Co-limitation of photosynthetic capacity by nitrogen and phosphorus in West Africa woodlands

Why models underestimate West African tropical forest primary productivity

Tropical forests dominate terrestrial photosynthesis, yet there are major contradictions in our understanding due to a lack of field studies, especially outside the tropical Americas. A recent field study indicated that West African forests have among the highest forests gross primary productivity (GPP) yet observed, contradicting models that rank them lower than Amazonian forests. Here, we show possible reasons for this data-model mismatch. We found that biometric GPP measurements are on average 56.3% higher than multiple global GPP products at the study sites. The underestimation of GPP largely disappears when a standard photosynthesis model is informed by local field-measured values of (a) fractional absorbed photosynthetic radiation (fAPAR), and (b) photosynthetic traits. Remote sensing products systematically underestimate fAPAR (33.9% on average at study sites) due to cloud contamination issues. The study highlights the potential widespread underestimation of tropical forests GPP and carbon cycling and hints at the ways forward for model and input data improvement.

Physiological, transcriptomic and metabolomic insights of three extremophyte woody species living in the multi-stress environment of the Atacama Desert

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to Neltuma species, S. tamarugo exhibited higher stress tolerance, maintaining photosynthetic performance through enhanced gene expression and metabolites. Differentially accumulated metabolites include chlorophyll and carotenoids and accumulation of non-nitrogen osmoprotectants. Plant species have developed different adaptive strategies to live under extreme environmental conditions. Hypothetically, extremophyte species present a unique configuration of physiological functions that prioritize stress-tolerance mechanisms while carefully managing resource allocation for photosynthesis. This could be particularly challenging under a multi-stress environment, where the synthesis of multiple and sequential molecular mechanisms is induced. We explored this hypothesis in three phylogenetically related woody species co-occurring in the Atacama Desert, Strombocarpa tamarugo, Neltuma alba, and Neltuma chilensis, by analyzing their leaf dehydration and freezing tolerance and by characterizing their photosynthetic performance under natural growth conditions. Besides, the transcriptomic profiling, biochemical analyses of leaf pigments, and metabolite analysis by untargeted metabolomics were conducted to study gene expression and metabolomic landscape within this challenging multi-stress environment. S. tamarugo showed a higher photosynthetic capacity and leaf stress tolerance than the other species. In this species, a multifactorial response was observed, which involves high photochemical activity associated with a higher content of chlorophylls and β-carotene. The oxidative damage of the photosynthetic apparatus is probably attenuated by the synthesis of complex antioxidant molecules in the three species, but S. tamarugo showed the highest antioxidant capacity. Comparative transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses among the species showed the differential expression of genes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of key stress-related metabolites. Moreover, the synthesis of non-nitrogen osmoprotectant molecules, such as ciceritol and mannitol in S. tamarugo, would allow the nitrogen allocation to support its high photosynthetic capacity without compromising leaf dehydration tolerance and freezing stress avoidance.

Integrating leaf spectral and water status information to effectively track chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters during dehydration

Monitoring changes in chlorophyll a (ChlFa) fluorescence during dehydration can provide insights into plant photosynthetic responses to climate change challenges, which are predicted to increase drought frequency. However, the limited knowledge of how ChlFa parameters respond to water deficit hinders the exploration of the photochemical mechanism of the photosynthetic process and the simulation of photosynthetic fluorescence models. Furthermore, how to track such responses of ChlFa parameters, especially at large scales, remains a challenge. In this study, we attempted to use spectral information reflected from leaves to follow the dynamic response patterns of ChlFa parameters of seven species under prolonged dehydration. The results showed that the investigated ChlFa parameters exhibited significant changes as dehydration progressed, with considerable variability among the different species as well as under different water conditions. This study also demonstrated that the integration of both spectral and water content information can provide an effective method for tracking ChlFa parameters during dehydration, explaining over 90% of the total variance in the measured ChlFa parameters. Collectively, these results should serve as a valuable reference for predicting the response of ChlFa parameters to dehydration and offer a potential method for estimating ChlFa parameters under drought conditions.

In situ short-term responses of Amazonian understory plants to elevated CO2

The response of plants to increasing atmospheric CO2 depends on the ecological context where the plants are found. Several experiments with elevated CO2 (eCO2) have been done worldwide, but the Amazonian forest understory has been neglected. As the central Amazon is limited by light and phosphorus, understanding how understory responds to eCO2 is important for foreseeing how the forest will function in the future. In the understory of a natural forest in the Central Amazon, we installed four open-top chambers as control replicates and another four under eCO2 (+250 ppm above ambient levels). Under eCO2, we observed increases in carbon assimilation rate (67%), maximum electron transport rate (19%), quantum yield (56%), and water use efficiency (78%). We also detected an increase in leaf area (51%) and stem diameter increment (65%). Central Amazon understory responded positively to eCO2 by increasing their ability to capture and use light and the extra primary productivity was allocated to supporting more leaf and conducting tissues. The increment in leaf area while maintaining transpiration rates suggests that the understory will increase its contribution to evapotranspiration. Therefore, this forest might be less resistant in the future to extreme drought, as no reduction in transpiration rates were detected.

Contrasting carbon cycle along tropical forest aridity gradients in West Africa and Amazonia

Tropical forests cover large areas of equatorial Africa and play a substantial role in the global carbon cycle. However, there has been a lack of biometric measurements to understand the forests' gross and net primary productivity (GPP, NPP) and their allocation. Here we present a detailed field assessment of the carbon budget of multiple forest sites in Africa, by monitoring 14 one-hectare plots along an aridity gradient in Ghana, West Africa. When compared with an equivalent aridity gradient in Amazonia, the studied West African forests generally had higher productivity and lower carbon use efficiency (CUE). The West African aridity gradient consistently shows the highest NPP, CUE, GPP, and autotrophic respiration at a medium-aridity site, Bobiri. Notably, NPP and GPP of the site are the highest yet reported anywhere for intact forests. Widely used data products substantially underestimate productivity when compared to biometric measurements in Amazonia and Africa. Our analysis suggests that the high productivity of the African forests is linked to their large GPP allocation to canopy and semi-deciduous characteristics.

Seasonal variation in C:N:P stoichiometry, nonstructural carbohydrates, and carbon isotopes of two coniferous pioneer tree species in subtropical China

The characteristics of C:N:P stoichiometry, nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) content, and C stable isotopes and their relationships affect plant responses to environmental changes and are critical to understanding the ecosystem carbon and water cycles. We investigated the water use strategies and physiological changes of two pioneer tree species (Pinus armandii and Pinus yunnanensis) in response to seasonal drought in subtropical China. The seasonal variation in needle δ13C values, C:N:P stoichiometry, and NSC contents of the two tree species were studied in 25-year-old plantation in central Yunnan Province. The needle δ13C values of both species were highest in summer. Soluble sugars, starch and NSC content of the two tree species decreased from spring to winter, while there was no significant difference in the seasonal variation of soluble sugars/starch in P. armandii needles, the maximum soluble sugars/starch in P. yunnanensis needles was in autumn. In addition, the C, N, and P contents of the needles and the C:N and C:P ratios of the two species showed different seasonal fluctuations, whereas the N:P ratio decreased with the season. The C:N:P stoichiometry and NSC content of the needles showed significant correlations, whereas the needle δ13C was weakly correlated with C:N:P stoichiometry and NSC content. Phenotypic plasticity analysis and principal component analysis revealed that the needle nutrient characteristics (NSC and P contents and N:P ratio) and needle δ13C values were critical indicators of physiological adaptation strategies of P. armandii and P. yunnanensis for coping with seasonal variation. These results increase our understanding of the water-use characteristics of the two pioneer tree species and the dynamic balance between the NSC, C, N, and P contents of the needles.

Water status and macronutrient concentrations, but not carbon status, of Viscum album ssp. album are determined by its hosts: a study across nine mistletoe-host pairs in central Switzerland

Introduction

European mistletoe, Viscum album L., is a hemiparasite that can infect various tree species, yet our understanding of its physiological interactions with host species is limited.

