM-EGFR during obesity-induced renovascular dysfunction, as well as EGFR-hyperglycaemia crosstalk.

METHODS

The role of VSM-EGFR during high-fat diet (HFD)-induced type 2 diabetes was investigated in a mouse model with inducible, VSM-specific EGFR-knockout (KO). Various structural and functional variables as well as transcriptome changes, in vivo and ex vivo, were assessed. The impact of hyperglycaemia on EGFR-induced signalling and SRF transcriptional activity and the underlying mechanisms were investigated at the cellular level.

RESULTS

We show that VSM-EGFR mediates obesity/type 2 diabetes-induced vascular dysfunction, remodelling and transcriptome dysregulation preceding renal damage and identify an EGFR-glucose synergism in terms of SRF activation, matrix dysregulation and mitochondrial function. EGFR deletion protects the animals from HFD-induced endothelial dysfunction, creatininaemia and albuminuria. Furthermore, we show that HFD leads to marked changes of the aortic transcriptome in wild-type but not in KO animals, indicative of EGFR-dependent SRF activation, matrix dysregulation and mitochondrial dysfunction, the latter confirmed at the cellular level. Studies at the cellular level revealed that high glucose potentiated EGFR/EGF receptor 2 (ErbB2)-induced stimulation of SRF activity, enhancing the graded signalling responses to EGF, via the EGFR/ErbB2-ROCK-actin-MRTF pathway and promoted mitochondrial dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

VSM-EGFR contributes to HFD-induced vascular and subsequent renal alterations. We propose that a potentiated EGFR/ErbB2-ROCK-MRTF-SRF signalling axis and mitochondrial dysfunction underlie the role of EGFR. This advanced working hypothesis will be investigated in mechanistic depth in future studies. VSM-EGFR may be a therapeutic target in cases of type 2 diabetes-induced renovascular disease.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in: (1) share_it, the data repository of the academic libraries of Saxony-Anhalt ( https://doi.org/10.25673/32049.2 ); and (2) in the gene expression omnibus database with the study identity GSE144838 ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSE144838 ). Graphical abstract.

Myo-inositol and d-chiro-inositol oral supplementation ameliorate cardiac dysfunction and remodeling in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity

Obesity is an independent risk factor to develop cardiac functional and structural impairments. Here, we investigated the effects of supplementation of inositols on the electrical, structural, and functional cardiac alterations in the mouse model of high fat diet (HFD) induced obesity. Three groups of C57BL6 mice (n = 16 each) were studied: j) HFD feeding; jj) HFD feeding + inositols from week 9 to 13; jjj) standard diet feeding. Study observation period was 13 weeks. Inositols were administered as mixture of myo-inositol and d-chiro-inositol in the drinking water. Effects of inositols were evaluated based on electrical, structural, and functional cardiac features, autonomic sympatho-vagal balance and arrhythmogenic susceptibility to adrenergic challenge. Heart samples were collected for histological evaluations and transcriptional analyses of genes involved in defining the shape and propagation of the action potential, fatty acid metabolism and oxidative stress. Inositol supplementation significantly restored control values of heart rate and QTc interval on ECG and of sympatho-vagal balance. Moreover, it blunted the increase in left ventricular mass and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, reversed diastolic dysfunction, reduced the susceptibility to arrhythmic events and restored the expression level of cardiac genes altered by HFD. The present study shows, for the first time, how a short period of supplementation with inositols is able to ameliorate the HFD-induced electrical, structural and functional heart alterations including ventricular remodeling. Results provide a new insight into the cardioprotective effect of inositols, which could pave the way for a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of HFD obesity-induced heart dysfunction.