Methods

Nine mistletoe-host pairs (i.e. V. album ssp. album growing on nine different broadleaf tree species) under different growth conditions in central Switzerland were selected to examine the carbon, water and nutrient relationships between mistletoe and its hosts. We measured leaf morphological traits, isotopic compositions (δ13C and δ15N), concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) and specific compounds (i.e. mobile sugars and starch), and macronutrients (i.e. N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S) in leaf and xylem tissues of both mistletoe and its hosts.

Results and Discussion

There were only non-significant relationships between NSC concentrations in mistletoe and in its host species across the nine mistletoe-host pairs, suggesting the carbon condition of V. album ssp. album is determined by both the heterotrophic carbon transfer and self-photosynthetic capacity among different mistletoe-host pairs. However, mistletoe leaf morphological traits (single leaf area and mass, and leaf mass per unit leaf area) did not change across the nine mistletoe-host pairs, and mistletoe leaf δ13C, water content and macronutrient concentrations were linearly correlated with those in the host leaves. Macronutrients showed accumulations in mistletoe across the nine pairs. Further, tissue N concentrations were significantly higher in mistletoe grown on N-fixing hosts than on non-N-fixing hosts. Finally, leaf N:P in mistletoe was significantly correlated with the ratio in the host across the nine mistletoe-host pairs. Overall, our results indicate strong relationships between mistletoe and its hosts for water- and nutrient-related traits, but not for carbon-related traits, which demonstrates that V. album ssp. album can adjust its physiology to survive on different deciduous tree species hosts and under different site conditions.

Reduction of photosynthesis under P deficiency is mainly caused by the decreased CO2 diffusional capacities in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Phosphorus is one of the most important essential mineral elements for plant growth and development. It has been widely recognized that phosphorus deficiency can lead to the significant declines in leaf photosynthetic rate and leaf area. However, the internal mechanism associated with the leaf anatomical traits has not been well understood. In present study, a hydroponic experiment was conducted to study the effect of phosphorus deficiency on leaf growth and photosynthesis in Jimai 22 (JM22, Triticum aestivum L.) and Suk Landarace 26 (SL26, Triticum aestivum L.). With the decrease in phosphorus concentration, leaf photosynthetic rate and leaf area in SL26 and JM22 all decreased significantly, but the decrease in leaf area occurred earlier than that in leaf photosynthetic rate. The thresholds of phosphorus concentration to maintain a high photosynthesis were 145.5 and 138.7 mg m^-2, respectively, in SL26 and JM22; and they were 197.5 and 212.0 mg m^-2, respectively, for leaf growth. The decrease in leaf photosynthetic rate under low P conditions was mainly caused by the lowered stomatal conductance and mesophyll conductance, and to a less extent by the decrease in biochemical capacities. The decrease in stomatal conductance was attributed to the smaller vascular bundle area, xylem conduits area and the lower leaf hydraulic conductance. However, the reduction in mesophyll conductance was not related to either the cell wall thickness or the development of chloroplast.

Why do plants silicify?

Despite seminal papers that stress the significance of silicon (Si) in plant biology and ecology, most studies focus on manipulations of Si supply and mitigation of stresses. The ecological significance of Si varies with different levels of biological organization, and remains hard to capture. We show that the costs of Si accumulation are greater than is currently acknowledged, and discuss potential links between Si and fitness components (growth, survival, reproduction), environment, and ecosystem functioning. We suggest that Si is more important in trait-based ecology than is currently recognized. Si potentially plays a significant role in many aspects of plant ecology, but knowledge gaps prevent us from understanding its possible contribution to the success of some clades and the expansion of specific biomes.

Coordination of photosynthetic traits across soil and climate gradients

"Least-cost theory" posits that C₃ plants should balance rates of photosynthetic water loss and carboxylation in relation to the relative acquisition and maintenance costs of resources required for these activities. Here we investigated the dependency of photosynthetic traits on climate and soil properties using a new Australia-wide trait dataset spanning 528 species from 67 sites. We tested the hypotheses that plants on relatively cold or dry sites, or on relatively more fertile sites, would typically operate at greater CO₂ drawdown (lower ratio of leaf internal to ambient CO₂ , C_i :C_a ) during light-saturated photosynthesis, and at higher leaf N per area (N_area ) and higher carboxylation capacity (V_{cmax 25} ) for a given rate of stomatal conductance to water vapour, g_sw . These results would be indicative of plants having relatively higher water costs than nutrient costs. In general, our hypotheses were supported. Soil total phosphorus (P) concentration and (more weakly) soil pH exerted positive effects on the N_area -g_sw and V_{cmax 25} -g_sw slopes, and negative effects on C_i :C_a . The P effect strengthened when the effect of climate was removed via partial regression. We observed similar trends with increasing soil cation exchange capacity and clay content, which affect soil nutrient availability, and found that soil properties explained similar amounts of variation in the focal traits as climate did. Although climate typically explained more trait variation than soil did, together they explained up to 52% of variation in the slope relationships and soil properties explained up to 30% of the variation in individual traits. Soils influenced photosynthetic traits as well as their coordination. In particular, the influence of soil P likely reflects the Australia's geologically ancient low-relief landscapes with highly leached soils. Least-cost theory provides a valuable framework for understanding trade-offs between resource costs and use in plants, including limiting soil nutrients.

The global spectrum of plant form and function: enhanced species-level trait dataset

Here we provide the 'Global Spectrum of Plant Form and Function Dataset', containing species mean values for six vascular plant traits. Together, these traits -plant height, stem specific density, leaf area, leaf mass per area, leaf nitrogen content per dry mass, and diaspore (seed or spore) mass - define the primary axes of variation in plant form and function. The dataset is based on ca. 1 million trait records received via the TRY database (representing ca. 2,500 original publications) and additional unpublished data. It provides 92,159 species mean values for the six traits, covering 46,047 species. The data are complemented by higher-level taxonomic classification and six categorical traits (woodiness, growth form, succulence, adaptation to terrestrial or aquatic habitats, nutrition type and leaf type). Data quality management is based on a probabilistic approach combined with comprehensive validation against expert knowledge and external information. Intense data acquisition and thorough quality control produced the largest and, to our knowledge, most accurate compilation of empirically observed vascular plant species mean traits to date.

Spatio-Temporal Variations in Carbon Isotope Discrimination Predicted by the JULES Land Surface Model

Stable carbon isotopes in plants can help evaluate and improve the representation of carbon and water cycles in land-surface models, increasing confidence in projections of vegetation response to climate change. Here, we evaluated the predictive skills of the Joint UK Land Environmental Simulator (JULES) to capture spatio-temporal variations in carbon isotope discrimination (Δ¹³C) reconstructed by tree rings at 12 sites in the United Kingdom over the period 1979-2016. Modeled and measured Δ¹³C time series were compared at each site and their relationships with local climate investigated. Modeled Δ¹³C time series were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with tree-ring Δ¹³C at eight sites, but JULES underestimated mean Δ¹³C values at all sites, by up to 2.6‰. Differences in mean Δ¹³C may result from post-photosynthetic isotopic fractionations that were not considered in JULES. Inter-annual variability in Δ¹³C was also underestimated by JULES at all sites. While modeled Δ¹³C typically increased over time across the UK, tree-ring Δ¹³C values increased only at five sites located in the northern regions but decreased at the southern-most sites. Considering all sites together, JULES captured the overall influence of environmental drivers on Δ¹³C but failed to capture the direction of change in Δ¹³C caused by air temperature, atmospheric CO₂ and vapor pressure deficit at some sites. Results indicate that the representation of carbon-water coupling in JULES could be improved to reproduce both the trend and magnitude of interannual variability in isotopic records, the influence of local climate on Δ¹³C, and to reduce uncertainties in predicting vegetation-environment interactions.