Regulation of Lymphatic Function in Obesity

The lymphatic system has many functions, including macromolecules transport, fat absorption, regulation and modulation of adaptive immune responses, clearance of inflammatory cytokines, and cholesterol metabolism. Thus, it is evident that lymphatic function can play a key role in the regulation of a wide array of biologic phenomenon, and that physiologic changes that alter lymphatic function may have profound pathologic effects. Recent studies have shown that obesity can markedly impair lymphatic function. Obesity-induced pathologic changes in the lymphatic system result, at least in part, from the accumulation of inflammatory cells around lymphatic vessel leading to impaired lymphatic collecting vessel pumping capacity, leaky initial and collecting lymphatics, alterations in lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) gene expression, and degradation of junctional proteins. These changes are important since impaired lymphatic function in obesity may contribute to the pathology of obesity in other organ systems in a feed-forward manner by increasing low-grade tissue inflammation and the accumulation of inflammatory cytokines. More importantly, recent studies have suggested that interventions that inhibit inflammatory responses, either pharmacologically or by lifestyle modifications such as aerobic exercise and weight loss, improve lymphatic function and metabolic parameters in obese mice. The purpose of this review is to summarize the pathologic effects of obesity on the lymphatic system, the cellular mechanisms that regulate these responses, the effects of impaired lymphatic function on metabolic syndrome in obesity, and the interventions that may improve lymphatic function in obesity.

Molecular and Cellular Differences in Cardiac Repair of Male and Female Mice

Background

Leukocyte‐directed biosynthesis of specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) orchestrates physiological inflammation after myocardial infarction. Deficiency of SPMs drives pathological and nonresolving inflammation, leading to heart failure (HF). Differences in SPMs and inflammatory responses caused by sex‐specific differences are of interest. We differentiated leukocyte‐directed biosynthesis of lipid mediators in male and female mice, focusing on leukocyte populations, structural remodeling, functional recovery, and survival rates.

Methods and Results

Risk‐free male and female C57BL/6 mice were selected as naïve controls or subjected to myocardial infarction surgery. Molecular and cellular mechanisms that differentiate survival, heart function, and structure and leukocyte‐directed lipid mediators were quantified to describe physiological inflammation after myocardial infarction. Female mice show improved survival in acute HF but no statistical difference during chronic HF compared with male mice. Female mice improved survival is marked with functional recovery and limited remodeling compared with male mice. Male and female mice are similarly responsive to arachidonate lipoxygenase (LOX‐5, LOX‐12, LOX‐15) or cyclooxygenase (COX‐1, COX‐2) in acute HF and particularly male infarcted heart had overall increased SPMs. Female cardiac healing is marked with the biosynthesis of differential p450‐derived product, particularly 11,12 epoxyeicosatrienoic acid in acute HF. A sex‐specific difference of dendritic cells in acute HF is distinct, with limited changes in chronic HF.

Conclusions

Cardiac repair is marked with increased SPM biosynthesis in male mice and amplified epoxyeicosatrienoic acid in female mice. Female mice showed improved survival, functional recovery, and limited remodeling, which are signs of fine‐tuned physiological inflammation after myocardial infarction. These results rationalize the sex‐specific precise therapies and differential treatments in acute and chronic HF.

Sex differences in response to short-term high fat diet in mice

BACKGROUND

Consumption of high-fat diet (HF) leads to hyperphagia and increased body weight in male rodents. Female rodents are relatively resistant to hyperphagia and weight gain in response to HF, in part via effects of estrogen that suppresses food intake and increases energy expenditure. However, sex differences in energy expenditure and activity levels with HF challenge have not been systemically described. We hypothesized that, in response to short-term HF feeding, female mice will have a higher energy expenditure and be more resistant to HF-induced hyperphagia than male mice.

METHODS

Six-week-old male and female C57BL/6 J mice were fed either low fat (LF, 10% fat) or moderate HF (45% fat) for 5 weeks, and energy expenditure, activity and meal pattern measured using comprehensive laboratory animal monitoring system (CLAMS).