Temporal instability of partial least squares regressions for estimating leaf photosynthetic traits from hyperspectral information

Partial least squares regression (PLSR) is applied increasingly often to predict plant photosynthesis from reflectance spectra. While its applicability across different areas has been examined in previous studies, its stability across time has yet to be evaluated. In this study, we assessed a series of PLSR models built upon three different band selection approaches (iterative stepwise, genetic algorithm, and uninformative variable elimination), in combination with different spectral transforms (original and first-order derivative spectra), for their stabilities in predicting the maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax) and maximum electron transport rate (Jmax) from hyperspectral reflectance spectra at different temporal scales (seasonal and interannual). The results showed that both photosynthetic parameters can be estimated from leaf hyperspectral reflectance with moderate to good accuracy across different growing stages (R² = 0.45-0.84) and years (R² = 0.37-0.97). We further found that the iterative stepwise selection of informative bands when building PLSR models could greatly improve its predictive capacity compared with that of other PLSR models, especially those based on first-order derivative spectra. However, the selected bands of the models for both photosynthetic parameters were, unfortunately not consistent. Furthermore, we could not have identified any model with fixed spectra performed consistently across different seasonal stages and across different years. However, the blue spectral regions were popularly selected throughout the growing stages and in different years. The results demonstrate that leaf spectra-trait estimation using PLSR models varies with time and thus cast doubt over the use of a specific PLSR model to infer leaf traits across different temporal-spatial contexts. The development of a general applicable PLSR model is still in the works.

Do water and soil nutrient scarcities differentially impact the performance of diploid and tetraploid Solidago gigantea (Giant Goldenrod, Asteraceae)?

Plants require water and nutrients for survival, although the effects of their availabilities on plant fitness differ amongst species. Genome size variation, within and across species, is suspected to influence plant water and nutrient requirements, but little is known about how variations in these resources concurrently affect plant fitness based on genome size. We examined how genome size variation between autopolyploid cytotypes influences plant morphological and physiological traits, and whether cytotype-specific trait responses differ based on water and/or nutrient availability. Diploid and autotetraploid Solidago gigantea (Giant Goldenrod) were grown in a greenhouse under four soil water:N+P treatments (L:L, L:H, H:L, H:H), and stomata characteristics (size, density), growth (above- and belowground biomass, R/S), and physiological (A_net , E, WUE) responses were measured. Resource availabilities and cytotype identity influenced some plant responses but their effects were independent of each other. Plants grown in high-water and nutrient treatments were larger, plants grown in low-water or high-nutrient treatments had higher WUE but lower E, and A_net and E rates decreased as plants aged. Autotetraploids also had larger and fewer stomata, higher biomass and larger A_net than diploids. Nutrient and water availability could influence intra- and interspecific competitive outcomes. Although S. gigantea cytotypes were not differentially affected by resource treatments, genome size may influence cytogeographic range patterning and population establishment likelihood. For instance, the larger size of autotetraploid S. gigantea might render them more competitive for resources and niche space than diploids.

Convergence in phosphorus constraints to photosynthesis in forests around the world

Tropical forests take up more carbon (C) from the atmosphere per annum by photosynthesis than any other type of vegetation. Phosphorus (P) limitations to C uptake are paramount for tropical and subtropical forests around the globe. Yet the generality of photosynthesis-P relationships underlying these limitations are in question, and hence are not represented well in terrestrial biosphere models. Here we demonstrate the dependence of photosynthesis and underlying processes on both leaf N and P concentrations. The regulation of photosynthetic capacity by P was similar across four continents. Implementing P constraints in the ORCHIDEE-CNP model, gross photosynthesis was reduced by 36% across the tropics and subtropics relative to traditional N constraints and unlimiting leaf P. Our results provide a quantitative relationship for the P dependence for photosynthesis for the front-end of global terrestrial C models that is consistent with canopy leaf measurements.

Phosphorus (P) limitation is pervasive in tropical forests. Here the authors analyse the dependence of photosynthesis on leaf N and P in tropical forests, and show that incorporating leaf P constraints in a terrestrial biosphere model enhances its predictive power.

Contribution of Incorporating the Phosphorus Cycle into TRIPLEX-CNP to Improve the Quantification of Land Carbon Cycle

Phosphorus (P) is a key and a limiting nutrient in ecosystems and plays an important role in many physiological and biochemical processes, affecting both terrestrial ecosystem productivity and soil carbon storage. However, only a few global land surface models have incorporated P cycle and used to investigate the interactions of C-N-P and its limitation on terrestrial ecosystems. The overall objective of this study was to integrate the P cycle and its interaction with carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) into new processes model of TRIPLEX-CNP. In this study, key processes of the P cycle, including P pool sizes and fluxes in plant, litter, and soil were integrated into a new model framework, TRIPLEX-CNP. We also added dynamic P:C ratios for different ecosystems. Based on sensitivity analysis results, we identified the phosphorus resorption coefficient of leaf (rpleaf) as the most influential parameter to gross primary productivity (GPP) and biomass, and determined optimal coefficients for different plant functional types (PFTs). TRIPLEX-CNP was calibrated with 49 sites and validated against 116 sites across eight biomes globally. The results suggested that TRIPLEX-CNP performed well on simulating the global GPP and soil organic carbon (SOC) with respective R2 values of 0.85 and 0.78 (both p < 0.01) between simulated and observed values. The R2 of simulation and observation of total biomass are 0.67 (p < 0.01) by TRIPLEX-CNP. The overall model performance had been improved in global GPP, total biomass and SOC after adding the P cycle comparing with the earlier version. Our work represents the promising step toward new coupled ecosystem process models for improving the quantifications of land carbon cycle and reducing uncertainty.

Changes in leaf functional traits with leaf age: when do leaves decrease their photosynthetic capacity in Amazonian trees?

Most leaf functional trait studies in the Amazon basin do not consider ontogenetic variations (leaf age), which may influence ecosystem productivity throughout the year. When leaf age is taken into account, it is generally considered discontinuous, and leaves are classified into age categories based on qualitative observations. Here, we quantified age-dependent changes in leaf functional traits such as the maximum carboxylation rate of ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) (Vcmax), stomatal control (Cgs%), leaf dry mass per area and leaf macronutrient concentrations for nine naturally growing Amazon tropical trees with variable phenological strategies. Leaf ages were assessed by monthly censuses of branch-level leaf demography; we also performed leaf trait measurements accounting for leaf chronological age based on days elapsed since the first inclusion in the leaf demography, not predetermined age classes. At the tree community scale, a nonlinear relationship between Vcmax and leaf age existed: young, developing leaves showed the lowest mean photosynthetic capacity, increasing to a maximum at 45 days and then decreasing gradually with age in both continuous and categorical age group analyses. Maturation times among species and phenological habits differed substantially, from 8 ± 30 to 238 ± 30 days, and the rate of decline of Vcmax varied from -0.003 to -0.065 μmol CO2 m-2 s-1 day-1. Stomatal control increased significantly in young leaves but remained constant after peaking. Mass-based phosphorus and potassium concentrations displayed negative relationships with leaf age, whereas nitrogen did not vary temporally. Differences in life strategies, leaf nutrient concentrations and phenological types, not the leaf age effect alone, may thus be important factors for understanding observed photosynthesis seasonality in Amazonian forests. Furthermore, assigning leaf age categories in diverse tree communities may not be the recommended method for studying carbon uptake seasonality in the Amazon, since the relationship between Vcmax and leaf age could not be confirmed for all trees.

Interactions between biochar, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and photosynthetic processes in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Pyrolyzed biomass, generating biochar for use as soil amendment, is recognized as a promising strategy for carbon sequestration. Current understanding of the interactions between biochar, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM), and plant photosynthesis, in terms of biochemical processes and CO₂ uptake, is fragmentary. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects on photosynthesis in potato including maximum rate of carboxylation by Rubisco (V_cmax), maximum rate of electron transport rate for RuBP-regeneration (J_max), mesophyll conductance (g_m) and other plant traits. Four types of biochar (wheat or miscanthus straw pellets pyrolyzed at temperatures of either 550 °C or 700 °C) were amended into low phosphorus soil. Potato plants were inoculated with the AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis (M+) or not (M-). The results showed that four types of biochar generally decreased nitrogen and phosphorus content of potato, especially the biochars pyrolyzed at high temperature. This negative effect of biochar on nutrient content was alleviated by AM. It was found that V_cmax was limited by low plant nitrogen content as well as leaf area and phosphorus content. Plant phosphorus content also limited J_max, which was mutually constrained by V_cmax of leaves. Low g_m was an additional limiting factor for photosynthesis. The g_m was positively correlated to nitrogen content, which influenced the leaf anatomical structure by alteration of leaf mass per area. In conclusion, the influence of interactions between quality of biochar and AM symbiosis on photosynthesis of potato seems to relate to effects on plant nutrient content and leaf structures. Accordingly, a model for the dependence of V_cmax on nitrogen and phosphorus content and their interactive effect exhibited a high correlation coefficient. As potato plants form AM symbiosis under natural field conditions, the extent and interaction with the quality of amended biochar can be a determining factor for plant nutrient content, growth and yield.

Small understorey trees have greater capacity than canopy trees to adjust hydraulic traits following prolonged experimental drought in a tropical forest

Future climate change predictions for tropical forests highlight increased frequency and intensity of extreme drought events. However, it remains unclear whether large and small trees have differential strategies to tolerate drought due to the different niches they occupy. The future of tropical forests is ultimately dependent on the capacity of small trees (<10 cm in diameter) to adjust their hydraulic system to tolerate drought. To address this question, we evaluated whether the drought tolerance of neotropical small trees can adjust to experimental water stress and was different from tall trees. We measured multiple drought resistance-related hydraulic traits across nine common neotropical genera at the world's longest-running tropical forest throughfall-exclusion experiment and compared their responses with surviving large canopy trees. Small understorey trees in both the control and the throughfall-exclusion treatment had lower minimum stomatal conductance and maximum hydraulic leaf-specific conductivity relative to large trees of the same genera, as well as a greater hydraulic safety margin (HSM), percentage loss of conductivity and embolism resistance, demonstrating that they occupy a distinct hydraulic niche. Surprisingly, in response to the drought treatment, small trees increased specific hydraulic conductivity by 56.3% and leaf:sapwood area ratio by 45.6%. The greater HSM of small understorey trees relative to large canopy trees likely enabled them to adjust other aspects of their hydraulic systems to increase hydraulic conductivity and take advantage of increases in light availability in the understorey resulting from the drought-induced mortality of canopy trees. Our results demonstrate that differences in hydraulic strategies between small understorey and large canopy trees drive hydraulic niche segregation. Small understorey trees can adjust their hydraulic systems in response to changes in water and light availability, indicating that natural regeneration of tropical forests following long-term drought may be possible.

Climatic and soil factors explain the two-dimensional spectrum of global plant trait variation

Plant functional traits can predict community assembly and ecosystem functioning and are thus widely used in global models of vegetation dynamics and land-climate feedbacks. Still, we lack a global understanding of how land and climate affect plant traits. A previous global analysis of six traits observed two main axes of variation: (1) size variation at the organ and plant level and (2) leaf economics balancing leaf persistence against plant growth potential. The orthogonality of these two axes suggests they are differently influenced by environmental drivers. We find that these axes persist in a global dataset of 17 traits across more than 20,000 species. We find a dominant joint effect of climate and soil on trait variation. Additional independent climate effects are also observed across most traits, whereas independent soil effects are almost exclusively observed for economics traits. Variation in size traits correlates well with a latitudinal gradient related to water or energy limitation. In contrast, variation in economics traits is better explained by interactions of climate with soil fertility. These findings have the potential to improve our understanding of biodiversity patterns and our predictions of climate change impacts on biogeochemical cycles.

Spectroscopy outperforms leaf trait relationships for predicting photosynthetic capacity across different forest types

Leaf trait relationships are widely used to predict ecosystem function in terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs), in which leaf maximum carboxylation capacity (V_c,max ), an important trait for modelling photosynthesis, can be inferred from other easier-to-measure traits. However, whether trait-V_c,max relationships are robust across different forest types remains unclear. Here we used measurements of leaf traits, including one morphological trait (leaf mass per area), three biochemical traits (leaf water content, area-based leaf nitrogen content, and leaf chlorophyll content), one physiological trait (V_c,max ), as well as leaf reflectance spectra, and explored their relationships within and across three contrasting forest types in China. We found weak and forest type-specific relationships between V_c,max and the four morphological and biochemical traits (R²  ≤ 0.15), indicated by significantly changing slopes and intercepts across forest types. By contrast, reflectance spectroscopy effectively collapsed the differences in the trait-V_c,max relationships across three forest biomes into a single robust model for V_c,max (R²  = 0.77), and also accurately estimated the four traits (R²  = 0.75-0.94). These findings challenge the traditional use of the empirical trait-V_c,max relationships in TBMs for estimating terrestrial plant photosynthesis, but also highlight spectroscopy as an efficient alternative for characterising V_c,max and multitrait variability, with critical insights into ecosystem modelling and functional trait ecology.

Responses of Ecological Stoichiometric Characteristics of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus to Periodic Submergence in Mega-Reservoir: Growth of Taxodium distichum and Taxodium ascendens

Ecological stoichiometric studies can be useful for managing the deteriorated riparian zones of mega-reservoirs in which nutrients significantly impact the balanced vegetation cover. The present study aims to explore the effects of periodic submergence on the stoichiometric ecological characteristics of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P), as well as the growth conditions of two leading conifer species (Taxodium distichum and Taxodium ascendens) in the hydro-fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) region, China. The stoichiometrical contents of C, N, and P in fine roots, leaves, and branches, and the growth conditions of T. distichum and T. ascendens were measured in July 2019. The results showed that periodic submergence affected the stoichiometric characteristics and growth conditions of these two woody species, and the impact was restrained, but both grew well. The effects of inundation on the C, N, and P ecological stoichiometric characteristics differed in different parts of trees. In general, the C contents showed the following pattern: leaves > branches > fine roots. The N and P content showed the following pattern: leaves > fine roots > branches, while the C/N and C/P ratios showed an opposite trend to that of N and P. The N and P content in all parts of T. distichum (with means of 17.18 and 1.70 g/kg for leaves, 4.80 and 0.57 g/kg for branches, and 6.88 and 1.10 g/kg for fine roots, respectively) and T. ascendens (with means of 14.56 and 1.87 g/kg for leaves, 5.03 and 0.63 g/kg for branches, and 8.17 and 1.66 g/kg for fine roots, respectively) were higher than the national average level (with means of 14.14 and 1.11 g/kg for leaves, 3.04 and 0.31 g/kg for branches, and 4.85 and 0.47 g/kg for fine roots, respectively). Except for N and P contents in the leaves of T. distichum, there was a significant correlation between N and P elements in other parts (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, the N/P ratio (10.15, 8.52, 6.44, and 7.93, 8.12, 5.20 in leaves, branches, and fine roots of T. distichum and T. ascendens, respectively) was lower than the critical ratio of 14. The growth conditions of T. distichum and T. ascendens were significantly negatively correlated with their leaf C contents and significantly positively correlated with their fine root N and P contents. This study showed that T. distichum and T. ascendens could maintain their normal growth needs by properly allocating nutrients between different organs to adapt to the long periodic submergence in the hydro-fluctuation zone of the TGR region.

Including leaf trait information helps empirical estimation of jmax from vcmax in cool-temperate deciduous forests

Understanding the uncertainty in the parameterization of the two photosynthetic capacity parameters, leaf maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax), and maximum electron transport rate (Jmax), is crucial for modeling and predicting carbon fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. In gas exchange models, to date, Jmax is typically estimated from Vcmax based on a linear regression. However, recent studies have revealed that this relationship varies, dependent upon species, leaf groups, and time, so it is doubtful that the regression applies universally. Furthermore, far less is known regarding how other leaf traits affect the regression. In this study we analyzed the two key photosynthetic parameters and popularly measurable leaf traits, leaf chlorophyll concentration and leaf mass per area (LMA), of cool-temperate forest stands in Japan, aiming to construct a simple regression applicable to temperate deciduous forests, at least. The analysis was based on a long-term field dataset covering years of data for both sunlit and shaded leaves at different altitudes. Results showed that the best-fitted slope of the regression differed markedly from those previously reported, which were typically acquired from sunlit leaves. LMA had a significant effect on the regression, producing the lowest root mean square errors and the highest ratio of performance to deviation values (RPD = 2.017). Although more data are needed to validate in other ecosystems, our approach at least provides a promising way to substantially improve photosynthesis model predictions, by introducing leaf traits into the popular empirical regression of Jmax against Vcmax, and ultimately to better understand the functioning of the photosynthetic machinery.