RESULTS

After 5 weeks, HF-fed male mice had a significant increase in body weight and fat mass, compared with LF-fed male mice. HF-fed female had a significant increase in body weight compared with LF-fed female mice, but there was no significant difference in fat mass. HF-fed male mice had lower energy expenditure compared to HF-fed female mice, likely due in part to reduced physical activity in the light phase. HF-fed male mice also had increased energy intake in the dark phase compared to LF-fed male mice and a reduced response to exogenous cholecystokinin-induced inhibition of food intake. In contrast, there was no difference in energy intake between LF-fed and HF-fed female mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The data show that female mice are generally protected from short-term HF-induced alterations in energy balance, possibly by maintaining higher energy expenditure and an absence of hyperphagia. However, HF-feeding in male mice induced weight and fat mass gain and hyperphagia. These findings suggest that there is a sex difference in the response to short-term HF-feeding in terms of both energy expenditure and control of food intake.

The disassembly of the neuromuscular synapse in high-fat diet-induced obese male mice

Objective

A sustained high fat diet in mice mimics many features of human obesity. We used male and female Non-Swiss albino mice to investigate the impact of short and long-term high-fat diet-(HFD)-induced obesity on the peripheral neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and whether obesity-related synaptic structural alterations were reversible after switching obese mice from HFD to a standard fat diet (SD).

Methods

HFD-induced obese and age-matched control mice fed SD were used. We carried out in vivo time lapse imaging to monitor changes of synapses over time, quantitative fluorescence imaging to study the regulation of acetylcholine receptor number and density at neuromuscular junctions, and high resolution confocal microscope to study structural alterations in both the pre- and postsynaptic apparatus.

Results

Time-lapse imaging in vivo over a 9 month period revealed that NMJs of HFD obese male mice display a variety of obesity-related structural alterations, including the disappearance of large synaptic areas, significant reduction in the density/number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChRs), abnormal distribution of AChRs, high turnover rate of AChRs, retraction of axons from lost postsynaptic sites, and partially denervated synapses. The severity of these synaptic alterations is associated with the duration of obesity. However, no substantial alterations were observed at NMJs of age-matched HFD obese female mice or male mice fed with a standard or low fat diet. Intriguingly, when obese male mice were switched from HFD to a standard diet, receptor density and the abnormal pattern of AChR distribution were completely reversed to normal, whereas lost synaptic structures were not restored.

Conclusions

These results show that the obese male mice are more vulnerable than female mice to the impacts of long-term HFD on the NMJ damage and provide evidence that diet restriction can partially reverse obesity-related synaptic changes.

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Neuromuscular junctions of High-fat induced obese male mice display a variety of obesity-related structural alterations.

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The severity of alterations in neuromuscular junction morphology is associated with the duration of obesity.

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Neuromuscular junctions of High-fat diet induced obese female mice display no substantial morphological changes.

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Not all obesity-related synaptic alterations were reversible after switching male mice from High-fat diet to standard diet.

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Obese male mice are more vulnerable than female mice to the impacts of long-term HFD on the neuromuscular junction damage.

Sex-Specific Effect of High-Fat Diet on Glycerol Metabolism in Murine Adipose Tissue and Liver

Obesity is associated with increased plasma glycerol levels. The coordinated regulation of glycerol channels in adipose tissue (AQP7) and the liver (AQP9) has been suggested as an important contributor to the pathophysiology of type-2-diabetes mellitus, as it would provide glycerol for hepatic synthesis of glucose and triglycerides. The regulation of AQP7 and AQP9 is influenced by sex. This study investigates the effect of a high-fat diet (HFD) on glycerol metabolism in mice and the influence of sex and GLP-1-receptor agonist treatment. Female and male C57BL/6JRj mice were fed either a control diet or a HFD for 12 or 24 weeks. Liraglutide was administered (1 mg/kg/day) to a subset of female mice. After 12 weeks of HFD, females had gained less weight than males. In adipose tissue, only females demonstrated an increased abundance of AQP7, whereas only males demonstrated a significant increase in glycerol kinase abundance and adipocyte size. 24 weeks of HFD resulted in a more comparable effect on weight gain and adipose tissue in females and males. HFD resulted in marked hepatic steatosis in males only and had no significant effect on the hepatic abundance of AQP9. Liraglutide treatment generally attenuated the effects of HFD on glycerol metabolism. In conclusion, no coordinated upregulation of glycerol channels in adipose tissue and liver was observed in response to HFD. The effect of HFD on glycerol metabolism is sex-specific in mice, and we propose that the increased AQP7 abundance in female adipose tissue could contribute to their less severe response to HFD.

Murine model of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and electro-mechanical uncoupling following high-fat diet

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

It is well established that obesity is an independent risk factor for cardiac death. In particular various cardiac alterations have been described in obese patients such as long QT on ECG, impaired diastolic filling of the left ventricle (LV), and all-type arrhythmias. In the present study, the above alterations were all reproduced in a mouse model of fat diet-induced obesity.

ANIMALS/METHODS

In C57BL6 mice fed on a high fat (n = 20, HF-group) or standard diet (n = 20, C-group) for 13 weeks, balanced by sex and age, we examined heart morphology and function by high-frequency ultrasounds and electric activity by surface ECG. Besides, the autonomic sympathovagal balance (heart-rate variability) and the arrhythmogenic susceptibility to adrenergic challenge (i.p. isoproterenol) were compared in the two groups, as well as glucose tolerance (i.p. glucose test) and liver steatosis (ultrasounds).

RESULTS

Body weight in HF-group exceeded C-group at the end of the experiment (+28% p < 0.01). An abnormal ventricular repolarization (long QTc on ECG) together with impaired LV filling rate and increased LV mass was found in HF-group as compared to C. Moreover, HF-group showed higher heart rate, unbalanced autonomic control with adrenergic prevalence and a greater susceptibility to develop rhythm disturbances under adrenergic challenge (i.p. isoprenaline). Impaired glucose tolerance and higher liver fat accumulation were also found in HF mice compared to C.

CONCLUSIONS

The described murine model of 13 weeks on HF diet, well reproduced the cardiovascular and metabolic disorders reported in clinical obesity, suggesting its potential utility as translational mean suitable for testing new pharmaco-therapeutic approaches to the treatment of obesity and its comorbidity.

Female Mice Exposed to Postnatal Neglect Display Angiotensin II-Dependent Obesity-Induced Hypertension

Background We have previously reported that female mice exposed to maternal separation and early weaning (MSEW), a model of early life stress, show exacerbated diet-induced obesity associated with hypertension. The goal of this study was to test whether MSEW promotes angiotensin II-dependent hypertension via activation of the renin-angiotensin system in adipose tissue. Methods and Results MSEW was achieved by daily separations from the dam and weaning at postnatal day 17, while normally reared controls were weaned at postnatal day 21. Female controls and MSEW weanlings were placed on a low-fat diet (LF, 10% kcal from fat) or high-fat diet (HF, 60% kcal from fat) for 20 weeks. MSEW did not change mean arterial pressure in LF-fed mice but increased it in HF-fed mice compared with controls (P<0.05). In MSEW mice fed a HF, angiotensin II concentration in plasma and adipose tissue was elevated compared with controls (P<0.05). In addition, angiotensinogen concentration was increased solely in adipose tissue from MSEW mice (P<0.05), while angiotensin-converting enzyme protein expression and activity were similar between groups. Chronic enalapril treatment (2.5 mg/kg per day, drinking water, 7 days) reduced mean arterial pressure in both groups of mice fed a HF (P<0.05) and abolished the differences due to MSEW. Acute angiotensin II-induced increases in mean arterial pressure (10 μg/kg SC) were attenuated in untreated MSEW HF-fed mice compared to controls (P<0.05); however, this response was similar between groups in enalapril-treated mice. Conclusions The upregulation of angiotensinogen and angiotensin II in adipose tissue could be an important mechanism by which female MSEW mice fed a HF develop hypertension.