Importance of hydraulic strategy trade-offs in structuring response of canopy trees to extreme drought in central Amazon

Plant ecophysiological trade-offs between different strategies for tolerating stresses are widely theorized to shape forest functional diversity and vulnerability to climate change. However, trade-offs between hydraulic and stomatal regulation during natural droughts remain under-studied, especially in tropical forests. We investigated eleven mature forest canopy trees in central Amazonia during the strong 2015 El Niño. We found greater xylem embolism resistance ([Formula: see text] = - 3.3 ± 0.8 MPa) and hydraulic safety margin (HSM = 2.12 ± 0.57 MPa) than previously observed in more precipitation-seasonal rainforests of eastern Amazonia and central America. We also discovered that taller trees exhibited lower embolism resistance and greater stomatal sensitivity, a height-structured trade-off between hydraulic resistance and active stomatal regulation. Such active regulation of tree water status, triggered by the onset of stem embolism, acted as a feedback to avoid further increases in embolism, and also explained declines in photosynthesis and transpiration. These results suggest that canopy trees exhibit a conservative hydraulic strategy to endure drought, with trade-offs between investment in xylem to reduce vulnerability to hydraulic failure, and active stomatal regulation to protect against low water potentials. These findings improve our understanding of strategies in tropical forest canopies and contribute to more accurate prediction of drought responses.

Photosynthetic activity increases with leaf size and intercellular spaces in an allomorphic lianescent aroid Rhodospatha oblongata

This study aimed to investigate leaf anatomy, as well as photosynthetic gas exchange, that underlie the improvement in light foraging capacity, which appears to occur in aroid vines seeking light exposure. Three levels of plant height (soil level, 3 m and 6 m) were categorised for the aroid vine Rhodospatha oblongata Poepp. to represent the transition from ground to canopy. Compared with shaded leaves, leaves exposed to high light conditions were thicker, presenting a larger, spongy parenchyma characterised by a larger transversal area of intercellular spaces. In addition to the increase in maximum CO2 assimilation (Amax) and thicker and larger leaf lamina, we found an increased light saturation point, light compensation point and water use efficiency at 500 µmol PPFD. Nitrogen content per leaf dry mass remained constant across habitats, but Amax/N was 1.5-times greater in the canopy position than in the leaves at soil level, suggesting that CO2 gain did not rely on an N-related biochemical apparatus. The lower δ13C discrimination observed at high canopy leaves corroborated the higher photosynthesis. Altogether, these results suggest that the large and exposed aroid leaves maintained carbon gain coupled with light gain through investing in a more efficient proportion of intercellular spaces and photosynthetic cell surface, which likely allowed a less pronounced CO2 gradient in substomatal-intercellular space.

Global climate and nutrient controls of photosynthetic capacity

There is huge uncertainty about how global exchanges of carbon between the atmosphere and land will respond to continuing environmental change. A better representation of photosynthetic capacity is required for Earth System models to simulate carbon assimilation reliably. Here we use a global leaf-trait dataset to test whether photosynthetic capacity is quantitatively predictable from climate, based on optimality principles; and to explore how this prediction is modified by soil properties, including indices of nitrogen and phosphorus availability, measured in situ. The maximum rate of carboxylation standardized to 25 °C (Vcmax25) was found to be proportional to growing-season irradiance, and to increase-as predicted-towards both colder and drier climates. Individual species' departures from predicted Vcmax25 covaried with area-based leaf nitrogen (Narea) but community-mean Vcmax25 was unrelated to Narea, which in turn was unrelated to the soil C:N ratio. In contrast, leaves with low area-based phosphorus (Parea) had low Vcmax25 (both between and within communities), and Parea increased with total soil P. These findings do not support the assumption, adopted in some ecosystem and Earth System models, that leaf-level photosynthetic capacity depends on soil N supply. They do, however, support a previously-noted relationship between photosynthesis and soil P supply.

High photosynthetic capacity of Sahelian C3 and C4 plants

The semi-arid ecosystems of the African Sahel play an important role in the global carbon cycle and are among the most sensitive ecosystems to future environmental pressures. Still, basic data of photosynthetic characteristics of Sahelian vegetation are very limited, preventing us to properly understand these ecosystems and to project their response to future global changes. Here, we aim to study and quantify key leaf traits, including photosynthetic parameters and leaf nutrients (N_leaf and P_leaf), of common C₃ and C₄ Sahelian plants (trees, lianas, and grasses) at the Dahra field site (Senegal). Dahra is a reference site for grazed semi-arid Sahelian savannah ecosystems in carbon cycle studies. Within the studied species, we found that photosynthetic parameters varied considerably between functional types. We also found significant relationships between and within photosynthetic parameters and leaf traits which mostly differed in their slopes from C₃ to C₄ plants. In agreement with the leaf economic spectrum, strong relationships (R² = 0.71) were found between SLA and N_leaf whereby C₃ and C₄ plants showed very similar relationships. By comparing our data to a global dataset of plant traits, we show that measured Sahelian plants exhibit higher photosynthetic capacity (A_sat) compared to the non-Sahelian vegetation, with values that are on average a fourfold of the global average. Moreover, Sahelian C₃ plants showed photosynthetic nutrient use efficiencies that were on average roughly twice as high as global averages. We interpreted these results as the potential adaptation of Sahelian plants to short growing season lengths via an efficient nutrient allocation to optimize photosynthesis during this period. Our study provides robust estimates of key functional traits, but also traits relationships that will help to calibrate and validate vegetation models over this data-poor region.

The role of climate, foliar stoichiometry and plant diversity on ecosystem carbon balance

Global change is affecting terrestrial carbon (C) balances. The effect of climate on ecosystem C balance has been largely explored, but the roles of other concurrently changing factors, such as diversity and nutrient availability, remain elusive. We used eddy-covariance C-flux measurements from 62 ecosystems from which we compiled information on climate, ecosystem type, stand age, species abundance and foliar concentrations of N and P of the main species, to assess their importance in the ecosystem C balance. Climate and productivity were the main determinants of ecosystem C balance and its stability. In P-rich sites, increasing N was related to increased gross primary production and respiration and vice versa, but reduced net C uptake. Our analyses did not provide evidence for a strong relation between ecosystem diversity and their productivity and stability. Nonetheless, these results suggest that nutrient imbalances and, potentially, diversity loss may alter future global C balance.

Overlapping Water and Nutrient Use Efficiencies and Carbon Assimilation between Coexisting Simple- and Compound-Leaved Trees from a Valley Savanna

Identifying differences in ecophysiology between simple and compound leaves can help understand the adaptive significance of the compound leaf form and its response to climate change. However, we still know surprisingly little about differences in water and nutrient use, and photosynthetic capacity between co-occurring compound-leaved and simple-leaved tree species, especially in savanna ecosystems with dry-hot climate conditions. From July to September in 2015, we investigated 16 functional traits associated with water use, nutrients, and photosynthesis of six deciduous tree species (three simple-leaved and three compound-leaved species) coexisting in a valley-savanna in Southwest China. Our major objective was to test the variation in these functional traits between these two leaf forms. Overall, overlapping leaf mass per area (LMA), photosynthesis, as well as leaf nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were found between these coexisting valley-savanna simple- and compound-leaved tree species. We didn’t find significant differences in water and photosynthetic nitrogen or phosphorus use efficiency between simple and compound leaves. Across these simple- and compound-leaved tree species, photosynthetic phosphorus use efficiencies were positively related to LMA and negatively correlated with phosphorus concentration per mass or area. Water use efficiency (intrinsic water use efficiency or stable carbon isotopic composition) was independent of all leaf traits. Similar ecophysiology strategies among these coexisting valley-savanna simple- and compound-leaved species suggested a convergence in ecological adaptation to the hot and dry environment. The overlap in traits related to water use, carbon assimilation, and stress tolerance (e.g., LMA) also suggests a similar response of these two leaf forms to a hotter and drier future due to the climate change.