Mineralocorticoid Receptor and Endothelial Dysfunction in Hypertension

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the latest reports of the contributions of the endothelial mineralocorticoid receptor to endothelial dysfunction and hypertension to begin to determine the clinical potential for this pathway for hypertension treatment.

RECENT FINDINGS

Endothelial mineralocorticoid receptor expression is sex-specifically increased in female mice and humans compared with males. Moreover, the expression of endothelial mineralocorticoid receptors is increased by endothelial progesterone receptor activation and naturally occurring fluctuations in progesterone levels (estrous, pregnancy) predict endothelial mineralocorticoid receptor expression levels in female mice. These data follow many previous reports that have indicated that endothelial mineralocorticoid receptor deletion is protective in the development of obesity- and diabetes-associated endothelial dysfunction in female mouse models. These studies have more recently been followed up by reports indicating that both intact endothelial mineralocorticoid receptor and progesterone receptor expression are required for obesity-associated, leptin-mediated endothelial dysfunction in female mice. In addition, the intra-endothelial signaling pathway for endothelial mineralocorticoid receptors to induce dysfunction requires the intact expression of α-epithelial sodium channels (αENaC) in endothelial cells in females. Endothelial mineralocorticoid receptors are sex-specifically upregulated in the vasculature of females, a sex difference which is driven by endothelial progesterone receptor activation, and increased activity of these endothelial mineralocorticoid receptors is a crucial mediator of endothelial dysfunction, and potentially hypertension, in obese female experimental models.

Sex Differences in Renal Inflammation and Injury in High-Fat Diet-Fed Dahl Salt-Sensitive Rats

We examined the impact of sex on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced renal alterations in Dahl salt-sensitive and Sprague Dawley rats. In Dahl rats, HFD (60% kcal from fat for 24-26 weeks starting at weaning) significantly and equally increased blood pressure in males and females when compared with rats fed a control diet (10% kcal from fat). Male Dahl rats on HFD exhibited progressive renal histological injury and moderately increased renal macrophage infiltration at 10 and 24 weeks of feeding when compared with males on control diet. Female Dahl rats had lower grade renal injury and less macrophage infiltration (except at 17 weeks) than males regardless of diet. Male Dahl rats on both diets showed progressively increasing numbers of renal T-cells, a pattern not observed in females. HFD per se did not significantly affect renal T-cell number. Male Dahl rats had lower renal regulatory T-cells cell ratio than females at 24 weeks. Renal macrophage and T-cell infiltrations were highly correlated to final mean arterial pressure levels in males but not in females. Sprague Dawley rats fed HFD were normotensive without significant renal injury/inflammation after 24 weeks of feeding. In summary, HFD feeding fails to increase arterial blood pressure in Sprague Dawley rats but strongly promotes hypertension in both male and female Dahl salt-sensitive rats. Only Dahl males, however, exhibited blood pressure-associated renal inflammation and injury. Maintenance of regulatory T-cells ratio may protect against hypertension-associated renal injury/inflammation but not HFD-induced hypertension.

High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Model Does Not Promote Endothelial Dysfunction via Increasing Leptin/Akt/eNOS Signaling

Experimental studies show that the unsaturated high-fat diet-induced obesity promotes vascular alterations characterized by improving the endothelial L-arginine/Nitric Oxide (NO) pathway. Leptin seems to be involved in this process, promoting vasodilation via increasing NO bioavailability. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that unsaturated high-fat diet-induced obesity does not generate endothelial dysfunction via increasing the vascular leptin/Akt/eNOS signaling. Thirty-day-old male Wistar rats were randomized into two groups: control (C) and obese (Ob). Group C was fed a standard diet, while group Ob was fed an unsaturated high-fat diet for 27 weeks. Adiposity, hormonal and biochemical parameters, and systolic blood pressure were observed. Concentration response curves were performed for leptin or acetylcholine in the presence or absence of Akt and NOS inhibitor. Our results showed that an unsaturated high-fat diet promoted a greater feed efficiency (FE), elevation of body weight and body fat (BF), and an adiposity index, characterizing a model of obesity. However, comorbidities frequently associated with experimental obesity were not visualized, such as glucose intolerance, dyslipidemia and hypertension. The evaluation of the endothelium-dependent relaxation with acetylcholine showed no differences between the C and Ob rats. After NOS inhibition, the response was completely abolished in the Ob group, but not in the C group. Furthermore, Akt inhibition completely blunted vascular relaxation in the C group, but not in the Ob group, which was more sensitive to leptin-induced vascular relaxation. L-NAME incubation abolished the relaxation in both groups at the same level. Although Akt inhibitor pre-incubation reduced the leptin response, group C was more sensitive to its effect. In conclusion, the high-unsaturated fat diet-induced obesity improved the vascular reactivity to leptin and does not generate endothelial dysfunction, possibly by the increase in the vascular sensitivity to leptin and increasing NO bioavailability. Moreover, our results suggest that the increase in NO production occurs through the increase in NOS activation by leptin and is partially mediated by the Akt pathway.

Effects of High-Fat Diet on eHSP72 and Extra-to-Intracellular HSP70 Levels in Mice Submitted to Exercise under Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter

Obesity, air pollution, and exercise induce alterations in the heat shock response (HSR), in both intracellular 70 kDa heat shock proteins (iHSP70) and the plasmatic extracellular form (eHSP72). Extra-to-intracellular HSP70 ratio (H-index = eHSP70/iHSP70 ratio) represents a candidate biomarker of subclinical health status. This study investigated the effects of moderate- and high-intensity exercise in the HSR and oxidative stress parameters, in obese mice exposed to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5). Thirty-day-old male isogenic B6₁₂₉F₂/J mice were maintained for 16 weeks on standard chow or high-fat diet (HFD). Then, mice were exposed to either saline or 50 μg of PM_2.5 by intranasal instillation and subsequently maintained at rest or subjected to moderate- or high-intensity swimming exercise. HFD mice exhibited high adiposity and glucose intolerance at week 16th. HFD mice submitted to moderate- or high-intensity exercise were not able to complete the exercise session and showed lower levels of eHSP70 and H-index, when compared to controls. PM_2.5 exposure modified the glycaemic response to exercise and modified hematological responses in HFD mice. Our study suggests that obesity is a critical health condition for exercise prescription under PM_2.5 exposure.

Cardiovascular sexual dimorphism in a diet-induced type 2 diabetes rodent model, the Nile rat (Arvicanthis niloticus)

Background

The Nile rat (Arvicanthis niloticus) is an emerging laboratory model of type 2 diabetes. When fed standard rodent chow, the majority of males progress from hyperinsulinemia by 2 months to hyperglycemia by 6 months, while most females remain at the hyperinsulinemia-only stage (prediabetic) from 2 months onward. Since diabetic cardiomyopathy is the major cause of type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)-related mortality, we examined whether sexual dimorphism might entail cardiac functional changes. Our ultimate goal was to isolate the effect of diet as a modifiable lifestyle factor.

Materials and methods

Nile rats were fed either standard rodent chow (Chow group) or a high-fiber diet previously established to prevent type 2 diabetes (Fiber group). Cardiac function was determined with echocardiography at 12 months of age. To isolate the effect of diet alone, only the small subset of animals resistant to both hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia were included in this study.

Results

In males, Chow (compared to Fiber) was associated with elevated heart rate and mitral E/A velocity ratio, and with lower e’-wave velocity, isovolumetric relaxation time, and ejection time. Of note, these clinically atypical types of diastolic dysfunction occurred independently of body weight. In contrast, females did not exhibit changes in cardiovascular function between diets.

Conclusions

The higher prevalence of T2DM in males correlates with their susceptibility to develop subtle diastolic cardiac dysfunction when fed a Western style diet (throughout most of their lifespan) despite no systemic evidence of metabolic syndrome, let alone T2DM.