Small tropical forest trees have a greater capacity to adjust carbon metabolism to long-term drought than large canopy trees

The response of small understory trees to long-term drought is vital in determining the future composition, carbon stocks and dynamics of tropical forests. Long-term drought is, however, also likely to expose understory trees to increased light availability driven by drought-induced mortality. Relatively little is known about the potential for understory trees to adjust their physiology to both decreasing water and increasing light availability. We analysed data on maximum photosynthetic capacity (J_max , V_cmax ), leaf respiration (R_leaf ), leaf mass per area (LMA), leaf thickness and leaf nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations from 66 small trees across 12 common genera at the world's longest running tropical rainfall exclusion experiment and compared responses to those from 61 surviving canopy trees. Small trees increased J_max , V_cmax , R_leaf and LMA (71, 29, 32, 15% respectively) in response to the drought treatment, but leaf thickness and leaf nutrient concentrations did not change. Small trees were significantly more responsive than large canopy trees to the drought treatment, suggesting greater phenotypic plasticity and resilience to prolonged drought, although differences among taxa were observed. Our results highlight that small tropical trees have greater capacity to respond to ecosystem level changes and have the potential to regenerate resilient forests following future droughts.

The ecophysiology of a neotropical mistletoe depends on the leaf phenology of its tree hosts

PREMISE

Mistletoes parasitize many hardwood and softwood tree species; however, they play key roles in forest ecosystems. Adult individuals of Psittacanthus schiedeanus take up water and xylem nutrients from both deciduous and evergreen host trees, suggesting the ability to modify its physiology according to the availability of host resources. Yet, there is little information regarding the effects of mistletoes on their host trees from the eophyll stage to reproductive phases of the parasite.

METHODS

Taking advantage of the fact that P. schiedeanus can reach sexual maturity in 1 year, we investigated its physiological performance during development on deciduous (Liquidambar styraciflua) and evergreen (Quercus germana) host trees in a cloud forest in eastern Mexico. Variables related to chlorophyll fluorescence, carbon assimilation, photosynthetic pigments, and nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon contents of the parasite and non-infected and infected hosts were analyzed in a nursery experiment.

RESULTS

Mistletoe had lower water-use efficiency and higher transpiration rates than the host species did. Despite the fact that P. schiedeanus obtained resources from species with differing phenology and resource availability, the parasite steadily improved its CO₂ assimilation, electron transport rate, and nutrient content from seedling establishment to adult life stages. Mistletoe decreased the photosynthetic reactions of carbon metabolism in the deciduous host, photosynthetic light reactions in the evergreen host, and nutritional status of both host species, mostly in the evergreen host.

CONCLUSIONS

The hypothesis that mistletoes adjust their physiology according to the availability of host resources could extend to the early growth of the parasite.

Mechanisms underlying leaf photosynthetic acclimation to warming and elevated CO2 as inferred from least-cost optimality theory

The mechanisms responsible for photosynthetic acclimation are not well understood, effectively limiting predictability under future conditions. Least-cost optimality theory can be used to predict the acclimation of photosynthetic capacity based on the assumption that plants maximize carbon uptake while minimizing the associated costs. Here, we use this theory as a null model in combination with multiple datasets of C₃ plant photosynthetic traits to elucidate the mechanisms underlying photosynthetic acclimation to elevated temperature and carbon dioxide (CO₂ ). The model-data comparison showed that leaves decrease the ratio of the maximum rate of electron transport to the maximum rate of Rubisco carboxylation (J_max /V_cmax ) under higher temperatures. The comparison also indicated that resources used for Rubisco and electron transport are reduced under both elevated temperature and CO₂ . Finally, our analysis suggested that plants underinvest in electron transport relative to carboxylation under elevated CO₂ , limiting potential leaf-level photosynthesis under future CO₂ concentrations. Altogether, our results show that acclimation to temperature and CO₂ is primarily related to resource conservation at the leaf level. Under future, warmer, high CO₂ conditions, plants are therefore likely to use less nutrients for leaf-level photosynthesis, which may impact whole-plant to ecosystem functioning.

Leaf Photosynthetic Capacity of Sunlit and Shaded Mature Leaves in a Deciduous Forest

A clear understanding of the dynamics of photosynthetic capacity is crucial for accurate modeling of ecosystem carbon uptake. However, such dynamical information is hardly available and has dramatically impeded our understanding of carbon cycles. Although tremendous efforts have been made in coupling the dynamic information of photosynthetic capacity into models, using “proxies” rooted from the close relationships between photosynthetic capacity and other available leaf parameters remains the popular selection. Unfortunately, no consensus has yet been reached on such “proxies”, leading them only applicable to limited cases. In this study, we aim to identify if there are close relationships between the photosynthetic capacity (represented by the maximum carboxylation rate, Vcmax) and leaf traits for mature broadleaves within a cold temperature deciduous forest. This is based on a long-term in situ dataset including leaf chlorophyll content (Chl), leaf nitrogen concentration (Narea, Nmass), leaf carbon concentration (Carea, Cmass), equivalent water thickness (EWT), leaf mass per area (LMA), and leaf gas exchange measurements from which Vcmax was derived, for both sunlit and shaded leaves during leaf mature periods from 2014 to 2019. The results show that the Vcmax values of sunlit and shaded leaves were relatively stable during these periods, and no statistically significant interannual variations occurred (p > 0.05). However, this is not applicable to specific species. Path analysis revealed that Narea was the major contributor to Vcmax for sunlit leaves (0.502), while LMA had the greatest direct relationship with Vcmax for shaded leaves (0.625). The LMA has further been confirmed as a primary proxy if no leaf type information is available. These findings provide a promising way to better understand photosynthesis and to predict carbon and water cycles in temperate deciduous forests.

Plastic film mulching stimulates brace root emergence and soil nutrient absorption of maize in an arid environment

BACKGROUND

Root-shoot ratio plays an important role in mulching effects on increases in maize kernel dry weight and grain yield.

RESULTS

We examined the effects of plastic film mulching with fertigation on soil nitrate, soil Olsen-P, aboveground and belowground growth, grain filling, and yield of maize. The 2-year research was conducted in a field with a subsoil sand layer (FSS) and in a field without a subsoil sand layer (FNS) in the Hetao Irrigation District, northwest China. Treatments included two levels of plastic film mulching (FM, fully mulched; PM, partially mulched with a cover ratio of 60%), and a non-mulched (NM) control. Mulching methods significantly increased soil NO₃ -N concentrations (SNCs) in the main root zone in FSS, but not in FNS. Mulching significantly increased root length density in the 0-40 cm soil layer. Mulching increased brace roots emergence by 20.2% under full, and by 9.9% under partial mulching, accelerating soil phosphorus use in the surface soil layer. Mulching increased grain yield in spring maize via enhancing base stem diameter, leaf area, and relative chlorophyll content, decreased the ratio of surface root area to leaf area, and improved kernel dry weight increase.

CONCLUSIONS

A high proportion of base fertilizer to total fertilizer input resulted in nutrient deficiency during reproductive stage in fertigated maize, therefore, applying a portion of base fertilizer after the maize elongation stage is recommended for a further yield increase of mulched fertigated maize. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Plant responses to decadal scale increments in atmospheric CO2 concentration: comparing two stomatal conductance sampling methods

MAIN CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that the species respond non-linearly to increases in CO2 concentration when exposed to decadal changes in CO2, representing the year 1987, 2025, 2051, and 2070, respectively. There are several lines of evidence suggesting that the vast majority of C3 plants respond to elevated atmospheric CO2 by decreasing their stomatal conductance (gs). However, in the majority of CO2 enrichment studies, the response to elevated CO2 are tested between plants grown under ambient (380-420 ppm) and high (538-680 ppm) CO2 concentrations and measured usually at single time points in a diurnal cycle. We investigated gs responses to simulated decadal increments in CO2 predicted over the next 4 decades and tested how measurements of gs may differ when two alternative sampling methods are employed (infrared gas analyzer [IRGA] vs. leaf porometer). We exposed Populus tremula, Popolus tremuloides and Sambucus racemosa to four different CO2 concentrations over 126 days in experimental growth chambers at 350, 420, 490 and 560 ppm CO2; representing the years 1987, 2025, 2051, and 2070, respectively (RCP4.5 scenario). Our study demonstrated that the species respond non-linearly to increases in CO2 concentration when exposed to decadal changes in CO2. Under natural conditions, maximum operational gs is often reached in the late morning to early afternoon, with a mid-day depression around noon. However, we showed that the daily maximum gs can, in some species, shift later into the day when plants are exposed to only small increases (70 ppm) in CO2. A non-linear decreases in gs and a shifting diurnal stomatal behavior under elevated CO2, could affect the long-term daily water and carbon budget of many plants in the future, and therefore alter soil-plant-atmospheric processes.

TRY plant trait database - enhanced coverage and open access

Plant traits-the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and phenological characteristics of plants-determine how plants respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels, and influence ecosystem properties and their benefits and detriments to people. Plant trait data thus represent the basis for a vast area of research spanning from evolutionary biology, community and functional ecology, to biodiversity conservation, ecosystem and landscape management, restoration, biogeography and earth system modelling. Since its foundation in 2007, the TRY database of plant traits has grown continuously. It now provides unprecedented data coverage under an open access data policy and is the main plant trait database used by the research community worldwide. Increasingly, the TRY database also supports new frontiers of trait-based plant research, including the identification of data gaps and the subsequent mobilization or measurement of new data. To support this development, in this article we evaluate the extent of the trait data compiled in TRY and analyse emerging patterns of data coverage and representativeness. Best species coverage is achieved for categorical traits-almost complete coverage for 'plant growth form'. However, most traits relevant for ecology and vegetation modelling are characterized by continuous intraspecific variation and trait-environmental relationships. These traits have to be measured on individual plants in their respective environment. Despite unprecedented data coverage, we observe a humbling lack of completeness and representativeness of these continuous traits in many aspects. We, therefore, conclude that reducing data gaps and biases in the TRY database remains a key challenge and requires a coordinated approach to data mobilization and trait measurements. This can only be achieved in collaboration with other initiatives.

Towards a New Generation of Trait-Flexible Vegetation Models

Plant trait variability, emerging from eco-evolutionary dynamics that range from alleles to macroecological scales, is one of the most elusive, but possibly most consequential, aspects of biodiversity. Plasticity, epigenetics, and genetic diversity are major determinants of how plants will respond to climate change, yet these processes are rarely represented in current vegetation models. Here, we provide an overview of the challenges associated with understanding the causes and consequences of plant trait variability, and review current developments to include plasticity and evolutionary mechanisms in vegetation models. We also present a roadmap of research priorities to develop a next generation of vegetation models with flexible traits. Including trait variability in vegetation models is necessary to better represent biosphere responses to global change.

Nutrient scarcity as a selective pressure for mast seeding

Mast seeding is one of the most intriguing reproductive traits in nature. Despite its potential drawbacks in terms of fitness, the widespread existence of this phenomenon suggests that it should have evolutionary advantages under certain circumstances. Using a global dataset of seed production time series for 219 plant species from all of the continents, we tested whether masting behaviour appears predominantly in species with low foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations when controlling for local climate and productivity. Here, we show that masting intensity is higher in species with low foliar N and P concentrations, and especially in those with imbalanced N/P ratios, and that the evolutionary history of masting behaviour has been linked to that of nutrient economy. Our results support the hypothesis that masting is stronger in species growing under limiting conditions and suggest that this reproductive behaviour might have evolved as an adaptation to nutrient limitations and imbalances.

Leaf reflectance spectroscopy captures variation in carboxylation capacity across species, canopy environment and leaf age in lowland moist tropical forests

Understanding the pronounced seasonal and spatial variation in leaf carboxylation capacity (V_c,max ) is critical for determining terrestrial carbon cycling in tropical forests. However, an efficient and scalable approach for predicting V_c,max is still lacking. Here the ability of leaf spectroscopy for rapid estimation of V_c,max was tested. V_c,max was estimated using traditional gas exchange methods, and measured reflectance spectra and leaf age in leaves sampled from tropical forests in Panama and Brazil. These data were used to build a model to predict V_c,max from leaf spectra. The results demonstrated that leaf spectroscopy accurately predicts V_c,max of mature leaves in Panamanian tropical forests (R²  = 0.90). However, this single-age model required recalibration when applied to broader leaf demographic classes (i.e. immature leaves). Combined use of spectroscopy models for V_c,max and leaf age enabled construction of the V_c,max -age relationship solely from leaf spectra, which agreed with field observations. This suggests that the spectroscopy technique can capture the seasonal variability in V_c,max , assuming sufficient sampling across diverse species, leaf ages and canopy environments. This finding will aid development of remote sensing approaches that can be used to characterize V_c,max in moist tropical forests and enable an efficient means to parameterize and evaluate terrestrial biosphere models.

Leaf:wood allometry and functional traits together explain substantial growth rate variation in rainforest trees

Plant growth rates drive ecosystem productivity and are a central element of plant ecological strategies. For seedlings grown under controlled conditions, a large literature has firmly identified the functional traits that drive interspecific variation in growth rate. For adult plants, the corresponding knowledge is surprisingly poorly understood. Until recently it was widely assumed that the key trait drivers would be the same (e.g. specific leaf area, or SLA), but an increasing number of papers has demonstrated this not to be the case, or not generally so. New theory has provided a prospective basis for understanding these discrepancies. Here we quantified relationships between stem diameter growth rates and functional traits of adult woody plants for 41 species in an Australian tropical rainforest. From various cost-benefit considerations, core predictions included that: (i) photosynthetic rate would be positively related to growth rate; (ii) SLA would be unrelated to growth rate (unlike in seedlings where it is positively related to growth); (iii) wood density would be negatively related to growth rate; and (iv) leaf mass:sapwood mass ratio (LM:SM) in branches (analogous to a benefit:cost ratio) would be positively related to growth rate. All our predictions found support, particularly those for LM:SM and wood density; photosynthetic rate was more weakly related to stem diameter growth rates. Specific leaf area was convincingly correlated to growth rate, in fact negatively. Together, SLA, wood density and LM:SM accounted for 52 % of variation in growth rate among these 41 species, with each trait contributing roughly similar explanatory power. That low SLA species can achieve faster growth rates than high SLA species was an unexpected result but, as it turns out, not without precedent, and easily understood via cost-benefit theory that considers whole-plant allocation to different tissue types. Branch-scale leaf:sapwood ratio holds promise as an easily measurable variable that may help to understand growth rate variation. Using cost-benefit approaches teamed with combinations of leaf, wood and allometric variables may provide a path towards a more complete understanding of growth rates under field conditions.

Convergence in Maximum Stomatal Conductance of C3 Woody Angiosperms in Natural Ecosystems Across Bioclimatic Zones

Stomatal conductance (g s) in terrestrial vegetation regulates the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and water loss through transpiration, closely linking the biosphere and atmosphere and influencing climate. Yet, the range and pattern of g s in plants from natural ecosystems across broad geographic, climatic, and taxonomic ranges remains poorly quantified. Furthermore, attempts to characterize g s on such scales have predominantly relied upon meta-analyses compiling data from many different studies. This approach may be inherently problematic as it combines data collected using unstandardized protocols, sometimes over decadal time spans, and from different habitat groups. Using a standardized protocol, we measured leaf-level g s using porometry in 218 C3 woody angiosperm species in natural ecosystems representing seven bioclimatic zones. The resulting dataset of 4273 g s measurements, which we call STraits (Stomatal Traits), was used to determine patterns in maximum g s (g smax) across bioclimatic zones and whether there was similarity in the mean g smax of C3 woody angiosperms across ecosystem types. We also tested for differential g smax in two broadly defined habitat groups - open-canopy and understory-subcanopy - within and across bioclimatic zones. We found strong convergence in mean g smax of C3 woody angiosperms in the understory-subcanopy habitats across six bioclimatic zones, but not in open-canopy habitats. Mean g smax in open-canopy habitats (266 ± 100 mmol m-2 s-1) was significantly higher than in understory-subcanopy habitats (233 ± 86 mmol m-2 s-1). There was also a central tendency in the overall dataset to operate toward a g smax of ∼250 mmol m-2 s-1. We suggest that the observed convergence in mean g smax of C3 woody angiosperms in the understory-subcanopy is due to a buffering of g smax against macroclimate effects which will lead to differential response of C3 woody angiosperm vegetation in these two habitats to future global change. Therefore, it will be important for future studies of g smax to categorize vegetation according to habitat group.

Towards a more physiological representation of vegetation phosphorus processes in land surface models

Contents Summary 1223 I. Introduction 1223 II. Photosynthesis and respiration 1224 III. Biomass growth 1224 IV. Carbon allocation 1225 V. Plant internal P redistribution 1226 VI. Plant P uptake 1227 VII. Conclusion 1227 Acknowledgements 1228 References 1228 SUMMARY: Our ability to understand the effect of nutrient limitation on ecosystem productivity is key to the prediction of future terrestrial carbon storage. Significant progress has been made to include phosphorus (P) cycle processes in land surface models (LSMs), but these efforts are focused on the soil component of the P cycle. Incorporating the soil component is important to estimate plant-available P, but does not necessarily address the vegetation response to P limitation or plant-soil interactions. A more detailed representation of plant P processes is needed to link nutrient availability and ecosystem productivity. We review physiological and biochemical evidence for vegetation responses to P availability, and recommend ways to move towards a more physiological representation of vegetation P processes in LSMs.

The Phosphorus Economy of Mediterranean Oak Saplings Under Global Change

While a severe decrease in phosphorus (P) availability is already taking place in a large number of ecosystems, drought and nitrogen (N) deposition will likely further decrease the availability of P under global change. Plants have developed physiological strategies to cope with decreasing P resources, but it is unclear how these strategies respond to elevated N deposition and summer droughts. We investigated the influence of N and P availability and soil drought on P uptake (H3 33PO4 feeding experiment) and use efficiencies in young Quercus calliprinos Webb. trees. We hypothesized that (H1) the expected increases in soil N:P ratios will increase the efficiencies of P uptake and use of oak saplings but will decrease the efficiencies of N uptake and use, whereas (H2) drought will affect P uptake efficiency more than N uptake efficiency. In confirmation of (H1) we found that a sharp increase of the soil N:P ratio from 4 to 42 g g-1 significantly increased the instantaneous 33P uptake efficiency (33PUptakeE) by five-fold and long-term P uptake efficiency (PUptakeE) by six-fold, while it decreased N uptake efficiency (NUptakeE) and N use efficiency (NUE). In contradiction to (H1), P use efficiency (PUE) did not respond to the simulated extended gradient of soil N:P ratios but remained relatively constant. (H2) was only partially confirmed as soil drought reduced PUptakeE by up to a fourth at high soil N:P ratios but had no significant effect on NUptakeE. As a consequence, increasing summer droughts may decrease the response of PUptakeE to increasing P limitation, which - in the absence of adjustments of the efficiency of P use - can aggravate growth reductions in this eastern Mediterranean tree species under global change.

Large-sized rare tree species contribute disproportionately to functional diversity in resource acquisition in African tropical forest

Increasing evidence is available for a positive effect of biodiversity on ecosystem productivity and standing biomass, also in highly diverse systems as tropical forests. Biodiversity conservation could therefore be a critical aspect of climate mitigation policies. There is, however, limited understanding of the role of individual species for this relationship, which could aid in focusing conservation efforts and forest management planning. This study characterizes the functional specialization and redundancy for 95% of all tree species (basal area weighted percentage) in a diverse tropical forest in the central Congo Basin and relates this to species' abundance, contribution to aboveground carbon, and maximum size. Functional characterization is based on a set of traits related to resource acquisition (wood density, specific leaf area, leaf carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus content, and leaf stable carbon isotope composition). We show that within both mixed and monodominant tropical forest ecosystems, the highest functional specialization and lowest functional redundancy are solely found in rare tree species and significantly more in rare species holding large-sized individuals. Rare species cover the entire range of low and high functional redundancy, contributing both unique and redundant functions. Loss of species supporting functional redundancy could be buffered by other species in the community, including more abundant species. This is not the case for species supporting high functional specialization and low functional redundancy, which would need specific conservation attention. In terms of tropical forest management planning, we argue that specific conservation of large-sized trees is imperative for long-term maintenance of ecosystem functioning.

Can nutrient fertilization mitigate the effects of ozone exposure on an ozone-sensitive poplar clone?

We tested the independent and interactive effects of nitrogen (N; 0 and 80 kg ha^-1), phosphorus (P; 0, 40 and 80 kg ha^-1), and ozone (O₃) application/exposure [ambient concentration (AA), 1.5 × AA and 2.0 × AA] for five consecutive months on biochemical traits of the O₃-sensitive Oxford poplar clone. Plants exposed to O₃ showed visible injury and an alteration of membrane integrity, as confirmed by the malondialdehyde by-product accumulation (+3 and +17% under 1.5 × AA and 2.0 × AA conditions, in comparison to AA). This was probably due to O₃-induced oxidative damage, as documented by the production of superoxide anion radical (O₂^-, +27 and +63%, respectively). Ozone per se, independently from the concentrations, induced multiple signals (e.g., alteration of cellular redox state, increase of abscisic acid/indole-3-acetic acid ratio and reduction of proline content) that might be part of premature leaf senescence processes. By contrast, nutrient fertilization (both N and P) reduced reactive oxygen species accumulation (as confirmed by the decreased O₂^- and hydrogen peroxide content), resulting in enhanced membrane stability. This was probably due to the simultaneous involvement of antioxidant compounds (e.g., carotenoids, ascorbate and glutathione) and osmoprotectants (e.g., proline) that regulate the detoxification processes of coping with oxidative stress by reducing the O₃ sensitivity of Oxford clone. These mitigation effects were effective only under AA and 1.5 × AA conditions. Nitrogen and P supply activated a free radical scavenging system that was not able to delay leaf senescence and mitigate the adverse effects of a general peroxidation due to the highest O₃ concentrations.

The validity of optimal leaf traits modelled on environmental conditions

The ratio of leaf intercellular to ambient CO₂ (χ) is modulated by stomatal conductance (g_s ). These quantities link carbon (C) assimilation with transpiration, and along with photosynthetic capacities (V_cmax and J_max ) are required to model terrestrial C uptake. We use optimization criteria based on the growth environment to generate predicted values of photosynthetic and water-use efficiency traits and test these against a unique dataset. Leaf gas-exchange parameters and carbon isotope discrimination were analysed in relation to local climate across a continental network of study sites. Sun-exposed leaves of 50 species at seven sites were measured in contrasting seasons. Values of χ predicted from growth temperature and vapour pressure deficit were closely correlated to ratios derived from C isotope (δ¹³ C) measurements. Correlations were stronger in the growing season. Predicted values of photosynthetic traits, including carboxylation capacity (V_cmax ), derived from δ¹³ C, growth temperature and solar radiation, showed meaningful agreement with inferred values derived from gas-exchange measurements. Between-site differences in water-use efficiency were, however, only weakly linked to the plant's growth environment and did not show seasonal variation. These results support the general hypothesis that many key parameters required by Earth system models are adaptive and predictable from plants' growth environments.

Global photosynthetic capacity is optimized to the environment

Earth system models (ESMs) use photosynthetic capacity, indexed by the maximum Rubisco carboxylation rate (V_cmax), to simulate carbon assimilation and typically rely on empirical estimates, including an assumed dependence on leaf nitrogen determined from soil fertility. In contrast, new theory, based on biochemical coordination and co‐optimization of carboxylation and water costs for photosynthesis, suggests that optimal V_cmax can be predicted from climate alone, irrespective of soil fertility. Here, we develop this theory and find it captures 64% of observed variability in a global, field‐measured V_cmax dataset for C₃ plants. Soil fertility indices explained substantially less variation (32%). These results indicate that environmentally regulated biophysical constraints and light availability are the first‐order drivers of global photosynthetic capacity. Through acclimation and adaptation, plants efficiently utilize resources at the leaf level, thus maximizing potential resource use for growth and reproduction. Our theory offers a robust strategy for dynamically predicting photosynthetic capacity in ESMs.